Physiology & Behavior, Vol. 67, No. 1, pp.

69–74, 1999
© 1999 Elsevier Science Inc.
Printed in the USA. All rights reserved
0031-9384/99/$–see front matter
PII S0031-9384(99)00040-2

The Influence of a Glucose Drink on a

Demanding Working Memory Task

PEARL Y. MARTIN AND DAVID BENTON1

Department of Psychology, University of Wales–Swansea, Swansea SA2 8PP, Wales, UK

Received 23 September 1998; Accepted 11 February 1999

MARTIN, P. Y. AND D. BENTON. The influence of a glucose drink on a demanding working memory task. PHYSIOL
BEHAV 67(1) 69–74, 1999.—A group of young adult females, who had or had not eaten breakfast, drank either a glucose
drink or a placebo. Fasting was associated with poorer performance on the Brown–Petersen task, a test of memory. A glucose
drink improved the memory of those who had fasted, although it did not influence those who had eaten breakfast. In those
who had fasted, the glucose drink resulted in memory comparable to those who had consumed breakfast. Those with higher
levels of blood glucose upon arrival in the laboratory had better memories. In those taking a glucose drink, after an initial
rise, rapidly falling levels of blood glucose were associated with better memory. © 1999 Elsevier Science Inc.

Blood glucose control Breakfast Brown–Peterson task Glucose Memory

RAISING the level of blood glucose has been found to im-
prove memory in healthy young adults (4,5,13,19,30,32). There
are also reports that in those whose blood glucose levels re-
mained higher cognitive performance was poorer, an observa-
tion made in the normal elderly (13), those suffering with
Alzheimer’s disease (9,10), diabetics (14), elderly rats (36),
and young humans (4,18).
Only recently have laboratory methods been used to ex-
amine the influence of breakfast on cognition. A consistent
picture is emerging—memory is adversely influenced by miss-
ing breakfast (6,12,34,35). In contrast, other measures of cog-
nitive functioning tend not to be influenced by missing break-
fast. Because following a meal the levels of glucose in the
blood increase, one question that is addressed in the present
study is the role played by blood glucose in breakfast-induced
memory improvement. Benton and Sargent (8) reported that
those who missed breakfast had a poorer memory later in the
morning and that those with higher levels of blood glucose
had better memory. However, as this finding was simply a
correlation, there is a need to systematically vary the level of
blood glucose.
It has been hypothesized that more cognitively demanding
tasks are particularly susceptible to changes in blood glucose
(11,31). Therefore, the present study has extended the exami-
nation of the influence of the control of blood glucose levels
by considering the Brown–Peterson task (33) as Baddeley (1)
stated that it places great demands on the central executive of
Working Memory. [A preliminary version of some of the data
in this article has been published previously (6).]
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Subjects
Eighty female undergraduates, with a mean age of 22.6
years, who were each paid 6 pounds, acted as subjects. Only
females were studied, as previous research has reported that
similar responses have been found in both sexes (4,11). No di-
etary restrictions were enforced, and subjects from choice had
fasted or eaten their normal breakfast. On the basis of a meal
record, and standard portion sizes, the energy content of the
breakfast was calculated from food tables (32). A mean of
1049 6 767 kJ were consumed by those in the breakfast
groups, made up of 42.6 6 30.3 g carbohydrate, 7.2 6 5.5 g
protein, and 6.8 6 8.4 g fat. In the majority of cases breakfast
consisted of breakfast cereal and milk and/or toasted bread
with butter or margarine and preserve.
Four groups of subjects were compared, those who had: 1)
eaten breakfast and consumed a drink that contained 50 g
glucose, n 5 28; 2) eaten breakfast and consumed a placebo
drink, n 5 25; 3) fasted and consumed a drink containing 50 g
glucose, n 5 12; and 4) fasted and consumed a placebo drink,
n 5 15.

