F.+a+Concise+Syntax+of+Classical+Greek+ (EvEB) +april+08 1

A CONCISE SYNTAX OF
Classical Greek
Evert van Emde Boas

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. AGREEMENT 4 7.6.1. Present 40

7.6.2. Aorist, imperfect, historic present 40
1.1. Subject - Finite Verb 4
7.6.3. Aorist and imperfect: overview 42
1.2. Noun - Adjective/Pronoun 5 7.6.3. Future 43
1.3. Antecedent - Relative Pronoun 5 7.6.4. Perfect, pluperfect, future perfect 43
1.4. Apposition 6 7.7. Other Moods in Main Clauses 43
7.7.1. Modal indicative 43
2. THE ARTICLE 7 7.7.2. Optative 44
2.1. Meaning of the Definite Article 7 7.7.3. Subjunctive 45
2.2. Position of the Article and Adjectival Phrases 9 7.7.4. Imperative 46
2.3. Pronominal Uses of the Article 11 7.7.5. Overview of the uses of moods in main clauses 46
3. PRONOUNS 12 8. THE VERB: VOICE 47

3.1. The Three Uses of the ‘Intensive’ Pronoun αὐτός 12 8.1. The Greek Voice System 47
3.2. Demonstrative Pronouns 13 8.2. Passive 47
3.3. Personal Pronouns 14 8.3. Middle 48
3.4. Possessive Pronouns 15 8.4. Deponent Verbs 49
3.5. Reflexive Pronouns 16
3.6. The Reciprocal Pronoun 16
9. THE INFINITIVE 50
3.7. ἄλλος and ἕτερος 16 9.1. Dynamic and Declarative Infinitives 50
3.8. The Indefinite Pronoun 17 9.2. The Declarative Infinitive 50
9.3. The Dynamic Infinitive 51
4. CASES 18 9.4. Tense and Aspect of Declarative and Dynamic Infinitives 52
4.1. Meanings and Labels 18 9.5. Verbs Taking Both Constructions 53
4.2. The Genitive 18 9.6. The Infinitive with Verbs of Preventing and Denying 54
4.2.1. As required supplement with verbs/adjectives 18 9.7. The Articular Infinitive 55
4.2.2. With nouns (attributively) 19 9.8. Other Uses of the Infinitive 55
4.2.3. With sentences (adverbially) 20
4.3. The Dative 21 10. THE PARTICIPLE 56
4.3.1. As required supplement with verbs/adjectives 21 10.1. Tense and Aspect of Participles 56
4.3.2. With nouns (attributively) 21 10.2. The Supplementary Participle 56
4.3.3. With sentences (adverbially) 22 10.2.1. Verbs taking either participle or infinitive 58
4.4. The Accusative 23 10.3. The Attributive Participle 58
4.4.1. As required supplement with verbs 23 10.4. The Circumstantial Participle 59
4.4.2. Internal object 24
10.5. Periphrastic Uses of the Participle 61
4.4.3. With sentences (adverbially) 24
4.4.4. Apposition to a sentence 24 11. IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTIONS 62
5. TIME AND SPACE 25 11.1. Introduction, Weather Terms 62
11.3. Other Impersonal Verbs and Their Constructions 62
5.1. Temporal Modifiers 25
11.4. Accusative Absolute 63
5.2. Spatial Modifiers 26
11.5. Verbal Adjectives 63
6. PREPOSITIONS 28
12. INDIRECT DISCOURSE 64
6.1 Frequent Uses of the Prepositions 28
12.1. Indirect Speech and Thought 64
6.2. Some Other Words Used as Prepositions 37
12.2. With a Declarative Infinitive 65
7. THE VERB: TENSE & ASPECT, MOOD 38 12.3. With a ὅτι/ὡς-Clause 65
12.4. Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Discourse 67
7.1. Introduction to Tense and Aspect 38
7.2. The Greek Tense System 38 13. QUESTIONS 68
7.3. The Greek Aspect System 38
13.1. Introduction 68
7.4. Synthesis: the 7 Indicatives 39
13.2. Direct Yes/No-Questions and Alternative Questions 68
7.5. Narrative and Non-Narrative Texts 39
13.3. Direct Specifying Questions 69
7.6. The Indicative in Main Clauses 40
13.4. The Use of Moods in Direct Questions 69
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Table of Contents
13.5. Indirect Questions 70 21. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES 87

13.6. The Use of Moods in Indirect Questions 71
13.7. Is That a Question? 71
21.2. Neutral Conditions 87
14. COMMANDS & EXHORTATIONS, WISHES 72 21.3. Prospective Conditions 88
21.4. Potential Conditions 89
14.1. Directives (Commands and Exhortations) 72
21.5. Counterfactual Conditions 89
14.2. Wishes 73
21.6. Habitual Conditions 90
15. INTRODUCTION TO SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 75 21.7. Some Additional Comments 90
21.8. Overview of Conditionals 92
15.1. Predicates, Subordination and Clauses 75
15.2. Types of Subordinate Clause 76 22. RELATIVE CLAUSES 93
15.3. ἄν 76
16. VERBS OF FEARING AND EFFORT 77 22.2. Antecedent, Agreement, Attraction and Connection 94
22.3. Moods and Tenses in Relative Clauses 95
16.1. Verbs of Fearing and Apprehension 77
16.2. Verbs of Effort, Precaution and Contriving 78 23. OVERVIEW OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 97
16.3. Some Additional Comments 78
24. PARTICLES 99
17. TEMPORAL CLAUSES 79
24.2. Particles that Play a Role in Structuring a Text 99
17.2. Temporal Clauses Referring to the Present or Past 80
24.3. Particles of Scope 103
17.3. Temporal Clauses Referring to the Future 80
24.4. Interactional Particles 104
17.4. Temporal Clauses Referring to a Habitual Occurrence 81
17.5. ἕως 81 25. NEGATIVES 107
17.6. πρίν 82 25.1. Introduction 107
25.2. Multiple Negatives 107
18. CAUSAL CLAUSES 83
25.3. In Main Clauses 108
18.1. Introduction 83 25.4. In Questions 108
18.2. The Causal Use of Temporal Clauses 83 25.5. With Infinitives 108
18.3. ὅτι and διότι 83 25.6. With Participles 109
25.7. In Subordinate Clauses 109
19. PURPOSE CLAUSES 84
19.1. Introduction 84 26. ὡς 110
19.2. Construction of Purpose Clauses 84 26.1. As a Conjunction 110
26.2. As an Adverb 110
20. RESULT CLAUSES 85
26.3. As a Preposition 111
20.2. Construction of Result Clauses 85
20.2.1. With the moods of independent sentences 85
20.2.2. With the infinitive 86
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1. AGREEMENT
1.1. SUBJECT - FINITE VERB
Basic rule: a finite verb agrees in person and number with its subject:
ἡ ναῦς ἀνάγεται the ship is setting out (third person singular)
αἱ νῆες ἀνάγονται the ships are setting out (third person plural)
ἡμεῖς ἀναγόμεθα we are setting out (first person plural)
! Note:
If the role of the finite verb is preformed by a periphrastic construction with a participle, tbat participle agrees in
case (nominative), number and gender with the subject (see §1.2 below):
πυθόμενος δὲ ὅτι αἱ τῶν Πελοποννησίων νῆες ἐξ Ἀβύδου ἀνηγμέναι εἶεν ... (Xenophon, Hellenica 1.1.11)
But when he learned that the Peloponnesian ships were on their way (had set out) from Abydus, ...
There are various exceptions to the basic rule:

