BASIC ELECTRONICS

Materials Conductivity

• Materials’ electrical properties can be

expressed in terms of a conductivity,
which is the inverse of the resistivity in
Siemens (or mho/m)
• the silicon is a poor conductor
Electronic Devices
• at present electronic industries and applications are using
devices which are made out of semiconductors, insulators,
and conductors
• Semiconductors
• Old Days – Germanium (Ge)
• Now – Silicon (Si)
• Now – Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) used for high speed and
optical devices
• New – Silicon Carbide (SiC) – High voltage Schottky diodes
Elements
• Elements in the periodic table are grouped by the
number of electrons in their valence shell (most
outer shell)
1. Conductors – Valence shell is mostly empty
(1 electron)
2. Insulators – Valence shell is mostly full
3. Semiconductors – Valence shell is half full
Types of Semiconductor
1. Intrinsic Semiconductor
• Pure semiconductor
• Semiconductor with no impurities
2. Extrinsic Semiconductor
• Not pure semiconductor
• Semiconductor with impurities
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Semiconductor Physics
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Silicon Bond Model
• Si is Column IV of the periodic table:
Si atom Electronic structure:
• 10 core electrons (tightly
bound)
• 4 valence electrons (loosely
bound, responsible for most
of the chemical properties
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Si Atom Electronic Structure
e
e
Valence electron
e
e

e
 + e
 e e
e
Si e

e
e
e Valence shell
e
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Other Semiconductors (aside from Si)
(average, 4 valence electrons per atom)
• Single - Crystal • Compound Semiconductor
Semiconductor 1. GaAs
1. Ge 2. InP
2. C (diamond form) 3. InGaAs
4. InGaAsP
5. ZnSe
6. CdTe
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Si Covalent Bond
• when two or more silicon atoms are placed close to
one another, the valence electrons are shared between
the neighboring atoms, forming a covalent bond
• covalent bond forms a stronger bond between the
valence electrons and their parent atom (crystalline
lattice structure)
Si Covalent Bonding (Crystal Structure)
e e e
e Si e e Si e e Si e
e e e Valence
e e e electrons
e Si e e Si e e Si e
e e e Sharing of
e e e electrons
e Si e e Si e e Si e
e e e
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Si Covalent Bonding (Crystal Structure)
• Diamond lattice: atoms tetrahedrally bonded by
sharing valence electron – covalent bonding
• Each atom shares 8 electrons – low energy situation
−3
• Si atomic density : 5 x 10 𝑐𝑚
22
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Si Covalent Bonding (Crystal Structure)
• at 0 K, each electron is in its lowest energy state so
each covalent bond position is filled
• if a small electric field is applied to the material, no
electrons will move because they are bound to their
individual atoms
• at 0 K, silicon is an insulator
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Si Covalent Bonding (Crystal Structure) at Finite
Temperature
• when the temperature increases in the crystal, the
valence electrons will gain thermal energy
• once a valence electron gains enough energy, it may
break its covalent bond and separated from the fixed
lattice structure
• this electron is in the “free” state and free to move
within the crystal
Si Covalent Bonding (Crystal Structure) at Finite
Temperature
e e e
e Si e e Si e e Si e
mobile
e e e e electron
e e e

e Si e e Si + e Si e
e e e Incomplete bond
e e e e (empty state)

e Si + e Si e e Si e
e e e
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Si Covalent Bonding (Crystal Structure) at Finite Temperature
• the net charge of a semiconductor crystal structure
is zero
• if a negatively (-) charged electron breaks its bond
and moves away from its original position, a
positively charged “empty state” is left in its original
position
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Si Covalent Bonding (Crystal Structure) at Finite Temperature
• as temperature increases, more bonds are broken
creating more negative free electrons and more
positively charged empty states (Number of free
electrons is a function of temperature)
• to break a covalent bond, a valence electron must
gain a minimum energy Eg., called the energy band
gap (Number of free electrons is a function of Eg.)
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Si Covalent Bonding (Crystal Structure) at Finite Temperature