1To whom requests for reprints should be addressed. E-mail: d.benton@swansea.ac.uk

69
70
Trigrams
Forty consonant trigrams were constructed (e.g., QCN or
KSF), with association values between 17 and 33% (38), ac-
cording to the following criteria. A consonant appeared as the
first letter of a syllable no more than twice within a list, or no
more than once in any three consecutive syllables. Alphabeti-
cal sequences were avoided.
Glucose and Placebo Drinks
The glucose drinks contained 50 g of glucose dissolved in a
mixture of 250 mL water and two tablespoons of sugar-free
Robinsons Whole Orange Squash. Two teaspoons of lemon
juice were added to decrease sweetness. Placebo drinks con-
tained the same ingredients, with the exception of the glucose
powder, and the addition of 2 g of Sweetex, a low-calorie
sweetener that contains aspartame and saccharin (Crookes
Health Care Limited).
Blood Glucose
An ExacTech sensor (Medisense Britain Limited) enabled
blood glucose to be measured accurately, using an enzymic
method coupled with microelectronic measurement (23).
PROCEDURE
Subjects gave their written informed consent, and their
blood glucose was measured for the first time. Randomly and
under a double-blind procedure the subjects consumed either
a glucose or placebo drink. The subjects sat quietly for 20 min,
and, after a second blood glucose measure, testing began. A
trigram was spelt out and a three-digit number was given. The
subject counted backwards in threes from this number, at the
rate of one calculation every 2 s. When a signal light flashed,
after 3, 6, 9, 12, or 18 s in a pseudorandom order, the subject
attempted to recall the trigram. The 40 consonant trigrams
were grouped into eight blocks of five. Performance on blocks
1–4 and 5–8 was contrasted. Testing lasted for 30–35 min, af-
ter which blood glucose was measured for a third time. Test-
ing took place in the morning. The procedure was approved
by the local ethics committee.
Statistical Analysis
Drink and breakfast. The percentage of trigrams recalled
correctly within the first and last four blocks were computed
for 3-, 6-, 9-, 12-, and 18-s intervals. The effect of drink and
breakfast was analyzed using a four-way analysis of variance:
placebo/glucose drink 3 breakfast/no breakfast 3 blocks (1–
4/5–8) 3 distracter interval (3, 6, 9, 12, or 18 s), with the last
two factors as repeated measures.
Criterion Groups
Baseline blood glucose levels. To examine the effects of
extreme baseline blood glucose levels, arbitrarily, the 20%
with the highest and lowest levels were contrasted. Those
whose blood glucose levels were less than 4.0 mmol/L (mean
3.76 mmol/L, n 5 14) and those greater than 5.31 mmol/L
(mean 6.07 mmol/L, n 5 14), were compared.
Change in blood glucose prior to the task. To examine the
effects of changes in blood glucose after the drink, and before
the task, the baseline blood glucose level was subtracted from
the second blood glucose measure. Subjects taking the pla-
cebo, whose blood glucose levels fell by at least 20.10 mmol/L
(mean 20.44 mmol, n 5 14), or rose by 0.3 mmol/L or more
MARTIN AND BENTON
(mean 10.86 mmol, n 5 14), were distinguished. After the
glucose drink, those whose levels fell or rose no higher than
1.80 mmol/L (mean 1 1.27 mmol/L, n 5 14), or rose by 2.7
mmol/L or more (mean 1 3.28 mmol/L, n 5 14), were con-
trasted.
Change in blood glucose during the task. Changes in blood
glucose while performing the task were considered by subtracting
the second blood glucose measure from the final one. Subjects in
the placebo condition whose blood glucose fell by at least 20.60
mmol/L (mean 21.23 mmol/L, n 5 14), were distinguished from
those whose blood glucose that stayed the same or rose (mean 1
0.36 mmol/L, n 5 14). Subjects in the glucose condition whose
blood glucose levels fell by at least 21.39 mmol/L (mean 22.04
mmol/L, n 5 14), or fell no more than 20.3 mmol/L or rose
(mean 1 0.40 mmol/L, n 5 14), were compared.
The percentage of trigrams correctly recalled was analysed
using a three-way analysis of variance; blood glucose level
(high/low or rise/fall) 3 blocks (blocks 1–4, blocks 5–8) 3 in-
terval (3, 6, 9, 12, or 18 s), with the last two factors as repeated
measures. The effect of drink on blood glucose levels was ex-
amined using a two-way analysis of variance; drink (placebo/
glucose) 3 time (0, 20, or 60 min), with the latter as a re-
peated-measure factor.
To save space and gain clarity interactions that do not in-
clude blood glucose are not reported. Where higher order in-
teractions are not mentioned it should be assumed that they
are nonsignificant.
RESULTS
When the effects of drink and breakfast on blood glucose
levels were examined, the interactions drink 3 time, F(2, 152) 5
42.84, p , 0.001, and meal 3 time, F(2, 152) 5 4.11, p , 0.018,
reached significance, although the three way interaction was
nonsignificant, F(2, 152) 5 0.36, NS). The calculation of sim-
ple main effects showed that there was no significant differ-
