RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

ASSIGNMENT

Submitted by:
ANAGHA.S
3rd semester
MBA
1.Briefly describe the steps involved in a research process.
 Identifying, evaluating and formulating the research problem – The first step in the research
process is identifying, evaluating and formulating the research problem. Choosing a correct problem
for the study is the most important step in the entire research process. After identifying and selecting
the problem, the researcher has to formulate the problem. A researcher should take every care in
formulating the problem without any scope of ambiguity.
 Conducting literature survey -The researcher should examine all available literature, both conceptual
and empirical. Conceptual literature survey is one which deals with concepts and theories. Empirical
literature is that which contains studies made earlier and so it consists of many facts and figures
observed in the earlier studies.
 Writing a primary synopsis - Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be
written down. A researcher has to write a synopsis of the topic selected for research work mentioning
the summary of what is going to be done under the research.
 Identifying and labelling variables – A researcher wants to study, how far, the change in one variable
has the effect on another variable. The variable which has the effect is called dependent variable and
the variable whose change has affected the other variable, is called independent variable. A researcher
has to identify variables under study and label them.
 Setting up of hypothesis – A hypothesis is a tentative conclusion logically drawn. It provides focal
point for research. The development of hypothesis plays an important role. Hypothesis should be very
specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the
hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right
track.
 Preparing research design - After formulating the research problem, research design has to prepared.
A research design is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research
problem. It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analysing the data.
The function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money. The research design depends on the research purpose.
 Determining the sample design – Sample design refers to the technique or the procedure which the
researcher would adopt in selecting some sampling units from the universe for drawing inferences
about the universe. There are different methods of selecting samples like random sampling, stratifies
sampling etc. The researcher has to select the method of sampling appropriate to his research work
which causes smaller sampling errors for a given sample size and cost.
 Collection of data – The data form fundamental basis for any studies. So collection of data is very
important. There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in
context of money costs, time and other resources. The researcher should select one of the methods of
collecting the data taking into consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the
inquiry, financial resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy.
 Execution of the project - Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If
the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and
dependable. Steps should be taken in order to ensure that survey is under statistical control.
 Analysis and interpretation of data - After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the
task of analysing them. The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable
groups and tables for further analysis. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the
categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the
procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding the stage is ready for tabulation.
Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables.
 Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages,
coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae
 Testing of hypothesis – After analysing the data, researcher test the hypothesis which he has
formulated. For testing hypothesis there are a number of statistical tests available, known as t-test, F-
test etc. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon
the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the
hypothesis or in rejecting it.
 Preparation of report or thesis - Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been
done by him. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text,
and (iii) the end matter. In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by
acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables
and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report. The main text of the report should have
introduction, summary of findings, main report and conclusion. At the end of the report, appendices
should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports,
etc., consulted, should also be given in the end.

2. Why should a manager know about research when the job entails people, products,
events, environments and the like
The manager, while managing people, products, events, and environments will invariably face problems, big
and small, and will have to seek ways to find long lasting effective solutions. This can be achieved only
through knowledge of research even if consultants are engaged to solve problems.
The primary purpose for applied research (as opposed to basic research) is discovering, interpreting, and the
development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of
scientific matters of our world and the universe. Research can use the scientific method, but need not do so.
The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge, which takes three main forms:Exploratory
research, which structures and identifies new problems, Constructive research, which develops solutions to a
problem and Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence
Research can also fall into two distinct types:
 Primary research
 Secondary research
In social sciences and later in other disciplines, the following two research methods can be applied,
depending on the properties of the subject matter and on the objective of the research:
 Qualitative research
 Quantitative research
Research is often conducted using the hourglass model Structure of Research. The hourglass model starts
with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through the methodology of the
project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of discussion and results.
Research and development is nowadays of great importance in business as the level of competition,
production processes and methods are rapidly increasing. It is of special importance in the field of marketing
where companies keep an eagle eye on competitors and customers in order to keep pace with modern trends
and analyze the needs, demands and desires of their customers.
Unfortunately, research and development are very difficult to manage, since the defining feature of research
is that the researchers do not know in advance exactly how to accomplish the desired result. As a result,
higher R&D spending does not guarantee “more creativity, higher profit or a greater market share.