• Finite thermal energy

• Some bonds are broken
• “free” electrons: Mobile negative charge, –1.6 x 10–19 C
• “free” holes: Mobile positive charge, +1.6 x 10–19 C
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Generation & Recombination
GENERATION RECOMBINATION
• break-up of covalent • formation of covalent bond by bringing
bond to form electron together electron and hole
and hole pairs • releases energy in thermal or optical
• requires energy from form
thermal or optical • recombination rate: 𝑅 = 𝑐𝑚−3 ⋅ 𝑠 −1
sources (or external
sources) • 1 recombination event requires 1
electron + 1 hole
𝑅 ∝𝑛⋅𝑝
Intrinsic Semiconductor
• an intrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor
material/ single crystal with no other types of atoms
in the crystal
• Pure silicon
• Pure germanium
• Pure gallium arsenide
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
• the number of holes and free electrons are the same
due to thermal generation
• if an electron breaks its covalent bond, one free
electron and one hole is produced
• the concentration of holes and free electrons are the
same
• ni = intrinsic carrier concentration [cm−3 ]
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
• Si at 300 K (“room temperature”):
10 −3
𝑛𝑖 ≈ 1.5 × 10 𝑐𝑚
• pure Si wafer at 300K (“intrinsic semiconductor”):
10 −3
𝑛𝑜 = 𝑝𝑜 = 𝑛𝑖 ≈ 1.5 × 10 𝑐𝑚
• ni is a very strong function of temperature
𝑇 ↑⇒ 𝑛𝑖 ↑
Intrinsic Carriers
Intrinsic Carriers
Semiconductor
(per cubic centimeter)
1. GaAs 1.7 X 106

2. Si 1.5 X 1010

3. Ge 2.5 X 1013
Important Notes: Intrinsic Semiconductor
• when semiconductor atoms are held together
through covalent bond, eight valence electrons can
be considered for each atom
• ideally, in semiconductor crystal, and at 0K or
absolute zero (–273.15C), there are no free
electrons and holes
Important Notes: Intrinsic Semiconductor
• at room temperature, 300K (25C), valence
electrons can acquire sufficient energy and become
free as they move from valence band to the
conduction band
Important Notes: Intrinsic Semiconductor
• Intrinsic Carrier – are free electrons in a material due
only to natural process:
• temperature increase
at room temperature:
for intrinsic Si: ni 1.5 X1010 free electron/cm3
for intrinsic Ge: ni 2.5 X1013 free electron/cm3
• light intensity
Intrinsic Semiconductor
• Intrinsic Semiconductor is a type of semiconductor
material that is free from impurities, there are no
other type of atom within the crystal, and is
considered as pure semiconductor
 Extrinsic Semiconductor
Semiconductor Physics
Extrinsic Semiconductor
• Extrinsic Semiconductor is a type of semiconductor
material with some impurities added to engineer its
electrical properties
• impurities or dopants can be added to a pure
semiconductor to increase the concentration of free
electrons and holes
Extrinsic Semiconductor
• Doping – the process of adding impurities or dopants
to a pure semiconductor in order to alter or change
its electrical characteristics
• Types of Dopants
1. Donor – (pentavalent impurity) element with five
valence electrons
2. Acceptor – (Trivalent impurity) element with
three valence electrons
n – type Extrinsic Semiconductor
• an extrinsic semiconductor material that undergo
doping process with pentavalent (donor) impurities
• common pentavalent elements:
1. Antimony (Sb)
2. Arsenic (As)
3. Phosphorus (P)
n – type Extrinsic Semiconductor
• Donors introduce electrons to
semiconductors (but not holes)
• 4 electrons participate in
bonding
• 5th electron easy to release
• at room temperature, each
donor releases 1 electron that
is available for conduction
n – type Extrinsic Semiconductor
e e e
e Si e e Si e e Si e
e e e mobile
e e e e electrons