- The verb may agree with the meaning of the subject rather than its grammatical form (the so-called
construction κατὰ σύνεσιν or ad sensum (‘according to sense’)); for example, when the subject is
singular but refers to a collective, the verb may be plural in form:
τοιαῦτα ἀκούσασα ἡ πόλις Ἀγησίλαον εἵλοντο βασιλέα. (Xenophon, Hellenica 3.3.4)
The city, when it had heard such arguments, elected Agesilaus king.
ἅμα δὲ ἕῳ γιγνομένῃ καὶ ὁ ἄλλος στρατὸς ἀπέβαινον. (Thucydides 4.32.2)
At daybreak the rest of the army disembarked as well.
- When the subject is neuter plural, the verb is usually singular (but the plural form of the verb may
be used to emphasise the fact that the subject consists of various individual members):
δειλὸς ... οὐδεὶς ἂν ἐπισήμοις ὅπλοις χρήσαιτο, εἰδὼς ὅτι τὴν δειλίαν αὐτοῦ ἐκφαίνει τὰ ὅπλα. (Antisthenes, fr. 14.4)
No coward would use weapons typical of a coward, knowing that the weapons expose his cowardice.
ἐπεὶ ἤρξαντο καταβαίνειν ... πρὸς τοὺς ἄλλους ἔνθα τὰ ὅπλα ἔκειντο. (Xenophon, Anabasis 4.2.20)
When they began to descend towards the others, where they were halted under arms (lit.: ‘where their weapons lay’).
- When the subject is dual, the verb may be either dual or plural:
αἵρεσιν εἱλέτην τε καὶ διεπράξαντο. (Plato, Phaedrus 256c)
[The two of them] made a choice and executed it.
- When there are multiple subjects, the verb will either be plural (when all subjects are viewed as
equally important) or singular (agreeing with the most important subject). The same holds in cases
where one of the subjects is a first or second person (the person of the verb changes accordingly):
Εὐρυμέδων καὶ Σοφοκλῆς ἀφικόμενοι ἐς Κέρκυραν ἐστράτευσαν ἐπὶ τοὺς ... (Thucydides 4.46.1)
After their arrival in Corcyra, Eurymedon and Sophocles made an attack on ...
ἔλεγε ὁ Στυφων καὶ οἱ μετ’ αὐτοῦ ὅτι ... (Thucydides 4.38.2)
Styphon said, as did his company, that ...
οὐ σὺ μόνος οὐδὲ οἱ σοὶ φίλοις πρῶτοι ταύτην δόξαν ἔσχετε ... (Plato, Laws 661b)
You and your friends are not the first to have ...
πάρειμι καὶ ἐγὼ καὶ οὗτος Φρυνίσκος καὶ Πολυκράτης ... (Thucydides 4.38.2)
I am present, and so are this man Phryniscus and Polycrates ...
4
1. Agreement
1.2. NOUN - ADJECTIVE/PRONOUN
Basic rule: an adjective (participle, pronoun) agrees in case, number and gender with the noun it refers
to. This is true regardless of the position of the adjective (‘attributive’ or ‘predicative’, see §2.2):
ὁ σοφὸς ἀνήρ the wise man (nominative singular masculine)
τοῖς σοφοῖς ἀνδράσιν to the wise men (dative plural masculine)
ἡ σοφὴ γυνή the wise woman (nominative singular feminine)
ἡ γυνή σοφὴ (ἐστιν) The woman is wise. (nominative singular feminine, predicative position)
τούτων τῶν γυναικῶν of those wise women (genitive plural feminine, pronoun in predicative position)

- An adjective in predicative position which agrees with a masculine or feminine abstract noun may
stand in the neuter (especially in proverbs, general truths, etc.):
καλὸν μὲν ἡ σωφροσύνη τε καὶ δικαιοσύνη, χαλεπὸν μέντοι καὶ ἐπίπονον. (Plato, Republic 364a)
Temperance and justness are a beautiful thing, yet difficult and laborious.
- A demonstrative pronoun followed by a predicate noun generally agrees with that noun, but may
also stand in the neuter (see also §3.2):
παρὰ τῶν προγεγενημένων μανθάνετε· αὕτη γὰρ ἀρίστη διδασκαλία. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 8.7.24)
Learn from what happened before, for that is the best source of teaching.
τοῦτ’ ἐστιν ἡ δικαιοσύνη. (Plato, Republic 432b)
This is what we call justice.
! Note:
A demonstrative pronoun or form of αὐτός referring back to an antecedent (‘anaphoric’ use, see §§3.1-2) is very
frequently formed according to the meaning rather than the grammatical form of that antecedent (κατὰ σύνεσιν, see
§1.1 above):
ἐκκλησίαν ποιήσας παρεκελεύετο αὐτοῖς ὅτι ... (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 3.3.14)
After calling an assembly of his men, he recommended to them that...
1.3. ANTECEDENT - RELATIVE PRONOUN
Basic rule: a relative pronoun agrees in number and gender with its antecedent, but its case is
determined by its syntactical function in the relative clause (see §22.2):
ἡ ναῦς, ἥ ἀνάγεται the ship which is putting out to sea
singular and feminine as the antecedent, nominative according to the function in the relative clause (subject).
ἡ ναῦς, ἣν ὁρᾷς the ships are putting out to sea (third person plural).
singular and feminine as the antecedent, accusative according to the function in the relative clause (object).

- The construction κατὰ σύνεσιν (see §1.1 above) is very frequent with relative pronouns:
... ἀπὸ Πελοποννήσου παρεσομένης ὠφελίας, οἳ τῶνδε κρείσσους εἰσὶ. (Thucydides 6.80.1)
... as help will come from the Peloponnesians (lit.: ‘from the Peloponnese’), who are stronger than these men.
- For relative attraction, see §22.2.
5
1. Agreement
1.4. APPOSITION
Apposition is the placement of two words or word groups (usually nouns) parallel to each other, one
(the ‘appositive’) defining or modifying the other. The appositive agrees in case with the word it
belongs to, but has its own number and gender:
Θῆβαι, πόλις ἀστυγείτων (Aeschines 3.133)
Thebes, our neighbouring city
τὴν θυγατέρα, δεινόν τι κάλλος καὶ μέγεθος ... ἐξάγων ὧδ᾽ εἶπεν· ... (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 5.2.7)
He brought out his daughter, an impressive creature in beauty and stature, and spoke as follows: ...
A few special cases should be noted:

- An appositive to a possessive pronoun (or an adjective equivalent to a possessive) stands in the
genitive:
τὸν ἐμὸν τοῦ ταλαιπώρου βίον (Plato, Republic 364a)
the life of me, miserable me
Ἀθηναῖος ὤν, πόλεως τῆς μεγίστης (Plato, Apology 29d)
being a citizen of Athens (lit.: ‘an Athenian’), the greatest city
- An appositive to a whole clause or sentence usually stands in the accusative (occasionally the
nominative):
... ἐπιθυμίας ... ἐπιχειροῦντα πληροῦν, ἀνήνυτον κακόν. (Plato, Gorgias 507e)
... while attempting to satisfy his desires — an unceasing evil.
βιαζόμεθα ..., | πόλει τ᾽ ὄνειδος καὶ θεῶν ἀτιμία. (Euripides, Heraclidae 71-2)
We are victims of violence — a disgrace to the city and insult to the gods.
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2. THE ARTICLE
2.1. MEANING OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
English has an indefinite and a definite article:

The student went to university and attended a Greek syntax class.
Greek only has a definite article (ὁ, ἡ, τό). The Greek equivalent of an indefinite article is the lack of
an article.
The article is ‘definite’ because it refers to something that is defined, or ‘identifiable’. In other words,
the article expresses that it is clear whom/what is meant, and that it can be distinguished from other
people/things:
ὁ ἥλιος the sun
ἡ νύξ night (generally) / the night (which was mentioned previously or is well known)
ὁ ἄνθρωπος man (as a species) / the man (who was mentioned previously or is well known)
οἱ λέοντες lions (as a species) / the lions (which were mentioned previously, etc.)
When something is mentioned for the first time, it will normally be without the article. When it has
been mentioned before or is well known, it is identifiable and therefore gets the article:
ἀλώπηξ καὶ πάρδαλις περὶ κάλλους ἤριζον. τῆς δὲ παρδάλεως ... τὴν τοῦ σώματος ποικιλίαν προβαλλομένης
ἡ ἀλώπηξ ὑποτυχοῦσα ἔφη· ... (Aesopus 12.1)
A fox and a leopard were engaged in a beauty contest. While the leopard was making his case with the
speckled fur on his body, the fox interrupted and said: ...
ὁ δὲ κολωνός ἐστι ἐν τῇ ἐσόδῳ, ὅκου νῦν ὁ λίθονος λέων ἕστηκε ἐπὶ Λεωνίδῃ. (Herodotus 7.225.2)
The hill is at the mouth (of the pass), where the (famous) stone lion dedicated to Leonidas now stands.
A species or class in its entirety is also identifiable and gets the article. This use is called ‘generic’:
πονηρὸν ὁ συκοφάντης an informant is a vile thing
ὁ ἀγαθὸς ἀνήρ τιμᾶται good men are held in esteem
Abstract nouns (identifiable as a discrete concept) usually take the article:

ἡ σωφροσύνη καὶ ἡ δικαιοσύνη ... καὶ αὐτὴ ἡ φρόνησις μὴ καθαρμός τις ᾖ. (Plato, Phaedo 69c)
Restraint and justice and wisdom itself may well be some form of purification. (For μή ... ᾖ, see §7.7.3.)
ἡ ἀρετὴ μᾶλλον ἢ ἡ φυγὴ σῴζει τὰς ψυχάς. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 4.1.5)
Valour rather than flight saves lives.
The principle ‘article = identifiable’ is also valid for words that are in apposition. If an appositive has
an article, it means that the word(s) to which it is appended is/are identifiable:
Ἑκαταῖος δ' ὁ λογοποιὸς (...) οὐκ ἔα πόλεμον βασιλέϊ τῷ Περσέων ἀναιρέεσθαι. (Herodotus 5.36.2)
But Hecataeus the historian advised them not to start a war against the king of Persia.
Θουκυδίδης Ἀθηναῖος ξυνέγραψε τὸν πόλεμον τῶν Πελοποννησίων καὶ Ἀθηναίων. (Thucydides 1.1.1)
Thucydides, an Athenian, has recorded the war between the Peloponnesians and the Athenians.
In the first example, the addition of ὁ λογοποιός distinguishes this Hecataeus from others with the same
name. In the second example, Thucydides introduces himself for the first time to his readers; Θουκυδίδης ὁ
Ἀθηναῖος would have meant ‘Thucydides the Athenian’ (already known as such).
7
2. The Article
The article can stand where English would use a possessive pronoun, when there is no doubt as to the
possessor:
περὶ τούτων γὰρ ὑμεῖς νυνὶ τὴν ψῆφον οἴσετε. (Demosthenes 40.61)
For about those things you will now cast your vote.
Κῦρος καταπηδήσας ἀπὸ τοῦ ἅρματος τὸν θώρηκα ἐνέδυ. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.8.3)
Cyrus stepped off his chariot and put on his breastplate.
The article will make any word or words to which it is prefixed into a noun:
- Adjectives:
ὁ σοφός the wise man
τὸ δίκαιον justice
- Participles (in any case, number, tense, voice), often with the generic article — ‘whoever’ (see §10.3):
ὁ τυχών any chance comer
οἱ τεθνηκότες the dead
( ...), ὅπως ὦσι καὶ οἱ ποιήσοντες ἡμῖν τὰ ἐπιτήδεια. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 4.2.40)
..., so that we have people to provide (lit.: ‘who will make provisions) for us as well.
- Infinitives (translate with an English gerund):
τὸ ὑπὸ ἡδονῶν ἄρχεσθαι
(the) being led by pleasures
ἐνικήσαμεν τῷ λέγειν.
We have conquered through speaking.
- Adverbs:
οἱ ἔνδον the people inside
οἱ πάλαι the people of long ago, ‘our forebears’
- Prepositional phrases:
οἱ ἐπὶ τῶν πραγμάτων
those in power (the government)
οἱ ἐν τῇ ἡλικίᾳ
those in the prime of their youth
- Whole clauses:
Τὸ γνῶθι σαυτὸν πανταχοῦ ’στι χρήσιμον. (Menander, Sententiae 1.730)
The saying ‘know yourself’ is useful on every occasion.
! Note:
In quite a few cases Greek uses the article where English would not (e.g. the generic article, abstract nouns, etc.). In
Greek prose, the lack of an article is usually significant and should not be overlooked when translating into
English.
! Note:
Proper names (of people and places) will normally not take an article the first time they are mentioned (unless the
person or place is considered extremely well-known). Even after the first mention, the article is often omitted.
! Note:
πολλοί = ‘many’; οἱ πολλοί = ‘the majority’, ‘the mass’.
8
2. The Article
2.2. POSITION OF THE ARTICLE AND ADJECTIVAL PHRASES
When a noun with the article is combined with an adjectival phrase, the words can be placed in two
ways:
- ‘Attributive’ position of the adjective (the adjectival phrase is directly preceded by the article) — in
this case, the adjective is presented as an attribute or characteristic belonging very closely to the
noun:
ὁ δίκαιος ἀνήρ
ὁ ἀνήρ ὁ δίκαιος the just man
ἀνὴρ ὁ δίκαιος (rare)
- ‘Predicative’ position of the adjective (the adjectival phrase stands outside the article-noun
combination) — in this case, the adjective is used to say something about the noun in relation to the
rest of the sentence (in English, understand a form of ‘to be’ or translate as an adverb):
δίκαιος ὁ ἀνήρ the man is just, or:
ὁ ἀνήρ δίκαιος the man, being just, ...
! Note:
The predicative position is used when an adjectival phrase or noun is used as predicate after a form of ‘to be’, ‘to
become’, ‘to be called’, ‘to be judged’, etc.: hence the translation ‘the man is just’ above (ἐστι is elided); compare ὁ
ἀνὴρ δίκαιος καλεῖται = ‘the man is called just’ (not *ὁ δίκαιος ἀνὴρ καλεῖται).
! Note:
In attributive position, the adjective will as a rule preceed the noun only when it expresses the most important
aspect of the combined noun-adjective phrase. Thus, when you are saying something about a man who happens to
be just, ὁ ἀνὴρ ὁ δίκαιος is the normal order; when the justness of the man is the entire reason for his being
mentioned (e.g. when a just man is being contrasted with an unjust one), we find ὁ δίκαιος ἀνήρ. The order ἀνήρ ὁ
δίκαιος is very rare, and occurs when the adjective provides additional information needed to identify the man.
Adjectives in predicative position must be translated differently from those in attributive position:
τὴν ἀθάνατον περὶ αὐτῶν μνήμην καταλείψουσιν.
They will leave behind the immortal memory of themselves.
τὴν περὶ αὐτῶν μνήμην ἀθάνατον καταλείψουσιν. (Isocrates 9.3)
They will leave behind the memory of themselves to be immortal.
This is especially important with participles (see §§10.2-3):
ὁρῶ τὸν νοσοῦντα ἄνδρα.
I see the sick man.
ὁρῶ τὸν ἄνδρα νοσοῦντα.
I see that the man is sick.
Note also the different interpretation of prepositional phrases:
αἱ ἐν τῇ πόλει γυναῖκες τρέχουσιν.
The women in the city are running.
αἱ γυναῖκες ἐν τῇ πόλει τρέχουσιν.
The women are running in the city.
9
2. The Article
Some words always take the predicative position:

οὗτος this ἕκαστος each
ὅδε this (here) ἑκάτερος each of two
ἐκεῖνος that (there) ἀμφότερος both
The distinction between attributive and predicative position is not made when the ‘adjectival phrase’ is
another noun in the genitive:
ὁ τῶν Ἀθηναίων δῆμος
ὁ δῆμος ὁ τῶν Ἀθηναίων
δῆμος ὁ τῶν Ἀθηναίων (rare) the people of Athens
ὁ δῆμος τῶν Ἀθηναίων
τῶν Ἀθηναίων ὁ δῆμος
However, partitive genitives (see §4.2.2) are always in predicative position, and genitives of personal
pronouns (μου, σου, αὐτοῦ, etc.) used as a possessive (see §3.3) always follow their noun in predicative
position:
οἱ πλούσιοι τῶν πολιτῶν the rich among the citizens
τούτων οἱ πλεῖστοι the majority of them
τὸ βιβλίον αὐτοῦ his book
When used as a possessive, the genitives of demonstrative pronouns (τοῦδε, τούτου, ἐκείνου, etc., see
§3.2), of the reflexive pronoun (ἐμαυτοῦ, etc., see §3.5), and of the reciprocal pronoun (ἀλλήλων, see
§3.6) always stand in attributive position:
τὸ ταύτης βιβλίον her book
τὸ ἑαυτοῦ βιβλίον his own book
τὸ ἀλλήλων βιβλίον their mutual book
The word πᾶς (and ἁπᾶς, συμπᾶς) in the singular means ‘(as a) whole’ when it stands with the article
(usually in predicative position). Without the article, it usually means ‘each/every’:
πᾶσα πόλις each/every city (sometimes: an entire city)
πᾶσα ἡ πόλις / ἡ πόλις πᾶσα the whole city (which was mentioned before, is well known, etc.)
In the plural, it means ‘each/every/all’, with emphasis on the collective nature of the group if the form of
πᾶς is in attributive position:
πᾶσαι πόλεις each/every city, all cities
πᾶσαι αἱ πόλεις/αἱ πόλεις πᾶσαι all the cities (which were mentioned before, are well known, etc.)
αἱ πᾶσαι πόλεις the whole group of cities, the cities collectively
Adjectives that determine a location, such as ἀκρός (‘high’); μέσος (‘middle’); ἔσχατος (‘utmost’,
‘extreme’), have different meanings when in attributive or predicative position:
ἐν τῇ μέσῃ ἀγορᾷ in the middle marketplace (of three or more)
ἐν μέσῃ τῇ ἀγορᾷ in the middle of the marketplace
εἰς τὸ ὄρος τὸ ἄκρον to the high mountain
εἰς τὸ ὄρος ἄκρον to the top of the mountain
10
2. The Article
2.3. PRONOMINAL USES OF THE ARTICLE
In Classical Greek, the article normally does not have the force of a pronoun (as it does in Homer), with
two exceptions:
- The article, without a noun, is combined with the particles μέν and δέ to contrast individuals,
groups, etc.:
ὁ μέν ... ὁ δέ ‘the one ... the other ...’
οἱ μέν ... οἱ δέ ‘some ... others ...’
τὸ μέν ... τὸ δέ ‘on the one hand ... on the other hand ...’
- ὁ δέ (‘but he’, ‘and he’) at the start of a sentence (‘topic switch’): the article with δέ is here used to
refer back to someone or something mentioned in the previous sentence who was not the ‘topic’ (the
person or thing a clause is ‘about’ — usually the subject) of that sentence. That person or thing
becomes the topic of the new sentence:
Σίμων οὑτοσὶ ... εἷλκε τὸ μειράκιον. ὁ δὲ ῥίψας τὸ ἱμάτιον ᾤχετο φεύγων. (Lysias 3.12)
Simon here was dragging the boy along. He, however, flung off his cloak and ran away.
ἐγὼ τὴν γυναῖκα ἀπιέναι ἐκέλευον ... ἡ δὲ τὸ μὲν πρῶτον οὐκ ἤθελεν ... (Lysias 1.12)
I was telling my wife to go away, but she, at first, did not want to.
The first sentences are ‘about’ Simon and the ‘I’, respectively, but mention other people involved (the boy, the
wife); in the second sentences, these others are the new ‘topics’ and are referred to by article + δέ.
! Note:
καὶ ὅς (acc. καὶ τόν) means the same as ὁ δέ (topic shift); ὃς καὶ ὅς (acc. τὸν καὶ τόν) = ‘such and such’; πρὸ τοῦ =
‘previously’.
11
3. PRONOUNS
3.1. THE THREE USES OF THE ‘INTENSIVE’ PRONOUN αὐτός
In predicative position or by itself, αὐτός means ‘self’:

τῶν δὲ μαρτύρων ἀκηκόατε, οἳ παρῆσαν τῷ παροινοῦντι αὐτῷ. (Antiphon 4.1.7)
You have heard the testimony of the witnesses, who were present with the drunkard himself.
αὐτοὶ τὴν γῆν ἔσχον. (Thucydides 1.114)
They themselves seized the land.
In attributive position (always with the article), αὐτός means ‘the same’:
ἆρ’ ἐς τὸν αὐτὸν πίτυλον ἥκομεν φόβου; (Euripides, Heracles 816)
Have we become victims of the same attack of fear?
τὰ αὐτὰ ταῦτα
These same things
Forms of αὐτός are used to represent the oblique cases of the personal pronoun in the third person (‘him’,
‘her’, ‘it’). The form of αὐτός always refers back to someone or something introduced before (this is called
‘anaphoric’):
οὐ γὰρ δήπου ψεύδεταί γε· οὐ γὰρ θέμις αὐτῷ. (Plato, Apology 21b)
For I suppose that he is not lying, at any rate, since that is not allowed to him.
οὐκ ἐπιλέλησμαι αὐτοῦ.
I have not forgotten him.
Some idiomatic translations of αὐτός, ‘self’:

- ‘By itself’, ‘in itself’, ‘unaided’, ‘alone’, ‘bare’:
αὐτὴ ἡ ἀλήθεια the naked truth
- ‘Just’, ‘merely’:
αὐτὰ τάδε merely these things
- ‘With ... and all’ (with the dative of accompaniment, see §4.3.3):
εἶπεν ἥκειν εἰς τὰς τάξεις αὐτοῖς στεφάνοις. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 3.3.40)
He told them to come to their posts with crowns and all
- ‘With ... others’ (with ordinals):
μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα πέμπτος αὐτὸς ... προῆγε. (Polybius 8.19.8)
After that, he led onwards with four others (lit.: ‘himself the fifth’).
! Note:
Be mindful of the close look-alikes αὐτή/αὕτη and αὐταί/αὕται !
12
3. Pronouns
3.2. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS (ὅδε, οὗτος, ἐκεῖνος)
The three demonstrative pronouns can either stand by themselves or as an adjectival pronoun with nouns. In
the latter case, they all normally take the article, and predicative position (see §2.2):
ὅδε / ὅδε ὁ ἀνήρ this man (here)
οὗτος / οὗτος ὁ ἀνήρ this man
ἐκεῖνος / ἐκεῖνος ὁ ἀνήρ that man (there)
Their meanings differ as follows:

- ὄδε refers to something immediately near/present to the speaker (physically or mentally). It is used in
Tragedy to announce characters coming onstage. It can even (in poetry) refer to the speaker himself. You
can almost always imagine the speaker/writer pointing at something or someone:
καὶ οὕτω καταφρονεῖς τῶνδε καὶ οἴει αὐτοὺς ἀπείρους γραμμάτων εἶναι; (Plato, Apology 26d7)
Do you so despise these gentlemen and think that they are so unversed in letters?
ἀλλ’ ὅδε βασιλεὺς χωρεῖ. (Sophocles, Antigone 155)
But here comes the king.
τῆσδέ γε ζώσης ἔτι ... (Sophocles, Trachiniae 305)
While I still live.
- οὗτος refers to something near to the speaker (physically or mentally). One of its most frequent uses is to
refer to something just mentioned (‘anaphoric’ use). It is used sometimes to refer to celebrated, famous
people/things, and (very infrequently) to address someone (‘you there’):
εἰσιν οὗτοι οἱ κατήγοροι πολλοὶ καὶ πολὺν χρόνον ἤδη κατηγορηκότες. (Plato, Apology 18c4)
These accusers (just mentioned) are many and have been making their accusations already for a long time.
Γοργίας οὗτος (Plato, Hippias Major 282)
The famous Gorgias
οὗτος, τί ποιεῖς. (Aristophanes, Frogs 198)
You there, what are you doing?
- ἐκεῖνος refers to something relatively remote from the speaker (physically or mentally):
[ἔδοξε μοι] αὐτῶν αὕτη ἡ πλημμέλεια ἐκείνην τὴν σοφίαν ἀποκρύπτειν. (Plato, Apology 22d8)
This folly (just mentioned) of theirs also seemed to me to obscure that wisdom.
As a general rule of thumb, οὗτος refers to what precedes (‘anaphoric’), and ὅδε refers to what follows
(‘cataphoric’):
ταῦτα εἴπων ... having said these things ...
... εἶπε τάδε· ... he said the following: ...
There are, however, many exceptions to this rule (οὗτος may refer forward, ὅδε backward).
When referring back to two persons/groups/things just mentioned, ‘the former... the latter...’ in Greek is
represented by ‘ἐκεῖνος... οὗτος/ὅδε’ (but also often simply by ‘ὁ μέν... ὁ δέ’, see §2.3):
καὶ ὑμεῖς ἐκείνων πρότερον ἠκούσατε κατηγορούντων καὶ πολὺ μᾶλλον ἢ τῶνδε τῶν ὕστερον. (Plato, Apology 18e3)
And you have heard the former make their accusations earlier and with much more vehemence than these men here
who accused me later. (Socrates has just distinguished two groups among his accusers.)
13
3. Pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun will either agree with a noun predicated of it, or stand in the neuter (see §1.2):
εἰ δὲ τις ταύτην εἰρήνην ὑπολαμβάνει ... (Demosthenes 9.9)
But if anyone understands that to be peace, ...
οὐχ ὕβρις ταῦτ’ ἐστί; (Aristophanes, Frogs 21)
Is that not insolence?
3.3. PERSONAL PRONOUNS (ἐγώ, σύ, X; ἡμεῖς, ὑμεῖς, X)
Personal pronouns are either contrastive (‘emphatic’) or non-contrastive:

Contrastive: ἐγω, ἐμέ, ἐμοῦ, ἐμοί; σύ, σέ, σοῦ, σοί
Non-contrastive: με, μου, μοι; σε, σου, σοι (the nominative does not exist)
The contrastive pronouns are used almost exclusively in contrastive emphasis (when a specific distinction is
made between two people/groups).
! Note:
Non-contrastive personal pronouns are ‘enclitics’: they have no accent of their own (but can get one from a following
enclitic or the preceding word), and cannot stand first in a clause, or in the word-group they belong to.
In the nominative, the personal pronoun is used only in contrastive emphasis. Normally the person-ending
of the verb is sufficient (the personal pronoun is omitted):
ἐπαίδευσας τοὺς παιδάς.
You have educated the children.
ἐπεὶ ὑμεῖς οὐ θέλετε πείθεσθαι, ἐγὼ σὺν ὑμῖν ἕψομαι. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.6)
Since you do not wish to be persuaded, I will follow you.
In the oblique cases (accusative, genitive, dative), the non-contrastive pronouns are used unless there is
contrastive emphasis.
οὕτω μὲν ἃ κατηγόρηταί μου πάντα ἄπιστά ἐστιν. (Antiphon 3.10)
As such, the things of which I stand accused are all false.
τί μᾶλλον ἐμοῦ σὺ ταῦτα κατηγορεῖς ἢ ἐγὼ σοῦ; (Demosthenes 18.196)
Why do you accuse me of these things rather than I you?
There is no personal pronoun for the third person. In the nominative, when a form is required for
contrastive emphasis, a demonstrative pronoun or a nominative of αὐτός (‘he himself’) is used:
[λέγει] ὡς εἰσὶν οἵδε μὲν πλούσιοι, αὐτὸς δὲ πένης (Isaeus 6.59)
He says that these men are rich, but he himself is poor.
In the oblique cases (accusative, genitive, dative), the role of non-contrastive third-person pronouns is
performed by forms of αὐτός (see §3.1).
! Note:
In Homer, there are still non-contrastive third-person pronoun forms in the oblique cases: ἑ/μιν, ἑο, οἱ; σφε, σφων, σφιν,
etc. In Herodotus: εὑ, οἱ, ἑ/μιν; σφεας, σφεων, σφισι. In Tragedy, μιν and νιν are frequently found for the accusative third
person.
14
3. Pronouns
3.4. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS (ἐμός, σός, X; ἡμέτερος, ὑμέτερος, X)
The possessive pronouns mean exactly the same thing as the genitives of personal pronouns. So:
Possessive Personal
ἐμός = μου
σός = σου
ἡμέτερος = ἡμῶν
ὑμέτερος = ὑμῶν
Of these, the possessives usually take attributive position, the genitives of the personal pronoun always take
the predicative position following the noun (see §2.2):
ὁ ἐμὸς φίλος / ὁ φίλος ὁ ἐμός
my friend
ὁ φίλος μου
There is no possessive pronoun for the third person. Instead, we find the genitive of αὐτός (in predicative
position) or the genitive of demonstratives (in attributive position) (see §2.2):
Ὁ γὰρ πατὴρ αὐτῆς Ἱππόνικος ... τὸν πατέρα τὸν ἐμὸν κηδεστὴν ἐπεθύμησε ποιήσασθαι. (Isocrates 16.31)
For her father Hipponicus set his heart upon making my father related to him by marriage.
τὰ ταύτης χρὴματα
her money
! Note:
In Homer, there is still a possessive pronoun for the third person: ὅς/ἑός, ἥ/ἑή, ὅν/ἑόν.
If the subject and the possessor are the same, the genitive of the reflexive pronoun (see §3.5) is often preferred
(in attributive position, see §2.2):
τὴν ἑαυτοῦ ἀδελφὴν δίδωσι Σεύθῃ. (Thucydides 2.101)
He gives his own sister in marriage to Seuthes.
Remember that when the possessor is beyond doubt, the article can suffice to express a possessive
relationship (see §2.1).
τὴν ἀδελφὴν δίδωσι αὐτῷ.
He gives his sister in marriage to him.
Possessive pronouns may have the force of a subjective or objective genitive (see §4.2.2):
φιλίᾳ τῇ ἐμῇ
out of my friendship (for someone else) / out of friendship for me
15
3. Pronouns
3.5. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS (ἐμαυτόν, σεαυτόν, ἑαυτόν/αὑτόν; ἡμᾶς

αὐτούς, ὑμᾶς αὐτούς, ἑαυτοὺς/αὑτοὺς)
The reflexive pronoun means ‘himself’, ‘herself’, etc.: the pronoun refers back to the subject of the main
clause of the sentence. When the pronoun is itself in the main clause, it is called a direct reflexive, when it is
in a subordinate clause (or accusative and infinitive construction, etc.), an indirect reflexive:
Direct: γνῶθι σεαυτόν. (Thales?/Chilon?/Solon?)
Know thyself.
Indirect: ἐβούλετο ὁ Κλέαρχος ἅπαν τὸ στράτευμα πρὸς ἑαυτὸν ἔχειν τὴν γνώμην. (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.5.29)
Clearchus wanted the entire army to be favourable to himself.
For indirect reflexives in the dative, οἱ (singular) and σφισι (plural) are occasionally found instead of the
reflexive pronoun:
ἠρώτα αὐτὴν εἰ ἐθελήσοι διακονῆσαί οἱ. (Antiphon 1.16)
He asked her if she would be willing to do him a service.
! Note:
The reflexive pronoun does not have a nominative.
Reflexive actions can also be expressed in Greek by the middle voice, but only with certain verbs pertaining to the body:
νίπτομαι = ‘I wash myself’, κείρομαι = ‘I shave (myself)’. For sentences like ‘he killed himself’ the reflexive pronoun is
required: ‘ἀπέκτεινε ἑαυτόν’ (see §4.7).
3.6. THE RECIPROCAL PRONOUN (ἀλλήλους)
The reciprocal pronoun means ‘each other’:

βασιλέωιν δ’ ὁμοσπόροιν πέπωκεν αἷμα γαῖ’ ὑπ’ ἀλλήλων φόνωι. (Aeschylus, Seven Against Thebes 812-3)
The earth is drenched with the blood of our two kings, who stem from the same stock, due to their mutual
bloodshed.
βάλλον δ’ ἀλλήλους χαλκήρεσιν ἐγχείῃσιν. (Homer, Odyssey 9.55)
They hit each other with bronze spears.
! Note:
The reciprocal pronoun does not have a nominative and is always plural.
Reciprocal actions can also be expressed in Greek by the middle voice (διελέγοντο = ‘They conversed with each other’), by
the reflexive pronoun (ἐκοπτον αὑτοὺς = they used to hit themselves/each other), and by repetition of the noun (ἄνηρ ἕλεν
ἄνδρα = men slew each other (Homer, Iliad)).
3.7. ἄλλος AND ἕτερος
Both ἄλλος, ‘other’ (of several) and ἕτερος, ‘other’ (of two) can be used by themselves or as adjectival
pronouns:
ἄλλος / ἄλλος ἀνήρ another man
ὁ ἕτερος / ὁ ἕτερος ἀνήρ the other man (of two)
16
3. Pronouns
ἕτερος is sometimes used loosely where one would expect ἄλλος (and as such it can appear without the article
which it otherwise always has): this conveys a sense of difference:
ἕτερος τις δυνάστης another (different) dignitary
ὁ ἄλλος (with the article) means ‘the rest’, ‘the other(s)’:

ἡ ἄλλη Ἕλλας the rest of Greece
οἱ ἄλλοι διδασκάλοι the other teachers / the rest of the teachers
Sometimes this is found with a noun that has to be interpreted as an appositive, in which case ἄλλος gets the
meaning: ‘besides’, ‘moreover’:
παρεκάλεσαν ... τοὺς ὁπλίτας καὶ τοὺς ἄλλους ἱππέας. (Xenophon, Hellenica 2.4.9)
They summoned the hoplites and the cavalry besides (=‘and the others, namely the cavalry’).
ἄλλος followed by another form of ἄλλος expressed the same as English ‘different... different’, or a twofold
statement ‘one.... one, another... another’:
οὗτοι μέν, ὦ Κλέαρχε, ἄλλος ἄλλα λέγει. σὺ δ’ ἡμῖν εἰπὲ τί λέγεις. (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.1.16)
As for them, Clearchus, one says one thing and another says another. You must tell us what your opinion is.
ἐὰν μέντοι ἀναμιμνῃσκόμενος ἄλλο ἄλλοθεν λέγω, μηδὲν θαυμάσῃς. (Plato, Symposium 215a)
Still, if in my reminiscences I mention different things from different sources, you ought not in any way be
surprised.
3.8. THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN (τις)
The indefinite pronoun τις (‘some’, ‘a(n)’) refers to someone/something that is not identifiable as a specific
individual, in other words, when the word it modifies could refer to any number of people/things. τις can be
used by itself or as an adjectival pronoun with nouns:
λέγει τις someone says
ἀνήρ τις λέγει some man says
The indefinite pronoun can convey a ‘collective’ sense, where ‘someone’ is short for ‘every someone’ (cf.
German ‘man’, French ‘on’). The combinations πᾶς τις and ἕκαστός τις are also found with this meaning:
ἀλλὰ μισεῖ τις ἐκεῖνον but people detest that man
ἀλλὰ μισεῖ πᾶς τις ἐκεῖνον but people (<‘every someone’) detest that man
The indefinite pronoun can be added to adverbs and numerals to weaken their force:
σχεδόν τι pretty nearly, virtually
ὀγδοήκοντά τινες roughly/around/some eighty
! Note:
The indefinite pronoun is an ‘enclitic’: it has no accent of its own (but can get one from a following enclitic or the
preceding word), and cannot stand first in a clause or in the word-group it belongs to.
17
4. CASES
4.1. MEANINGS AND LABELS
Though it is tempting to ascribe a ‘basic’ meaning to Greek cases, very often a case is used simply because it
is obligatory. For example, the verb χαλεπαίνω (be angry at) can be supplemented only by the dative; it is
pointless in such cases to think about ‘why’ there is a dative: Greek does not have any other option, the case
here has no intrinsic meaning (in general the axiom ‘having meaning implies choice’ applies).
The commonest way to talk about the various uses of the Greek cases is to use ‘labels’, like ‘of quantity’, ‘of
respect’, etc. These labels are useful, but it is important to realise that they often do not distinguish between
actually different uses, but to different ‘nuances’ of a more general function. For example, the genitive simply
expresses a close relationship between two nouns, regardless of the precise nature of that relationship:
a disease caused by a sorcerer
νόσος θελκτῆρος a disease afflicting a sorcerer
a disease ‘consisting of’ a sorcerer (?), etc.
! Note:
For a long time, the uses of a case were labelled in Latin, and you may come across the Latin names frequently. They are
given below in parentheses.
4.2. THE GENITIVE
4.2.1. As required supplement with verbs/adjectives
The genitive is the required case to supplement the following verbs (some of these also take the accusative):
αἰσθάνομαι perceive ἐπιμελ(έ)ομαι take care of, ensure
ἀκούω hear someone (+ acc. ‘hear something’) ἐφίεμαι strive, long for
ἁμαρτάνω miss ἔχομαι border on
ἀπέχω be removed from ἠγέομαι lead (+ 2x acc. ‘consider X Y’)
ἅπτομαι grab hold of, touch καταψηφίζομαι condemn, convict (+ acc.)
ἄρχω lead, rule over λήγω cease from
ἄρχομαι begin μέλει μοι ... matters to me
βασιλεύω rule over μετέχω take part in
γεύομαι taste μέμνημαι remember
δεῖ there is a lack of, ... is needed παύομαι cease from
δέομαι strive περιγίγνομαι be superior to, overcome
διαφέρω lack, need προέχω be ahead of, beat, surpass
ἐπιθυμέω long for, desire τυγχάνω happen upon
ἐπιλανθάνομαι forget φροντίζω be concerned about
18
4. Cases
It is also required, together with an accusative, with the following verbs (X marks the genitive):
αἰτιάομαι accuse (someone) of X παύω make (someone) stop with X
ἀπαλλάττω remove/release (something) from X πίμπλημι fill (something) with X
ἀποστερέω rob (someone) of X πληρόω fill (something) with X
διώκω charge (someone) with X
The following adjectives are supplemented by a genitive:

ἄξιος worth(y of) ἐνδεής lacking
ἐλεύθερος free from ἐπιστήμων knowledgeable of
ἔμπείρος experienced in ἔρημος deserted by, lacking
ἵερος consecrated to μεστός filled with
μέτοχος (taking/having) part of πλήρης filled with
The genitive of comparison (genitivus comparationis) is used to supplement comparatives (also ἤ, which is
compulsory when a genitive or dative follows – in these cases the genitive of comparison cannot be used):
πᾶς τις αὑτὸν τοῦ πέλας μᾶλλον φιλεῖ. (Euripides, Medea 86)
Every man loves himself more than his kin.
οὐδενὶ μᾶλλον πιστεύω ἢ σοί.
I trust no one more than you.
πιστεύω takes the dative; *οὐδενὶ μᾶλλον πιστεύω σοῦ is impossible.
4.2.2. With nouns (attributively)
The genitive of possession (possessivus) denotes ownership, belonging, possession, etc. It can be used with
εἰμί as predicate noun (in predicative position, see §2.2):
ἡ τοῦ πατρὸς οἰκία the house of his father
ἡ οἰκία ἐστὶ τοῦ πατρός. the house belongs to his father
The partitive genitive (also ‘of the divided whole’, partitivus) denotes a whole to which something belongs as
a part. It may be used as predicate noun (with εἰμί):
οἱ χρηστοὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων lit: the good among the people (= the good people)
ἐτύγχανε τῆς βουλῆς ὤν. he happened to be part of the council
Remember that the partitive genitive, when used with a noun, always takes predicative position: οἱ χρηστοὶ
τῶν ἀνθρώπων or τῶν ἀνθρώπων οἱ χρηστοὶ, but not *οἱ τῶν ἀνθρώπων χρηστοί or *οἱ χρηστοὶ οἱ τῶν
ἀνθρώπων (see §2.2).
The genitive of quality (qualitatis) is used (usually as a predicate) to express a certain characteristic, manner
of being, etc.:
ἐὼν τρόπου ἡσυχίου (Herodotus 1.107.2)
being of peaceful disposition
ὅσοι τῆς αὐτῆς γνώμης ἦσαν (Thucydides 1.113.2)
everyone who held the same opinion
19
4. Cases
To measure time, space, degree, age, the genitive of quantity or measure (quantitatis) can be used (usually
with numbers). It may also be used as a predicate noun:
ὀκτώ σταδίων τεῖχος a wall 8 stades in length
μέγεθος οὖσα εἴκοσι σταδίων being 20 stades in size
ἀνὴρ εἴκοσιν ἐτῶν a man 20 years of age (N.B. for ‘of age’ an expression with γεγονώς and the
accusative of duration of time is more common: εἴκοσιν ἔτη γεγονώς = (lit.) having
been born since 20 yrs. = 20 yrs. of age)
With nouns that express an action (so-called ‘action nouns’), the genitive is used for the subject or object of
that action — subjective or objective genitive (subiectivus/obiectivus):
ἡ μάχη ἡ τῶν στρατιωτῶν the battle of (fought by) the soldiers
ἡ τοῦ τείχους ποίησις. the building of the wall
ἡ τῶν πολεμίων φόβος. the fear of the enemies (ambiguous, interpretation depends on the context)
Other relations between nouns: material/contents (materiae), price/value (pretii), elaboration (explicativus),
etc.
ἡ κρηπὶς ἐστι λίθων μεγάλων the foundation consists of large blocks
χιλίων δραχμῶν δίκην φεύγω. I am defendant in a lawsuit involving a thousand drachmas
γραφὴ κλοπῆς. a charge of burglary
τὸ τῆς ἀρετῆς ὄνομα. the word ‘virtue’
4.2.3. With sentences (adverbially)
With verbs that express an emotion, the genitive of cause (causae) denotes the reason for that emotion:
στένω σε ... τῆς ἁμαρτίας. (Euripides, Hippolytus 1409)
I bewail you for your error.
The price of something is expressed in the genitive — genitive of price/value (pretii):

τῶν πόνων πολοῦσιν ἡμῖν πάντα τἀγάθ’ οἱ θεοί. (Epicharmus, fr. 287)
The gods sell us everything that is good at the price of labour.
The genitive is the case used in the genitive absolute construction (see §10.4).
For the genitive of time (temporis), the genitive of space (spatii), and the genitive of separation
(separativus), see §§5.1-2.
20
4. Cases
4.3. THE DATIVE
4.3.1. As required supplement with verbs/adjectives
The dative is the required case to supplement the following verbs:

ἀπειλέω threaten παραινέω recommend (something) to
ἀρέσκω please, satisfy πείθομαι persuade
βοηθέω help πελάζω approach
διαλέγομαι converse with πιστεύω trust, believe
εἴκω yield to, shrink from πολεμέω make war against
ἔξεστι it is possible πρέπει it is fitting
ἐπιτίθεμαι apply oneself to, attack συγγιγνώσκω forgive, pardon
ἕπομαι follow συμφέρει it profits
λυσιτελεῖ it profits, it is best φθονέω be envious of, bear ill will to
μάχομαι fight χαλεπαίνω be angry at
ὀργίζομαι get angry at χράομαι use, treat with (N.B. + gen. = lack)
It is also required, together with an accusative, with the following verbs (X marks the dative):
δίδωμι give X (something)
ἐπιτάττω order/command X (something)
ἐπιτρέπω entrust X (with something)
! Note:
ὠφελέω (‘aid’), βλάπτω (‘injure’) and μισέω (‘hate’), though similar to some of the verbs above, take an accusative!
The following adjectives are supplemented by a dative:

ἐναντίος opposite, contrary to κοινός shared with
εὔνους well-disposed towards ὅμοιος similar to, equal to
ἐχθρός hostile to, hated by φίλος friendly with, loved by
ἴσος equal to, the same as also: ὁ αὐτός the same as
The dative of the possessor (dativus possessivus) is used to supplement ‘existential’ εἰμί and γίγνομαι,
denoting possession, or immediate interest:
τοῖς πλουσίοις πολλὰ παραμύθιά φασιν εἶναι. (Plato, Republic 329e)
It is said that rich people have much comfort (lit.: ‘there is much comfort for rich people’).
Πηλείωνι δ’ ἄχος ἐγένετο. (Homer, Iliad 1.188)
Achilles came to suffer (lit.: ‘a hurt arose for the son of Peleus’).
4.3.2. With nouns (attributively)
The dative of advantage or disadvantage (see §4.3.3) can be used with action nouns (nouns that express an
action):
τὴν τοῦ θεοῦ δόσιν ὑμῖν (Plato, Apology 30d)
the god’s gift to you
21
4. Cases
The dative of agent (auctoris) is used to express the agent of a passive construction, almost exclusively with
passive verbs in the (plu)perfect and with verbal adjectives in -τέος (see §11.4):
ἐπειδὴ αὐτοῖς παρεσκεύαστο ... (Thucydides 1.46)
When preparations had been made by them, ...
οὔ σφι περιοπτέη ἐστὶ ἡ Ἑλλὰς ἀπολλυμένη. (Herodotus 7.168.1)
It is not to be endured by them that Greece is destroyed.
The dative of advantage (commodi) and disadvantage (incommodi) expresses in whose interest an action is
performed:
ἐπειδὴ αὐτοῖς οἱ βάρβαροι ἐκ τῆς χώρας ἀπῆλθον, ... (Thucydides, 1.89)
When the barbarians had left their country for them (for their benefit), ...
ἥδε ἡ ἡμέρα τοῖς Ἕλλησι μεγάλων κακῶν ἄρξει. (Thucydides 2.12)
This day will spell for the Greeks the beginning of great evils.
Very difficult to translate is the use of the so-called ethical dative (‘of feeling’, ethicus): personal pronouns of
the first or second person (μοι, ἡμῖν, σοι, ὑμῖν) can loosely express the involvement of the speaker or hearer in
the action:
μέμνησθέ μοι μὴ θορυβεῖν. (Plato, Apology 27b)
Please (for my sake), remember not to make a disturbance.
τοιοῦτον ... ὑμῖν ἐστι ἡ τυραννίς. (Herodotus 5.92.η.4)
There you have it, that is tyranny.
The dative of accompaniment (comitativus or sociativus), without preposition, is used almost exclusively
with military terminology to denote accompaniment (for other cases, a preposition is normally used):
οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι ἀπίκοντο εἴκοσι νηυσί, ... (Herodotus 5.99.1)
The Athenians arrived with 20 ships.
μίαν ναῦν ἔλαβον αὐτοῖς ἀνδράσιν. (Thucydides 4.14.1)
They captured one ship with crews and all. (For αὐτοῖς ἀνδράσιν, see §3.1.)
The dative of instrument (instrumentalis or instrumenti) expresses the instrument used in an action. Greek
does not use a preposition here (hitting someone ‘with a sword’ is never μετὰ μαχαίρας / σὺν μαχαίρᾳ):
ἵησι τῇ ἀξίνῃ he hurls his axe at him
οὐδὲν ἤνυε τούτοις he accomplished nothing by this
The dative of means (modi) expresses the ‘method by which’ or the ‘circumstances under which’:
κραυγῇ πολλῇ ἐπίασιν. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.7.4)
They will attack shouting with loud shouts.
ταῦτα ἔπραξα τῇ σῇ μὲν εὐδαιμονίῃ, τῇ ἐμεωυτοῦ δὲ κακοδαιμονίῃ. (Herodotus 1.87.3)
I have done these things for your good fortune, but to my own detriment.
22
4. Cases
The dative of cause (causae) expresses reason or cause:

ἔφερον ... οἱ ὁπλῖται ... αὐτοὶ τὰ ... σιτία, οἱ μὲν ἀπορίᾳ ἀκολούθων, οἱ δὲ ἀπιστίᾳ. (Thucydides 7.75.5)
The hoplites carried their food themselves, some for lack of servants, others from mistrust of them.
ὕβρει καὶ οὐκ οἴνῳ τοῦτο ποιῶν. (Demosthenes 21.74)
Doing this out of insolence, and not because he was drunk.
With comparatives and other expressions of comparison, the dative of measure of difference (mensurae)
expresses the degree by which one thing differs from another:
κεφαλῇ ἐλάττων a head shorter
οὐ πολλαῖς ἡμέραις ὕστερον not many days later
For the dative of time (temporis) and the dative of place (loci), see §§5.1-2.
4.4. THE ACCUSATIVE
4.4.1. As required supplement with verbs
The accusative is the standard case for the direct object with transitive verbs.
! Note:
There are quite a few verbs that take a direct object in Greek, but not in English! Some examples:
αἰσχύνομαι be ashamed of (also with dative) ὄμνυμι swear by
εὖ λέγω speak well of (‘be spoken well of’ = εὖ ἀκούω) φοβέομαι be afraid of
λανθάνω go unnoticed by φυλάττομαι be on guard against
The following verbs take a direct object and another supplement in the accusative (‘double accusative’):
αἰτέω ask/demand X from Y κρύπτω hide X from Y
ἀφαιρέομαι take X from Y ποιέω do X to Y
διδάσκω teach X to Y
The following verbs also get double accusatives, but the second supplement is a predicate in the accusative
(when these verbs are put in the passive, both supplements are put in the nominative, see §8.2):
αἰρέομαι appoint/select X to be Y καλέω name/call X Y
ἠγέομαι think/consider X to be Y λέγω name/call X Y
καθίστημι install X as Y νομίζω think/consider X to be Y
The accusative is used in the accusative and infinitive, the accusative absolute and accusative and
participle constructions (see §§9.2-3, 10.2, 10.4, 11.3).
23
4. Cases
4.4.2. Internal object
With verbs that normally do not get an object (intransitive verbs), an accusative can be added to further
specify the action. This accusative is usually modified by an adjective, and is always of kindred meaning
and/or lexical origin with the verb form. This accusative is variously called ‘internal’ or ‘cognate’:
ξυνέφυγε τὴν φυγήν he shared in their exile (lit.: ‘he fled the flight with them’)
πολλὴν φλυαρίαν φλυαρῶν talking a lot of nonsense (lit.: ‘talking nonsense a lot of nonsense’)
ἐτριηράρχησε τριηραρχίας he performed the duty of trierarch on several occasions
μακρὰν ὁδὸν ἰέναι to go a long way
ἠσθένησε ταύτην τὴν νόσον he fell ill of this disease
Occasionally, the noun in the accusative is omitted:
τοῦτον μὲν ἀνέκραγον ὡς ὀλίγας παίσειεν. (Xenophon, Anabasis 5.8.12)
They shouted that he had given that man too few blows. (ὀλίγας i.e. πληγάς.)
With the noun omitted, the adjective is often put in the neuter and takes on the force of an adverb; this is the
so-called adverbial accusative (adverbialis):
ἡδὺ γελᾶν laugh sweetly
οὐδέν in no way
πολύ very, highly, much
πολλά often, frequently
With intransitive verbs, passive verbs, and adjectives, the accusative of respect (accusativus respectus or
limitationis) specifies the thing in respect to which the verb or adjective is limited (‘as concerns ...’, ‘in respect
to’)):
ἀλγεῖ τοὺς πόδας he has a pain in his feet (=‘his feet hurt’)
δαφέρει γυνὴ ἀνδρὸς τὴν φύσιν man and woman differ by nature
ποταμὸς εὖρος δύο πλέθρων a river two plethra wide
τὸν πλῆξ’ αὐχένα (Homer) he smote him on the neck (τόν = ‘him’; part-whole relations like this one may
be expressed by the accusative of respect - also with transitive active verbs like
here)
For the accusative of extent (duration of time, distance travelled), and for the terminal accusative (of
direction, in poetry), see §§5.1-2:
4.4.4. Apposition to a sentence
When an apposition is added to an entire sentence, it normally stands in the accusative (see §1.4):
Ἐλένην κτάνωμεν, Μενέλεῳ λύπην πίκραν. (Euripides, Orestes 1105)
Let us slay Helen; a sore grief to Menelaus!
ἄλλαι δὲ θύρσους ἵεσαν δι’ αἰθέρος Πένθεως, στόχον δύστηνον. (Euripides, Bacchae 1099)
And other women threw their thyrsus staves through the air at Pentheus, a woeful aiming.
24
5. TIME AND SPACE
5.1. TEMPORAL MODIFIERS
t t t
Genitive Dative Accusative