3. Research design in exploratory studies must be flexible but in descriptive studies, it

 must minimize bias and maximize reliability. Discuss.
Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main purpose of such
studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developing the working
hypotheses from an operational point of view. The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of
ideas and insights. As such the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to
provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study. Inbuilt flexibility in research
design is needed because the research problem, broadly defined initially, is transformed into one with more
precise meaning in exploratory studies, which fact may necessitate changes in the research procedure for
gathering relevant data.
Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a
particular individual, or of a group. Studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration of facts and
characteristics concerning individual, group or situation are all examples of descriptive research studies.
Most of the social research comes under this category. Since the aim is to obtain complete and accurate
information in the said studies, the procedure to be used must be carefully planned. The research design
must make enough provision for protection against bias and must maximise reliability, with due concern for
the economical completion of the research study. The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible
and must focus attention on the following:
(a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being made?)
(b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be adopted?)
(c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
(d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period should the data be
related?)
(e) Processing and analysing the data.
(f) Reporting the findings.

4. Explain the significance and contents of a research design

Research design is significant because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations,
thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure of
effort, time and money. Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for
collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of
the research and the availability of staff, time and money. Preparation of the research design should be done
with great care as any error in it may upset the entire project. Research design, actually, has a great
significance and impact on the reliability of the results achieved and as such constitutes the firm base of the
entire edifice of the research work. An efficient and appropriate design must be prepared before starting
research operations. The design helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a form whereby it will be
possible for him to look for flaws and inadequacies. Such a design can even be given to others for their
comments and critical evaluation. In the absence of such a course of action, it will be difficult for the critic
to provide a comprehensive review of the proposed study.
Contents of research design are:
 Title of the problem – A researcher should be very careful in selecting the best caption for his
research. The title selected should be brief and precise as possible. Title must be specified in the
design.
 Statement of the problem – In the opening paragraphs of the research proposal, the problem to be
investigated should be stated clearly and briefly. The key questions should be specified.
  Objectives of the research – Objectives help research studies. The objectives of the research may
be for drawing certain conclusions, or it may be for testing certain relationships or it may be for
testing certain hypothesis framed for study.
 Scope of study – The scope of any investigation depends on several factors like time and money
available to the investigator, nature and accessibility of data. Research design should indicate scope
of the study.
 Survey of literature - Surveying the existing literature in the field of study is an important step in
the formulation of research design. To know about the different areas covered by various studies and
to get acquainted with different meanings given to certain concepts and usage of different concepts
in various studies, it is very important that a researcher does a literature survey.
 Conceptualisation of terms used – There may be different terms used in the research study. The
researcher has to state the meaning attached to the different terms used in the study because certain
concepts and terms carry with them different meanings.
 Formulation of hypothesis – Hypothesis is defined as a tentative generalisation, the validity for
which remains to be tested. Formulation of hypothesis is one of the important aspect to be done by
the researcher.
 Selection of sample – In research study, the researcher has to make studies about the entire
situations or population to draw conclusions. But it may not be possible for the researcher to study
the entire population at once. For this purpose, the researcher selects a sample of the population for
the study. Samples are representatives of population.
 Data collection – This is the important step in the whole research design. The researcher has to
indicate in research design about the nature of the data and the source from which he has to collect
the same. There are basically two sources of data – primary and secondary data.
 Processing and analysis of data – The data collected from various sources must be properly
processed and analysed. It has to be decided in the beginning and stated in the design whether the
process of data would be manual process or mechanical process, and what types of tables are to be
prepared. After processing the data, its analysis is performed. A clear indication of these analysis
plans should find its place in the design.
5. Explain the meaning of measurement in research.
Measurement is a relatively complex and demanding task, specially so when it concerns qualitative or
abstract phenomena. By measurement we mean the process of assigning numbers to objects or observations,
the level of measurement being a function of the rules under which the numbers are assigned. Technically
speaking, measurement is a process of mapping aspects of a domain onto other aspects of a range according
to some rule of correspondence. In measuring, we devise some form of scale in the range (in terms of set
theory, range may refer to some set) and then transform or map the properties of objects from the domain (in
terms of set theory, domain may refer to some other set) onto this scale. For example, in case we are to find
the male to female attendance ratio while conducting a study of persons who attend some show, then we
may tabulate those who come to the show according to sex.
6. What are the tests of sound measurement?
Sound measurement must meet the tests of validity, reliability and practicality.
 Test of Validity
Validity is the most critical criterion and indicates the degree to which an instrument measures what
it is supposed to measure. Validity can also be thought of as utility. In other words, validity is the
extent to which differences found with a measuring instrument reflect true differences among those
being tested. Three types of validity:
  Content validity is the extent to which a measuring instrument provides adequate coverage of
the topic under study. If the instrument contains a representative sample of the universe, the
content validity is good. Its determination is primarily judgemental and intuitive. It can also
be determined by using a panel of persons who shall judge how well the measuring
instrument meets the standards, but there is no numerical way to express it.
 Criterion-related validity relates to our ability to predict some outcome or estimate the
existence of some current condition. This form of validity reflects the success of measures
used for some empirical estimating purpose. The concerned criterion must possess the
qualities like relevance, freedom from bias, reliability and availability. In fact, a Criterion-
related validity is a broad term that actually refers to (i) Predictive validity and (ii)
Concurrent validity. The former refers to the usefulness of a test in predicting some future
performance whereas the latter refers to the usefulness of a test in closely relating to other
measures of known validity.
 Construct validity is the most complex and abstract. A measure is said to possess construct
validity to the degree that it confirms to predicted correlations with other theoretical
propositions. Construct validity is the degree to which scores on a test can be accounted for
by the explanatory constructs of a sound theory.