e Si e e Sb e e Si e
e e e
e e e
e Si e e Si e e Si e
e e e
Si doped with Antimony (Sb)
n – type Extrinsic Semiconductor
• If Nd (donor concentration[per cm3])<< ni, doping is
irrelevant
• Intrinsic semiconductor (no=po=ni)
• If Nd >> ni, doping controls carrier concentration
• Extrinsic semiconductor
• Note: no >> po : n-type semiconductor
𝑛𝑖2
𝑛𝑜 = 𝑁𝑑 𝑝𝑜 =
𝑁𝑑
n – type Extrinsic Semiconductor
log no
log po • no – electron concentration
• po – hole concentration
• Electrons – majority carriers
• Holes – minority carriers

log Nd
p – type Extrinsic Semiconductor
• an extrinsic semiconductor material that undergo
doping process with trivalent (acceptor) impurities
• common trivalent elements:
1. Boron (B)
2. Gallium (Ga)
3. Indium (In)
p – type Extrinsic Semiconductor
• Introduce holes to semiconductors
(but not electrons)
• 3 electrons participate in bonding
• 1 bonding site “unsatisfied” making it
easy to “accept” neighboring bonding
electron to complete all bonds
• at room temperature, each acceptor
“releases” 1 hole that is available for
conduction
p – type Extrinsic Semiconductor
e e e
e Si e e Si e e Si e
e e e Hole – absence
e e e of electrons

e Si e e B e Si e
e e e
e e e
e Si e e Si e e Si e
e e e
Si doped with Boron (B)
p – type Extrinsic Semiconductor
• If Na (acceptor concentration per cm3) << ni, doping is
irrelevant
• Intrinsic semiconductor (no=po=ni)
• If Na >> ni, doping controls carrier concentration
• Extrinsic semiconductor
• Note: po >> no : p-type semiconductor
𝑛𝑖2
𝑝𝑜 = 𝑁𝑎 𝑛𝑜 =
𝑁𝑎
 p – type Extrinsic Semiconductor
log no
log po
• po – hole concentration
• no – electron concentration
• Holes – majority carriers
• Electrons – minority carriers

Log Na
Current in Semiconductors
• the two processes that cause free electrons and
holes to move in a semiconductor are drift and
diffusion
• Drift – the movement of holes and electrons due
to an electric field
• Diffusion – the movement of holes and electrons
due to variations in concentrations
Important Notes
• when an intrinsic material is doped (the addition of
impurities or dopants) it will become extrinsic
• extrinsic semiconductor materials (doped
semiconductors) are purposely doped so that its
electrical properties are varied for different
applications
• two types of extrinsic semiconductors are n – type
and p – type semiconductors
Important Notes
• lightly doped semiconductor – if only a few
impurities are added
• heavily doped – with more impurities added
• in semiconductors there are two types of currents or
charge carriers
1. negative current or negative carrier – flow of
electrons, from negative to positive
2. positive current or positive carrier – the flow of
holes, from positive to negative
Important Notes
• ideally, n – type semiconductor materials have
negative carriers only, but practically there are a few
numbers of positive carriers
• for n – type materials, the majority carriers are
electrons, the minority carriers are holes
• holes are the empty state (absence of electron) in the
covalent bond
Important Notes
• when a potential difference is applied across n –
type material:
• holes flow from positive to negative
• electrons flow from negative to positive
• the net flow will be the flow of electrons
(majority carrier)
• doping a pentavalent impurity to a pure
semiconductor material will produce a n – type
extrinsic semiconductor
Important Notes
• doping a trivalent impurity to a pure semiconductor
material will produce a p – type extrinsic
semiconductor
• ideally, p – type semiconductor materials have
positive carriers only, but practically there are a few
numbers of negative carriers
• for p – type materials, the majority carriers are holes
(positive), minority carriers are electrons (negative)
Important Notes
• when a potential difference is applied across the
p – type material:
• holes flow from positive to negative
• electrons flow from negative to positive
• the net flow will be the holes (majority carriers)
• semiconductor materials have a negative
temperature coefficient (NTC)
• conductors have a positive temperature
coefficient (PTC)
 end
Semiconductor physics