ence in the blood glucose levels of placebo and glucose drink-
ers at the start of the experiment, although after 20 (,0.001)
and 60 min (p , 0.001) the consumption of a glucose drink
was associated with significantly higher blood glucose levels.
The blood glucose levels of those who had eaten breakfast did
not differ at baseline or the end of the study, but after 20 min
it was significantly higher in those who had consumed break-
fast (p , 0.01).
The percentage of trigrams correctly recalled was higher in
the second rather than in the first block of trials, F(1, 76) 5
20.80, p , 0.001. Recall of the trigrams decreased as the dura-
tion of the distracter increased, F(4, 304) 5 57.93, p , 0.001.
When the influence of breakfast and type of meal was consid-
ered, a three-way interaction, drink 3 breakfast/no break-
fast 3 block, resulted, F(1, 76) 5 4.98, p , 0.03) (Fig. 1).
Those in the placebo group, who did not consume breakfast,
did not significantly improve from blocks 1–4 to 5–8. In con-
trast, the performance of subjects who received the glucose
drink, but had not eaten breakfast prior to testing, signifi-
cantly improved from blocks 1–4 to blocks 5–8 (p , 0.01).
Similarly, when breakfast had been eaten, performance im-
proved over the blocks whether they had (p , 0.03), or had
not (p , 0.001) drunk a glucose-containing drink. Those who
had not eaten breakfast, but received a placebo drink, re-
called the trigrams to a lesser extent than the other three
groups. Thus, a drink containing glucose nullified the nega-
tive consequences of not eating breakfast. In those who had
eaten breakfast an additional glucose drink was of no further
benefit.
GLUCOSE DRINK AND WORKING MEMORY TASK
FIG. 1. The effect of breakfast and a glucose drink on recall of trigrams in the Brown–
Peterson task. The data are the mean number of trigrams recalled in blocks 1–4
and 5–8.
Figure 2 shows that those subjects who had high rather
than low baseline blood glucose levels recalled more trigrams,
F(1, 26) 5 5.37, p , 0.029. Baseline blood glucose did not sig-
nificantly correlate with the number of trigrams recalled
(Pearson correlation 5 0.04, NS). Thus, the phenomenon was
associated with extreme levels of blood glucose. In contrast,
there was no effect of a change in blood glucose in the 20 min
prior to the task in either placebo, F(1, 26) 5 0.32, NS, or glu-
cose drinkers, F(1, 26) 5 0.54, NS.
When the change in the blood glucose of glucose drinkers
while performing the task was examined, a significant main
effect was found, F(1, 26) 5 5.86, p , 0.023). Figure 3 illus-
trates that falling blood glucose levels during the task was as-
sociated with better recall of the trigrams. As the change in
blood glucose while performing the task correlated with the
percentage of trigrams recalled (20.52, p , 0.001), the phe-
nomenon was displayed throughout the range of changes in
blood glucose. In the placebo drinkers Fig. 4 shows that the
two-way interaction, rise/fall in blood glucose 3 block (blocks
1–4/5–8), reached significance, F(1, 26) 5 6.05, p , 0.021. Fur-
ther analysis showed that those whose blood glucose levels
fell during the task did not show learning/practice effects
from the first to the second half of the test, F(1, 26) 5 0.06,
NS. However, those whose levels rose showed a significant
improvement in percentage recall in the second half of the
test, F(1, 26) 5 13.93, p , 0.001. In this case, the phenomenon
was characteristic of those with extreme levels of blood glu-
cose, as the change in blood glucose did not significantly cor-
relate with the total trigrams recalled (0.17, NS).
DISCUSSION
In the present study an exogenous source of blood glucose
nullified the negative effects of not eating breakfast (Fig. 1),
suggesting that the performance of those who had not eaten
71
breakfast was limited by the supply of glucose. A potential
problem is that because the subjects were allowed to choose
whether they ate breakfast, they were a self-selected group.
Are people who eat breakfast more alert in the morning, and
for this reason remember more easily, whether or not they eat
breakfast? This explanation does not seem to explain the
data. Benton and Sargent (8) randomly allowed subjects to
eat breakfast or fast, and found irrespective of whether the
subjects normally ate breakfast, that memory improved. In
fact, blood glucose correlated with memory in those who had
not eaten breakfast. In other studies, where fasting or the eat-
ing of breakfast was decided randomly, the meal still bene-
fited memory (34,35).
A related question is whether the benefits associated with
a greater supply of blood glucose is only a reflection of a dec-
rement in performance associated with missing breakfast. Al-
ternatively, are the benefits of an increased blood supply
more general? Figure 1 presents evidence that a cognitive
problem associated with not eating breakfast responded to a
glucose drink (Fig. 1), although the effect of the drink was not