 Test of Reliability
The test of reliability is another important test of sound measurement. A measuring instrument is
reliable if it provides consistent results. Reliable measuring instrument does contribute to validity,
but a reliable instrument need not be a valid instrument. It is easier to assess reliability in comparison
to validity. Two aspects of reliability are stability and equivalence. The stability aspect is concerned
with securing consistent results with repeated measurements of the same person and with the same
instrument. Degree of stability can be determined by comparing the results of repeated
measurements. The equivalence aspect considers how much error may get introduced by different
investigators or different samples of the items being studied. A good way to test for the equivalence
of measurements by two investigators is to compare their observations of the same events.

 Test of Practicality
The practicality characteristic of a measuring instrument can be judged in terms of economy,
convenience and interpretability. The measuring instrument ought to be practical i.e., it should be
economical, convenient and interpretable. Economy consideration suggests that some trade-off is
needed between the ideal research project and that which the budget can afford. Convenience test
suggests that the measuring instrument should be easy to administer. For this purpose, one should
give due attention to the proper layout of the measuring instrument. Interpretability consideration is
especially important when persons other than the designers of the test are to interpret the results. The
measuring instrument, in order to be interpretable, must be supplemented by (a) detailed instructions
for administering the test; (b) scoring keys; (c) evidence about the reliability and (d) guides for using
the test and for interpreting results.

7. Discuss the techniques developing measurement tools.

The technique of developing measurement tools involves a four-stage process:
 Concept development
 Specification of concept dimensions
 Selection of indicators
 Formation of index.
  Concept development - The first and foremost step is that of concept development which means
that the researcher should arrive at an understanding of the major concepts pertaining to his study.
This step of concept development is more apparent in theoretical studies than in the more pragmatic
research, where the fundamental concepts are often already established.
 Specification of concept dimensions - The second step requires the researcher to specify the
dimensions of the concepts that he developed in the first stage. This task may either be accomplished
by deduction i.e., by adopting a more or less intuitive approach or by empirical correlation of the
individual dimensions with the total concept and/or the other concepts.
 Selection of indicators - Once the dimensions of a concept have been specified, the researcher must
develop indicators for measuring each concept element. Indicators are specific questions, scales, or
other devices by which respondent’s knowledge, opinion, expectation, etc., are measured. The
researcher should consider several alternatives for the purpose. The use of more than one indicator
gives stability to the scores and it also improves their validity.
 Formation of index - The last step is that of combining the various indicators into an index, i.e.,
formation of an index. Several dimensions of a concept or different measurements of a dimension,
are combined into a single index. One simple way for getting an overall index is to provide scale
values to the responses and then sum up the corresponding scores. Such an overall index would
provide a better measurement tool than a single indicator.

