CHE PE3 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

Effects of Air Pollutants

Effect of Pollutants on Materials

Mechanisms of Deterioration attributed to Air Pollutants:

1. Abrasion
Solid particles of large enough size and traveling at high enough speed can cause deterioration by abrasion. With
the exception of soil particles in dust storms and lead particles from automatic weapons fire, most air pollutant
particles are either too small or travel at a very slow speed to be abrasive.
2. Deposition and removal
Small liquid and solid particles that settle on exposed surfaces do not cause more than aesthetic deterioration. For
certain monuments and buildings, such as the White House, this form of deterioration is in itself quite unacceptable.
For most surfaces, it is the cleaning process itself that causes the damage. Sandblasting of buildings is an obvious
case in point. Frequent washing of clothes weakens their fiber, while frequent washing of painted surfaces dulls their
finish.
3. Direct chemical attack
Solubilization and oxidation/reduction reactions typify direct chemical attack. Frequently, water must be present as
a medium for these reactions to take place. Sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide in the presence of water react with
limestone to form calcium sulfate and gypsum. Both calcium sulfate and gypsum are soluble in water and are
leached away when it rains. The tarnishing of silver by hydrogen sulfide is a classic example of an oxidation-reduction
reaction.
4. Indirect chemical attack
This occurs when pollutants are absorbed and then react with some component of the absorbent to form a
destructive compound. The compound may be destructive because it forms an oxidant, reductant or solvent.
- Leather becomes brittle after it absorbs sulfur dioxide, which reacts to form sulfuric acid because of the presence of
minute quantities of iron. Iron acts as a catalyst for the formation of the acid. A similar result has been noted for
paper.
5. Electrochemical corrosion
Oxidation-reduction reactions can cause local chemical and physical differences on metal surfaces. These
differences, in turn, result in the formation of microscopic anodes and cathodes. Electrochemical corrosion results
from the potential that develops in these microscopic batteries.

Factors that influence the deterioration of materials:

1. Moisture
Moisture, in the form of humidity, is essential for most of the mechanisms of deterioration to occur. Metal corrosion
does not appear to occur even at relatively high sulfur dioxide pollution levels until the relative humidity exceeds
60%. On the other hand, humidities above 70% will promote corrosion without air pollutants. Rain reduces the effect
of pollutant -induced corrosion by dilution and washing away of the pollutant.
2. Air Temperature
Higher air temperatures generally result in higher reaction rates. However, when low air temperatures are
accompanied by cooling of surfaces to the point where moisture condenses, then rates may be accelerated.
3. Sunlight
In addition to the oxidation effect of its ultraviolet wavelengths, sunlight stimulates air pollution damage by
providing the energy for pollutant formation and cyclic reformation. The cracking of rubber and the fading of dyes
have been attributed to ozone produced by these photochemical reactions.
 4. Position of exposed surface
The position of the exposed surface influences the rate of deterioration in two ways. First, whether the surface is
vertical or horizontal or at some angle affects deposition and wash-off rates. Second, whether the surface is an
upper or lower one, may alter the rate of damage. When humidity is sufficiently high, the lower side usually
deteriorates faster because rain does not remove the pollutants as efficiently.

Effect of Pollutants on Vegetation

Cell and Leaf Anatomy

The leaf is the primary indicator of the effects of pollution in plants.

The plant cell has three main components:

1. cell wall
2. protoplast – refers to the protoplasm of one cell. It consists primarily of water, but also includes protein, fat and
carbohydrates.
a. nucleus contains hereditary material (DNA), which controls the operation of the cell.
b. cytoplasm is the protoplasm located outside the nucleus.
3. Plastids – tiny bodies within the cytoplasm
a. chloroplast – contain chlorophyll that manufactures the plant’s food through photosynthesis
b. leucoplast – convert starch into starch grains
c. chromoplasts – responsible for the red, yellow and orange colors of fruits and flowers and

The cross-section of a typical mature leaf reveals three primary tissue systems:

1. epidermis
The guard cells regulate the passage of gases and
water vapor in and out of the leaf. When it is hot,
sunny and windy, the processes of photosynthesis
and respiration are increased. The guard cells open,
which allows increased removal of water vapor and
otherwise accumulate because of the increased
transport of water and minerals from roots.

The opening in the underside of the leaf is called the

stoma.
2. mesophyll
The mesophyll includes both the palisade parenchyma and the spongy parenchyma and contains the chloroplast
and is considered as the food production center of a plant.
3. vascular bundle
The vascular bundle, otherwise known as the vein of the plant, carry water, minerals and food throughout the leaf
and to and from the main stem of the plant.