apparent in those who had eaten breakfast. There is a series
of reports that the modification of blood glucose levels influ-
ence cognition in those who have already eaten breakfast
(4,5,9). However, after eating breakfast, it is individual blood
glucose levels, rather than simply whether a glucose or pla-
cebo drink has been consumed, that is typically important.
The impression created is that an increased provision of glu-
cose has an influence irrespective of whether you have eaten,
although its impact is greater when breakfast has not been
eaten.
The blood glucose values were subject to a series of analy-
ses with a consequent increased risk of chance statistical find-
ings. The series of analyses can be justified in two ways. First,
a blood glucose measure is a single indication of a dynamic
process; therefore, there is a need for additional analyses to
72
FIG. 2. The effect of baseline blood glucose levels on performance
of the Brown–Peterson task. The data are the mean number of tri-
grams recalled.
consider changes that occur over time. Second, as discussed
below, the presently reported findings are similar to previous
findings, strongly suggesting that they are more than chance
statistical findings.
A high baseline blood glucose was associated with better
recall of the trigrams (Fig. 2). Previously, a high level of base-
line blood glucose has been associated with better recall of
word lists (4,5) and increased vigilance (5). When an associa-
tion between baseline blood glucose levels and subsequent
performance has been reported, in every instance a higher
level of blood glucose has been associated with better perfor-
mance. As it is known that an equilibrium develops between
plasma and brain glucose (19), there is reason to suggest that
those with initially high levels of blood glucose might have
had higher levels of brain glucose.
Figure 3 illustrates that after a glucose drink the ability to
control blood glucose levels was associated with a better re-
call: those whose blood glucose levels fell recalled more tri-
grams. The introduction lists a series of similar findings.
The pattern was different following a placebo drink where
falling blood glucose levels were associated with a poorer per-
formance (Fig. 4). An obvious suggestion is that in those who
had taken a glucose containing drink, falling blood glucose
levels reflected the passage of the basic fuel to metabolically
active cells. After a placebo drink there is no exogenous
source of glucose, and falling blood glucose levels may have
MARTIN AND BENTON
FIG. 3. The effect of changes in blood glucose while performing the
Brown–Peterson task after taking a glucose drink. The data are the
mean number of trigrams recalled.
reflected a failure to maintain an adequate supply of glucose.
Falling blood glucose levels, after a placebo drink, have also
been reported to be associated with poorer performance of a
Conditional Associative Learning Task (31) and an intelli-
gence test (29).
There are only limited data available that considered the
influence of glucose provision from a psychological perspec-
tive. The provision of glucose has been found to aid recall for
word lists (4,6,18) and a story (9,10,13,20), but also retrieval of
information learned 24 h previously (21). The presently used
Brown–Peterson task has been described as a measure of
working memory (1), but any conclusion concerning working
memory requires studies that selectively tap the various sub-
systems of the working memory model. Craft et al. (9) con-
cluded that declarative memory was primarily influenced, a
view supported by studies discussed in the previous para-
graph, although other aspects of memory have been relatively
ignored. However, the view that glucose administration ex-
clusively improves declarative memory conflicts with aspects
of the literature. Glucose has been reported to improve vigi-
lance (2,3,5), quicken reaction times (27,28), improve mental
arithmetic (27), decrease errors in a driving simulator (15),
decrease the Stroop effect (5), and improve performance of
an intelligence test (7). It appears that the view that declara-
tive memory is influenced particularly by changes in blood
glucose and is relatively rather than absolutely the case. It is
GLUCOSE DRINK AND WORKING MEMORY TASK
FIG. 4. The effect of changes in blood glucose while performing the
Brown–Peterson task after taking a placebo drink. The data are the
mean number of trigrams recalled.
relatively easy to influence measures of declarative memory
compared with other measures of cognition. Although we
need detailed studies, it seems likely that the provision of glu-
cose influences various stages of the memory process.
The question arises as to the biological mechanism by
which an enhanced provision of glucose might facilitate mem-
ory. An association between acetylcholine-mediated neu-
rotransmission and memory is well accepted (16). Acetylcho-
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