8. Discuss the important scaling techniques.

 Rating scale – Rating means measuring an attribute by judgement in a continuum. In rating, three
elements are taken into account, namely judges, continuum and subjects. Judges must be impartial,
continuum must accommodate the attributes realistically and subject should be amenable to rating.
 Ranking scales – Ranking scales are identical to rating scale. In ranking scales, we make relative
judgement against other similar objects. There are 2 generally used approaches of ranking scales
namely method of paired comparisons and method of rank order.
 Attitude scale – In this type of scale, the attitude of an individual towards a matter can be known
from the score of his responses given on a questionnaire.
 Factor scale – This is a type of scaling in which multi dimensions of a complex attitude is identified.
9. Enumerate the different methods of collecting data
Different methods of collecting data are:
 Observation Method - The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in
studies relating to behavioural sciences. Under the observation method, the information is sought by
way of investigator’s own direct observation without asking from the respondent. The main
advantage of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately. This
method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not
capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other.
 Interview Method - The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal
stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal
interviews and, if possible, through telephone interviews.
 Personal interviews: Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer
asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons. This sort
of interview may be in the form of direct personal investigation or it may be indirect oral
investigation.
 Telephone interviews: This method of collecting information consists in contacting
respondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part
in industrial surveys, particularly in developed regions.
 Collection of data through questionnaire - This method of data collection is quite popular,
particularly in case of big enquiries. It is being adopted by private individuals, research workers,
private and public organisations and even by governments. In this method a questionnaire is sent
(usually by post) to the persons concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the
questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order
on a form or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and
understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the
questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own.
 Collection of data through schedules - This method of data collection is very much like the
collection of data through questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the fact that schedules
(proforma containing a set of questions) are being filled in by the enumerators who are specially
appointed for the purpose. These enumerators along with schedules, go to respondents, put to them
the questions from the proforma in the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the
space meant for the same in the proforma. This method of data collection is very useful in extensive
enquiries and can lead to fairly reliable results.
 Warranty cards: Warranty cards are usually postal sized cards which are used by dealers of
consumer durables to collect information regarding their products. The information sought is printed
in the form of questions on the ‘warranty cards’ which is placed inside the package along with the
product with a request to the consumer to fill in the card and post it back to the dealer.
 Distributor or store audits: Distributor or store audits are performed by distributors as well as
manufactures through their salesmen at regular intervals. Distributors get the retail stores audited
through salesmen and use such information to estimate market size, market share, seasonal
purchasing pattern and so on. The data are obtained in such audits not by questioning but by
observation.
 Pantry audits: Pantry audit technique is used to estimate consumption of the basket of goods at the
consumer level. In this type of audit, the investigator collects an inventory of types, quantities and
prices of commodities consumed. Thus in pantry audit data are recorded from the examination of
consumer’s pantry.
 Consumer panels: An extension of the pantry audit approach on a regular basis is known as
‘consumer panel’, where a set of consumers are arranged to come to an understanding to maintain
detailed daily records of their consumption and the same is made available to investigator on
demands. In other words, a consumer panel is essentially a sample of consumers who are interviewed
repeatedly over a period of time.
 Use of mechanical devices: The use of mechanical devices has been widely made to collect
information by way of indirect means. Eye camera, Pupilometric camera, Psychogalvanometer,
Motion picture camera and Audiometer are the principal devices so far developed and commonly
used by modern big business houses, mostly in the developed world for the purpose of collecting the
required information.
 Projective techniques: Projective techniques for the collection of data have been developed by
psychologists to use projections of respondents for inferring about underlying motives, urges, or
intentions which are such that the respondent either resists to reveal them or is unable to figure out
himself. In projective techniques the respondent in supplying information tends unconsciously to
project his own attitudes or feelings on the subject under study. Projective techniques play an
important role in motivational researches or in attitude surveys.
 Depth interviews: Depth interviews are those interviews that are designed to discover underlying
motives and desires and are often used in motivational research. Such interviews are held to explore
needs, desires and feelings of respondents. In other words, they aim to elicit unconscious as also
other types of material relating especially to personality dynamics and motivations.
  Content-analysis: Content-analysis consists of analysing the contents of documentary materials
such as books, magazines, newspapers and the contents of all other verbal materials which can be
either spoken or printed.

