OIRA, ANGEL ANNE

BSCE-IV

Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon. Because of its high tensile
strength and low cost, it is a major component
in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons.
PROPERTIES:
The most important properties of steel are great formability and durability, good tensile and
yield strength and good thermal conductivity. As well as these important properties the most
characteristic of the stainless steel properties is its resistance to corrosion.
When selecting a material for a particular application, engineers must be confident that it will be
suitable for the loading conditions and environmental challenges it will be subjected to while in
service. Understanding and control of a material’s properties is therefore essential. The
mechanical properties of steel can be carefully controlled through the selection of an
appropriate chemical composition, processing and heat treatment, which lead to its final
microstructure.
The alloys and the heat treatment used in the production of steel result in different property
values and strengths and testing must be performed to determine the final properties of a steel
and to ensure adherence to the respective standards.
There are many measurement systems used to define the properties of a given steel. For example,
Yield strength, ductility and stiffness are determined using tensile testing. Toughness is
measured by impact testing; and hardness is determined by measuring resistance to the
penetration of the surface by a hard object.
Tensile testing is a method of evaluating the structural response of steel to applied loads, with the
results expressed as a relationship between stress and strain. The relationship between stress and
strain is a measure of the elasticity of the material, and this ratio is referred to as Young's
modulus. A high value of Young's modulus is one of steel’s most differentiating properties; it is
in the range 190-210 GPa, which is approximately three times the value for aluminum.
The physical properties of steel are related to the physics of the material, such as density, thermal
conductivity, elastic modulus, Poison’s ratio etc. Some typical values for physical properties of
steel are:
 density ρ = 7.7 ÷ 8.1 [kg/dm3]
 elastic modulus E=190÷210 [GPa]
 Poisson’s ratio ν = 0.27 ÷ 0.30
 Thermal conductivity κ = 11.2 ÷ 48.3 [W/mK]
 Thermal expansion α = 9 ÷27 [10-6 / K]

Different types of steel are produced according to the mechanical and physical properties
required for their application. Various grading systems are used to distinguish steels based on
these properties, which include density, elasticity, melting point, thermal conductivity, strength,
and hardness (among others). To make different steels, manufacturers vary the type and quantity
of alloy metals, the production process, and the manner in which the steels are worked to
produce particular products.

According to the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), steels can be broadly categorized into
four groups based on their chemical compositions:

1. Carbon Steels
2. Alloy Steels
3. Stainless Steels
4. Tool Steels

Properties of Carbon Steels

Carbon steels are alloys made from a combination of iron and carbon. By varying the percentage
of carbon, it is possible to produce steel with a variety of different qualities. In general, the
higher the carbon level the stronger and more brittle the steel.

Low carbon steel is sometimes called "wrought iron." It is easy to work and may be used for
decorative products such as fencing or lamp posts. Medium carbon steel is very strong and is
often used for large structures such as bridges. High carbon steel is used mainly for wires. Ultra
high carbon steel, also called "cast iron," is used for pots and other items. While it is a very hard
steel, it is also quite brittle.

Properties of Alloy Steels

Alloy steels are so named because they are made with a small percentage of one or more metals
besides iron. The addition of alloys changes the properties of steels. For example, steel made
from iron, chromium, and nickel produces stainless steel. The addition of aluminum can make
steel more uniform in appearance.

Steel with added manganese becomes exceptionally hard and strong.

Properties of Stainless Steels

Stainless steels contain between 10-20% chromium, making the steel extremely resistant to
corrosion (rusting). When a steel contains over 11% chromium, it is about 200 times more
resistant to corrosion as steels that do not contain chromium. There are three groups of stainless
steels:

 Austenitic steels, which are very high in chromium, also contain small amounts of nickel
and carbon. These are very commonly used for food processing and piping. They are
valued, in part, because they are non-magnetic.
 Ferritic steels contain about 15% chromium but only trace amounts of carbon and metal
alloys such as molybdenum, aluminum, or titanium. These steels are magnetic, very hard
and strong, and can be strengthened further by cold working.
  Martensitic steels contain moderate amounts of chromium, nickel, and carbon, They are
magnetic and heat-treatable. Martensitic steels are often used for cutting tools such as
knives and surgical equipment.

Properties of Tool Steels

Tool steels are durable, heat resistant metals containing tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt, and
vanadium. They are used, not surprisingly, to make tools such as drills.

There are a variety of different types of tools steels, containing varying amounts of different
alloy metals.

Standards
Most of the more commonly used steel alloys are categorized into various grades by standards
organizations. For example, the Society of Automotive Engineers has a series of grades defining
many types of steel. The American Society for Testing and Materials has a separate set of
standards, which define alloys such as A36 steel, the most commonly used structural steel in the
United States. The JIS also define series of steel grades that are being used extensively in Japan
as well as in third world countries.