The photo on the right shows the air spaces in

the cross section of a plant cell where pollution
can move.

Types of Injuries to Plants:

1. Necrosis is killing of leaf cells which happens when there is plasmolysis (loss of protoplasm)
2. Abscission is the premature dropping of leaves
3. Epinasty is a condition where the upper part of leaf grows faster than the bottom part because of growth rate
imbalance
4. Chlorosis is a condition where the plant experiences color change because of chlorophyll destruction

Damage in Plants due to Pollutants:

1. Ozone injures the palisade cells. The chloroplasts condense and ultimately the cell walls collapse. This results in the
formation of red-brown spots that turn white after a few days. The white spots are called fleck. Ozone injury appears
to be the greatest during midday on sunny days. The guard cells are more likely to open under these conditions
and thus allow pollutants to enter the leaf.
2. PAN( peroxyacetyl nitrate) which comes from photochemical smog like ozone causes glazing, silvering or later
bronzing of lower surface of the leaf
3. Plant growth may be inhibited by continuous exposure to 0.5 ppm of nitrogen dioxide. Levels of nitrogen dioxide
in excess of 2.5 ppm for periods of 4 hours or more are required to produce necrosis (surface spotting due to
plasmolysis of loss of protoplasm). It takes a higher concentration of nitrogen dioxide to do damage to plants since
NOx is produced in the soil.
4. Sulfur dioxide injury is also typified by necrosis but at much lower levels. A concentration of 0.3 ppm for 8 hours is
sufficient. Lower levels for longer periods of exposure will produce a diffuse chlorosis/bleaching (yellowing of the
leaf of plants due to the lack of chlorophyll).

• The net result of air pollutant damage in plants goes beyond the apparent superficial damage to the leaves. A
reduction in surface area results in less growth and small fruits. For commercial crops this results in a direct
reduction in income for the farmer. For other plants, the net result is likely to be an early death.
• Fluoride deposition on plants not only causes them damage but may result in a second untoward effect. Grazing
animals may accumulate an excess of fluoride that mottles their teeth and ultimately causes them to fall out.
Effect of Pollutants on Health

The respiratory system is the primary indicator of air pollution effects in humans since it is the avenue with which
pollutants are transported into the body.

Anatomy of the Respiratory System

The major organs of the respiratory system are the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs. The nose, pharynx
larynx and trachea together are called the upper respiratory system. The primary effects of air pollution on the URT are
aggravation of the sense of smell and inactivation of the sweeping motion of cilia, which remove mucus and entrapped
particles. The lower respiratory system consists of the branching structures known as bronchi and the lungs itself, which
is composed of grape-like clusters of sacs called alveoli. The alveoli are approximately 300 micrometers in diameter. The
walls of the alveoli are lined with capillaries. Carbon dioxide diffuses through the capillary wall into the alveolus, while
oxygen diffuses out of the alveolus into the blood cell. The difference in the partial pressure of each of the gases causes
it to move from the higher to lower partial pressure.

Inhalation and

Retention
of
Particles.
 The degree of penetration of particles into the LRT is primarily a function of the size of the particles and the rate of
breathing.
• Particles greater than 5-10 µm are screened out by the hairs in the nose. Sneezing also helps the screening
process.
• Particles in the 1-2 µm size range penetrate to the alveoli. These particles are small enough to bypass screening
and deposition in the URT, however they are big enough that their terminal settling velocity allows them to
deposit where they can do the most damage.
• Particles that are 0.5 µm in diameter do not have a large enough terminal settling velocity to be removed
efficiently. Smaller particles diffuse to the alveolar walls.