10. How does the case study method differ from survey method? Analyse the merits and
limitations it's case study method in sociological research.
 Case Study: A case study refers to an in-depth study in which an individual, group, or a particular
situation is studied. Survey: A survey refers to research where data is gathered from an entire
population or a very large sample in order to comprehend the opinions on a particular matter.
 Case Study: Case studies are used in qualitative research. Survey: Surveys are mostly used in
quantitative research.
 Case Study: Case studies produce rich in depth data. Survey: Surveys produce numerical data.
 Case Study: For a case study, a relatively small population is chosen. This can vary from a few
individuals to groups. Survey: For a survey, a large population can be used as the sample.
Merits of case study method:

 Case study method has proved beneficial in determining the nature of units to be studied along with
the nature of the universe.
 This method is a means to well understand the past of a social unit because of its emphasis of
historical analysis.
 Case studies constitute the perfect type of sociological material as they represent a real record of
personal experiences which very often escape the attention of most of the skilled researchers using
other techniques.
 Case study method enhances the experience of the researcher and this in turn increases his analysing
ability and skill.
 This method makes possible the study of social changes.
 Through case study a researcher can obtain a real and enlightened record of personal experiences
which would reveal man’s inner strivings, tensions and motivations that drive him to action along
with the forces that direct him to adopt a certain pattern of behaviour.
Limitations of case study method:

 Case situations are seldom comparable and as such the information gathered in case studies is often
not comparable.
 The danger of false generalisation is always there in view of the fact that no set rules are followed in
collection of the information and only few units are studied.
 It consumes more time and requires lot of expenditure.
 Case study method is based on several assumptions which may not be very realistic at times, and as
such the usefulness of case data is always subject to doubt.
 Case study method can be used only in a limited sphere., it is not possible to use it in case of a big
society.

11. Discuss interview as a technique of data collection.

The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of
oral-verbal responses. For successful implementation of the interview method, interviewers should be
carefully selected, trained and briefed. They should be honest, sincere, hardworking, impartial and must
possess the technical competence and necessary practical experience. Occasional field checks should be
made to ensure that interviewers are neither cheating, nor deviating from instructions given to them for
performing their job efficiently. This method can be used through personal interviews and, if possible,
through telephone interviews.
 Personal interviews: Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer asking
questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons. This sort of interview
may be in the form of direct personal investigation or it may be indirect oral investigation. In the
case of direct personal investigation, the interviewer has to collect the information personally from
the sources concerned. He has to be on the spot and has to meet people from whom data have to be
collected. This method is particularly suitable for intensive investigations. But in certain cases it may
not be possible or worthwhile to contact directly the persons concerned or on account of the
extensive scope of enquiry, the direct personal investigation technique may not be used. In such
cases an indirect oral examination can be conducted under which the interviewer has to cross-
examine other persons who are supposed to have knowledge about the problem under investigation
and the information, obtained is recorded.
 Telephone interviews: This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on
telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial surveys,
particularly in developed regions.

12. Write short notes on

a Focus group discussion
b. Important aspects of a questionnaire
c. Projective techniques
d. Observation method
a) Focus group discussion
A focus group discussion involves gathering people from similar backgrounds or experiences together to
discuss a specific topic of interest. It is a form of qualitative research where questions are asked about their
perceptions attitudes, beliefs, opinion or ideas. In focus group discussion participants are free to talk with
other group members; unlike other research methods it encourages discussions with other participants. It
generally involves group interviewing in which a small group of usually 8 to 12 people. It is led by a
moderator (interviewer) in a loosely structured discussion of various topics of interest. FGDs are structured
and directed, but also expressive. They can yield a lot of information in a relatively short time. Therefore,
FGDs are a good way to gather in-depth information about a community’s thoughts and opinions on a topic.
b) Important aspects of a questionnaire
Three main aspects of a questionnaire:

 General form: So far as the general form of a questionnaire is concerned, it can either be structured
or unstructured questionnaire. Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires in which there are
definite, concrete and pre-determined questions. When these characteristics are not present in a
questionnaire, it can be termed as unstructured or non-structured questionnaire. More specifically,
we can say that in an unstructured questionnaire, the interviewer is provided with a general guide on
the type of information to be obtained, but the exact question formulation is largely his own
responsibility and the replies are to be taken down in the respondent’s own words to the extent
possible
 Question sequence: In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure quality to the replies
received, a researcher should pay attention to the question-sequence in preparing the questionnaire.
A proper sequence of questions reduces considerably the chances of individual questions being
misunderstood. The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly-moving
  Question formulation and wording: With regard to this aspect of questionnaire, the researcher should
note that each question must be very clear for any sort of misunderstanding can do irreparable harm
to a survey. Question should also be impartial in order not to give a biased picture of the true state of
affairs. Questions should be constructed with a view to their forming a logical part of a well thought
out tabulation plan
c) Projective techniques