Natural Protection System of the Respiratory System

1. The nose hair filters the solid particles in the air that are greater than 10 m in diameter. Coughing or sneezing
helps eliminate the air pollutants. If the nose gets congested, mouth breathing takes place.
2. The primary bronchus is lined with hair-like projections called cilia. The cilia layer is covered with a thin-watery
mucus layer. The mucus layer traps the pathogens and other particles, preventing them from entering into the lungs.
The cilia will sweep away the pathogen and particle containing mucus thus removing them from the interior of the
lungs. The pathogens and particles that are trapped on the mucus layer are coughed out or moved to the mouth
and swallowed.
3. Because of the requirements of gas exchange, alveoli are not protected by mucus and cilia—mucus is too thick and
would slow movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide. The presence of alveolar macrophages, a type of white
blood cell on the surface of alveoli, helps protect the lungs further. It seeks out deposited particles, bind to them,
ingest them, kill any that are living, and digest them.
- When the lungs are exposed to more serious threats, additional white blood cells in the circulation, especially
neutrophils, can be recruited to help ingest and kill pathogens.
- For example, when the person inhales a great deal of dust or is fighting a respiratory infection, more
macrophages are produced and neutrophils are recruited.
4. If there are particles that are already less than 2m that were not filtered out by the alveolar microphages and are
able to diffuse through the capillaries, the lymphocytes and the phagocytes in the lung tissue will attack these
submicron particles.
Particle Cleaning System of the Respiratory Organ

Clearance Mechanism Site Cleaned Rate of Cleaning

cough, sneezing trachea, bronchus instantaneous

ciliary large Bronchi 0.5 hr

bronchiole tree 3 hrs
bronchiole airways 6 hrs

macrophages alveoli (air sacs) 24 hrs

lymphatics lung tissue Months,years

Particle Size and Respiratory Defense Mechanism

Particle size Description Mechanism

over 5-10 µm Coarse dust, fly ash, (visible Hairs at the front of the nose remove all particles over 10
to the naked eye) µm.
Sneezing helps out in the process.

2 to 10 µm Fumes, dust, smoke Movement of cilia sweeps mucus upward, carrying

particles particles from windpipe to mouth, where they can be
swallowed.

less than 2 µm Aerosols, fumes Lymphocytes and phagocytes in the lung attack some
submicron particles

Chronic Respiratory Diseases

Several long-term diseases of the respiratory system are seriously aggravated by and perhaps may be caused by air
pollution.
1. Airway resistance is the narrowing of air passages because of the presence of irritating substances. The result is that
breathing becomes difficult.
2. Bronchial asthma is a form of airway resistance that results from an allergy. An asthma attack is the result of the
narrowing of the bronchioles because of a swelling of the mucous membrane and a thickening of the secretions.
The bronchioles return to normal after the attack.
3. Chronic bronchitis is defined to be present in a person when excess mucus in the bronchioles results in cough for
three months a year for two consecutive years.
4. Pulmonary emphysema is characterized by the breakdown of the alveoli. The small grape-like clusters become a
large nonresilient balloon-like structure. The amount of surface area for gas exchange is reduced drastically.
5. Cancer of the bronchus is characterized by abnormal, disorderly new cell growth originating in the bronchial mucous
membrane. The growth closes off the bronchioles. It is usually fatal.
Effect of Criteria Pollutants to Human Health

• Carbon Monoxide: The Silent Killer

- Colorless, odorless gas that is lethal to humans within a few minutes at concentrations exceeding 5,000ppm.
- It has a high affinity for hemoglobin and reacts with it to form carboxyhemoglobin. The formation of
carboxyhemoglobin deprives the body of oxygen because it impairs the transport of oxygen. The table below
shows the health effect of COHb at various levels in the blood.
COHb Level, % Demonstrated Effects

Less than 1.0 No apparent effect

1.0 to 2.0 Some evidence of effect on behavioral performance

2.0 to 5.0 Central nervous system effects; impairment of time

interval discrimination, visual acuity, brightness
discrimination, impaired ability to learn and certain other
psychomotor functions

Greater than 5.0 Cardiac and pulmonary functional changes

10.0 to 80.0 Headaches, fatigue, drowsiness, coma, respiratory failure,

death

• Lead: The Cumulative Poison

- Lead is metal that is formed both naturally as well as through industrial processes.
- It is emitted into the atmosphere as elemental lead (Pb), oxides of lead (PbO, PbO2, PbxO3), lead sulfates and
lead sulfides (PbSO4,PbS), alkyl lead [(Pb(CH3)4, Pb(C2H5)4] and lead halides.
- It is considered as a cumulative poison and is found everywhere including air, water and even inside homes
because it is also present in commercial products such as lead-based paint.
- It is ingested in food and water wherein 5-10% of it is absorbed in the body
- It is also inhaled wherein 20-50% of it is absorbed in the body. Those that are not absorbed are excreted in the
feces and urine
- Lead exposure can impact almost any organ in the body.
- Early manifestation of acute lead poisoning is mild anemia.
- Lead in whole blood : 60-120g/100g – fatigue, irritability, mild headache
>80g/100g – constipation, abdominal cramps
>120g/100g – acute brain damage(encephalopathy)
- Chronic exposure to lead may result in brain damage characterized by seizures, mental incompetence, and
highly active aggressive behavior, reduced IQ, impaired attention span, impaired growth, reading and learning
disabilities, hearing loss, weakness of extensor muscles of the hands and feet which may even lead to paralysis
*convulsions, coma, cardiorespiratory arrest and death may also result from exposure to lead
EVEN AT LOW LEVELS, LEAD POISONING IS VERY DANGEROUS.