Projective techniques (or what are sometimes called as indirect interviewing techniques) for the collection of
data have been developed by psychologists to use projections of respondents for inferring about underlying
motives, urges, or intentions which are such that the respondent either resists to reveal them or is unable to
figure out himself. In projective techniques the respondent in supplying information tends unconsciously to
project his own attitudes or feelings on the subject under study. Projective techniques play an important role
in motivational researches or in attitude surveys. Important projective techniques are :

 Word association test

 Sentence completion test
 Story completion test
 Verbal projection test
 Play techniques
 Quizzes, tests and examination

d) Observation method
The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to behavioural
sciences. Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct
observation without asking from the respondent. The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is
eliminated, if observation is done accurately. This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with
subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or
the other.

13. Processing of data implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation. Describe in
brief these four operations pointing out the significance of each in context of a research
study.
Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (specially in surveys) to detect errors and
omissions and to correct these when possible. As a matter of fact, editing involves a careful scrutiny of the
completed questionnaires and/or schedules. Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate, consistent
with other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as completed as possible and have been well arranged to
facilitate coding and tabulation.

Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that responses can be put
into a limited number of categories or classes. Such classes should be appropriate to the research problem
under consideration. They must also possess the characteristic of exhaustiveness (i.e., there must be a class
for every data item) and also that of mutual exclusively which means that a specific answer can be placed in
one and only one cell in a given category set. Another rule to be observed is that of unidimensionality by
which is meant that every class is defined in terms of only one concept. Coding is necessary for efficient
analysis and through it the several replies may be reduced to a small number of classes which contain the
critical information required for analysis.
Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be reduced into homogeneous groups
if we are to get meaningful relationships. This fact necessitates classification of data which happens to be
the process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics. Data having a
common characteristic are placed in one class and in this way the entire data get divided into a number of
groups or classes.

When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher to arrange the same in
some kind of concise and logical order. This procedure is referred to as tabulation. Thus, tabulation is the
process of summarising raw data and displaying the same in compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical
tables) for further analysis. In a broader sense, tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and
rows. Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons.
1. It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum.
2. It facilitates the process of comparison.
3. It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions.
4. It provides a basis for various statistical computations.

14. (a) Distinguish between descriptive and inferential statistics.

 Descriptive statistics is that branch of statistics which is concerned with describing the population
under study. Inferential statistics is a type of statistics, that focuses on drawing conclusions about the
population, on the basis of sample analysis and observation.
 Descriptive statistics organise, analyse and present data in a meaningful way. Inferential statistics
compare, test and predicts data.
 Charts, graphs and tables are the forms of final results of Descriptive statistics. Probability is the
form of final result of Inferential statistics
 Descriptive statistics is used to describe a situation. Inferential statistics is used to explain the
chances of occurrence of an event.
 Descriptive statistics explains the data, which is already known, to summarize sample. Inferential
statistics attempts to reach the conclusion to learn about the population, that extends beyond the data
available.

14. (b) Describe the statistical measures often used to summarize the survey/research
data.
15.Distinguish between
a. Null hypothesis and alternate hypothesis
The null hypothesis reflects that there will be no observed effect in our experiment. In a mathematical
formulation of the null hypothesis, there will typically be an equal sign. This hypothesis is denoted by H0.
The null hypothesis is what we attempt to find evidence against in our hypothesis test.
The alternative or experimental hypothesis reflects that there will be an observed effect for our experiment.
In a mathematical formulation of the alternative hypothesis, there will typically be an inequality, or not
equal to symbol. This hypothesis is denoted by either Ha or by H1. The alternative hypothesis is what we are
attempting to demonstrate in an indirect way by the use of our hypothesis test.

b. One tailed and two tailed test

A two-tailed test rejects the null hypothesis if, say, the sample mean is significantly higher or lower than the
hypothesised value of the mean of the population. Such a test is appropriate when the null hypothesis is
some specified value and the alternative hypothesis is a value not equal to the specified value of the null
hypothesis. A one-tailed test would be used when we are to test, say, whether the population mean is either
lower than or higher than some hypothesised value.

c. Type I and Type II error.