• Nitrogen Oxides
- Prolonged exposure can cause pulmonary fibrosis, emphysema, and higher LRT illness in children
- Toxic effects at 10-30ppm include nose and eye irritation, lung tissue damage (pulmonary edema, bronchitis),
pneumonia, and may even aggravate existing heart diseases
• Sulfur Oxides
- May be in the gas or particulate phase and are soluble absorbed by the respiratory system.
- Short intermittent exposure causes broncho-constriction, ENT irritation and mucus secretion.
- Long term exposures causes respiratory illnesses and also aggravates existing heart diseases
• Ozone
- Acute Health Effects include severe ENT irritation, eye irritation at 100 pbb and interferes with lung functions
and causes coughing at 2 ppm
- Its chronic health effect is accelerated lung damage that is irreversible
• Hazardous Air Pollutants: Air Toxics
- Air toxics are those pollutants that are known or suspected to cause cancer or other serious health effects, such
as reproductive effects or birth defects, or adverse environmental effects.
- Effects of mercury include: Nervous system (acute, high), respiratory system (chronic, low), kidneys, skin, eyes,
immune system; mutagenic properties
- Symptoms of mercury poisoning include: Acute: chills, nausea, chest pains/tightness, cough, gingivitis, general
malaise; Chronic: weakness, fatigue, weight loss, tremor, behavioral changes
- Dioxins is a generic term of several chemical that are highly persistent in the environment and which are
produced due to burning of hydrocarbons in the presence of chlorine or chlorides.

Major Air Pollution Events

During the first part of the 20th century, due to the dramatically increasing emission of air pollutants at the same time,
in the absence of environmental protection technologies, several acute air pollution episodes were formed in some
countries.

• Meuse Valley fog event in Belgium in 1930

The air pollution occurred in Eastern Belgium, at a river valley that was heavily industrialized with many air pollutants.
Sources were from power stations, factories, domestic burning of coal or keeping household warm. The episode
happened mainly due to meteorological conditions as well as the topography of the area. During that period, there was
a combination of low temperate and wind speeds. The formation of fog creates an air shed which facilitated a variety of
chemical reaction in the atmosphere. At the same time, the present weather was very cold which promoted more burning
of coal in homes to keep warm. The buildup of air pollutants accumulated in the valley and its concentration caused a
sudden increase of human deaths and illness, especially the vulnerable communities such as the elderly and the young.

• 1948 Donora Smog (Donora Death Fog)

Similar to the incident mentioned before, the second air pollution episode took place at a valley that was heavily
industrialized. Known as the Monongahela river valley, the area is populated with people of Donora and Webster.
Driven also by meteorological conditions and geographical location, the incident on October 27-30, 1948 began
due to cool, low wind speed and heavy fog. It was recorded that the fog had an irritating pungent smell of sulfur
dioxide. The effects of air pollutants affected many people and farm animals which caused adverse health
conditions at the time of the event. Due to this event, in the town with a population of 14000, 20 deaths, 400
hospitalizations and about 6000 respiratory symptoms were reported

• London “Great Killer Fog” in 1952(The Great Smog of 1952)

Noted as the most severe air pollution disaster in history, the incident took place on December 5, 1952 and lasted
for over 4 days in London. Again, the geographical location of London lies in a wide valley that was heavily populated
(8.6 million people). During that period, emitted air pollutants were trapped in the air inversion layer of the
atmosphere (about 100m above ground level). The fog and smoke when combined together is known as “smog”,
that decreases visibility on the ground and interfered with traffic and pedestrians. The event was a consequence of
the combination of coal burning during residential heating and industrial production and the unfavorable weather
situation. This lethal fog in London resulted in about 3000 more deaths than normal during the first 3 weeks of
December 1952, and based on the estimations, about 12000 excess deaths occurred from December 1952 and
February 1953. As a result, Parliament passed the Clean Air Act of 1956, which restricted the burning of coal
in urban areas and authorized local councils to set up smoke -free zones. Homeowners received grants to
convert from coal to alternative heating systems.