In the context of testing of hypotheses, there are basically two types of errors we can make. We may reject
H0 when H0 is true and we may accept H0 when in fact H0 is not true. The former is known as Type I error
and the latter as Type II error. In other words, Type I error means rejection of hypothesis which should have
been accepted and Type II error means accepting the hypothesis which should have been rejected. Type I
error is denoted by α (alpha) known as α error, also called the level of significance of test; and Type II error
is denoted by β (beta) known as β error.
d. Chi square as a goodness of fit
As a test of goodness of fit, χ2 test enables us to see how well does the assumed theoretical distribution
(such as Binomial distribution, Poisson distribution or Normal distribution) fit to the observed data. When
some theoretical distribution is fitted to the given data, we are always interested in knowing as to how well
this distribution fits with the observed data. The chi-square test can give answer to this. If the calculated
value of χ2 is less than the table value at a certain level of significance, the fit is considered to be a good one
which means that the divergence between the observed and expected frequencies is attributable to
fluctuations of sampling. But if the calculated value of χ2 is greater than its table value, the fit is not
considered to be a good one.
16 (a) Describe in brief the layout of a Research Report.
The layout of the report means as to what the research report should contain. A comprehensive layout of the
research report should comprise (A) preliminary pages; (B) the main text; and (C) the end matter.

 Preliminary Pages - In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date, followed by
acknowledgements in the form of ‘Preface’ or ‘Foreword’. Then there should be a table of contents
followed by list of tables and illustrations so that the decision-maker or anybody interested in reading
the report can easily locate the required information in the report.
 Main Text - The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all details.
The main text of the report should have the following sections: (i) Introduction; (ii) Statement of
findings and recommendations; (iii) The results; (iv) The implications drawn from the results; and
(v) The summary

 Introduction: The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. It
should contain a clear statement of the objectives of research
 Statement of findings and recommendations: After introduction, the research report must
contain a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language so that it can
be easily understood by all concerned. If the findings happen to be extensive, at this point
they should be put in the summarised form
 Results: A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the form
of tables and charts together with a validation of results, is the next step in writing the main
text of the report.
 Implications of the results: Toward the end of the main text, the researcher should again put
down the results of his research clearly and precisely. He should, state the implications that
 flow from the results of the study, for the general reader is interested in the implications for
understanding the human behaviour.
 Summary: It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very brief
summary, resting in brief the research problem, the methodology, the major findings and the
major conclusions drawn from the research results.

 End Matter - At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical
data such as questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones.
Bibliography of sources consulted should also be given. Index (an alphabetical listing of names,
places and topics along with the numbers of the pages in a book or report on which they are
mentioned or discussed) should invariably be given at the end of the report.

16 (b) Characteristics of a good Report.

 Precision: In a good report, the writer is very clear about the exact and definite purpose of writing
the report. His investigation, analysis and recommendation are directed by this central purpose.
Precision provides unity to the report and makes it a valuable document.
 The accuracy of facts: Information contained in a report must be based on fact. Since decisions are
taken on the basis of report information, any inaccurate information will lead to wrong decision.
 Relevance: The facts presented in a report should not be only accurate but also be relevant.
Irrelevant facts make a report confusing and likely to be misleading.
 Conciseness: A good report should be concise but it does not mean that a report can never belong.
Rather it means that a good report is one of that transmits maximum information with minimum
words. It avoids unnecessary detail and includes everything significant.
 Render- Orientation: A good report is always render oriented. While drafting any report, it is
necessary to keep in mind the person who is going to read it. Readers knowledge and level of
understanding should consider by the writer of the report.
 Simple Language: A good report is written in a simple language avoiding vague words. The
language of the report should not be influenced by the writer’s emotion. The message of a good
report is self-explanatory.
 Grammatical Accuracy: A good report is free from errors. Any faulty construction of a sentence
makes its meaning different to the reader and sometimes become confusing or ambiguous.
 Unbiased Recommendation: If the recommendation is made at the end of a report, they must be
impartial and objective. They should come to a logical conclusion for investigation and analysis.
 Clarity: A good report is absolutely clear. Clarity depends on the proper arrangement of facts. The
reporter should make his purpose clear, define his sources, state his findings and finally make a
necessary recommendation.
 Attractive presentation: A good report provides a catchy look and creates attention of the reader.
Structure, content, language, typing and presentation style of a good report should be attractive to
make a clear impression in the mind of a reader.