time within which time when time during which (extent)
Prepositions that can have temporal meaning (the commonest ones in bold): ἀμφί, ἀνά, ἀπό, διά, εἰς, ἐκ, ἐν,
ἐπί, κατά, μετά, παρά, περί, πρό, πρός, ὑπο (see §6.1).
The genitive expresses the time within which something takes place (it refers to an unspecified moment or
period within the given timeframe):
καὶ ἡμέρας καὶ νυκτὸς ἄγων ἐπὶ τοὺς πολεμίους (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.6.7)
... leading the army towards the enemy both during the day and during the night
ταῦτα ὀλίγου χρόνου ἔσται τελεύμενα (Herodotus 3.134.4)
These things will be fulfilled before long / within little time.
With the article, this genitive can be used ‘distributively’:
δραχμὴν ἐλαμβανε τῆς ἡμέρας. (Thucydides 3.17.4)
He earned a drachme per day.
The dative expresses the time when something takes place (it refers to a specific moment or period):
τῇ δ’ ὑστεραίᾳ. (Thucydides 4.25.8)
(on) the following day.
Παναθηναίοις τοῖς μεγάλοις. (Lysias 21.1)
during/at the Great Panathenaia
In prose, the accusative (without preposition) can express the extent/duration of time (answering the
question ‘how long?’). Usually, such accusatives are accompanied by a numeral:
Μιλτιάδης ἀπέπλεε Πάρον πολιορκήσας ἓξ καὶ εἴκοσι ἡμέρας. (Herodotus 6.135.1)
Miltiades sailed away after having laid siege to Paros for 26 days.
ξυμμαχίαν ἐποιήσαντο ἑκατὸν ἔτη. (Thucydides 3.114)
They made a treaty for a hundred years.
With an ordinal number (without the article), and often with a form of οὑτοσί, the accusative expresses how
long since:
ἀπηγγέλθη Φίλιππος τρίτον ἢ τέταρτον ἔτος τουτὶ Ἡραῖον τεῖχος πολιορκῶν. (Demosthenes 3.4)
This is the third or fourth year since it was announced that Philip was besieging fort Heraeum.
25
5. Time and Space
5.2. SPATIAL MODIFIERS
Genitive Dative Accusative

space within which / origin place where space traversed (extent) / direction
Prepositions that can have spatial meaning: ἀμφί, ἀνά, ἀπό, διά, εἰς, ἐκ, ἐν, ἐπί, κατά, μετά, παρά, περί, πρό,
πρός, σύν, ὑπέρ, ὑπο (see §6.1).
The genitive normally follows prepositions to refer to motion away from:

ἀπὸ τοῦ ἄστεως from the city
παρὰ βασιλέως from the king(’s side) (παρά is often used with people)
The bare genitive of separation can also be used (though it is much less frequent):
εἴκουσι τῆς ὁδοῦ. (Herodotus 2.80.1)
They yield the way (=retreat from the way).
The bare genitive is sometimes used to express space within which an action takes place (see ‘time within
which’ in §5.2), which is often almost indistinguishable from the place at which an action takes place:
ἰέναι τοῦ πρόσω . (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.1)
To go onwards (=through the space ahead).
λαιᾶς χειρὸς οἰκοῦσι. (Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 714)
They dwell on the left hand.
Note that adverbial forms like αὐτοῦ (‘in that very place’), ποῦ (‘where?’) and οὐδαμοῦ (‘nowhere’) are all
genitives originally.
The dative is used following prepositions (especially ἐν) to express place where:
ἐν τῇ πόλει in the city
πρὸς τῷ ἄστει near/at the city
In poetry, ἐν is freely dropped. In prose, it can be omitted with the names of cities, etc.:
ἐπεὶ δὲ γῇ | ἔκειτο τλήμων, δεινὰ δ᾽ ἦν τἀνθένδ᾽ ὁρᾶν. (Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 1265-6)
And when the hapless woman lay on the ground, then the sequel was horrible to see.
(ἐπαιδεύθησαν ὑπὸ) τῶν τε Μαραθῶνι μαχεσαμένων καὶ τῶν ἐν Σαλαμῖνι ναυμαχησάντων. (Plato, Menexenus 241b)
They have been educated by those who fought at Marathon and those who were in the naval battle at Salamis.
In general, the accusative is used with prepositions to indicate motion towards:

πρὸς τὸ ἄστυ to the city
εἰς τὸ ἄστυ to the city
ὡς Φαρνάβαζον to Pharnabazus (ὡς is used as preposition only with people)
26
5. Time and Space
In poetry only, the bare accusative is sometimes used to express direction:

ἦλθον πατρὸς ἀρχαῖον τάφον. (Sophocles, Electra 893)
I came to the old grave of my father.
The bare accusative is also used to express extent of space / distance traversed, again often accompanied by
a numeral (see extent/duration of time in §5.2):
πᾶσαν πλανηθεὶς τήνδε βάρβαρον χθόνα. (Euripides, Helen 598)
Wandering through all of this barbarian country.
μετὰ ταῦτα Κῦρος ἐξελαύνει σταθμοὺς τέτταρας παρασάγγας εἴκοσιν ἐπὶ τὸν Χάλον ποταμόν. (Xenophon,
Anabasis 1.4.9)
After that, Cyrus drove on for 4 marches and 20 parasangs to the river Chalus.
For measurements, Greek generally uses a combination of genitive of measurement (see §4.2.2) and
accusative of respect (see §4.4.3) usually with article):
κρηπὶς ... τὸ εὖρος πεντήκοντα ποδῶν καὶ τὸ ὕψος πεντήκοντα. (Xenophon, Anabasis 3.4.11)
A foundation fifty feet wide and fifty feet high.
διὰ μέσης τῆς πόλεως ῥεῖ ποταμὸς Κύδνος ὄνομα, εὖρος δύο πλέθρων. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.23)
Right through the city’s middle there streams a river called Cydnus, two plethra wide.
For nouns of the first declension (in -η/-α), which have their dative plural in -αις, an older form of the dative
plural, in -ᾱσι or -ησι, is still used as a locative (denoting place where):
Ἀθήνησι in Athens
Πλαταιᾶσι in Plataea
There also remain in classical Greek a few ‘fossilised’ examples of an original locative (which has already
disappeared completely as a ‘productive’ case by the time of Homer):
οἴκοι (at) home
χαμαί on the ground
Several suffixes (small ‘bits’ added to words) are used to form spatial modifiers:
- The suffix -δε/-σε indicates place to which:
πανταχόσε in all directions
Ἀθηναζε to Athens
οἴκαδε (to) home
- The suffix -θεν indicates place from where:
πανταχόθεν from every direction
Ἀθήνηθεν from Athens
οἴκοθεν from home
- The suffix -θι indicates (with certain words only) place where:
ἄλλοθι elsewhere
ἀμφοτέρωθι on both sides (=in both ways)
αὐτόθι (=αὐτοῦ ) in that very place
27
6. PREPOSITIONS
6.1 FREQUENT USES OF THE PREPOSITIONS
The most frequent uses of prepositions are given here, limited to classical Greek. Some deviating uses in
Homer, Herodotus and Tragedy have been left out. Only ‘proper’ prepositions (those that appear in
compound verbs) are included in the table, a list of some other words that are used prepostionally is given at
the end.
The table is largely based on A. Rijksbaron et al. (2000). Beknopte Syntaxis van het Klassiek Grieks. Lunteren:
Hermaion, pp. 45-55.
SPATIAL TEMPORAL ABSTRACT
ἀμφί (ἀμφ’)
+accusative around around, about (with numerals) about

οἱ ἀμφὶ Κῦρον ἀμφὶ μέσας νύκτας ἀμφὶ τοὺς δισχιλίους
Cyrus and his followers around midnight roughly two-thousand
(not: ‘those around Cyrus’)
(!) εἶναι or ἔχειν ἀμφί τι
be occupied /concerned with
something
ἀνά (ἀν’)
+accusative (vertical) up along (distributively) (with proportions)

ἀνὰ τὸν ποταμόν ἀν’ ἕκαστον ἔτος ἀνὰ λόγον
upstream year by year, yearly proportionately
ἀνὰ τὸ ὄρος ἀνὰ κράτος
up the mountain (!) ἀνὰ χρόνον ‘proportionate to his strength’ =
over time with all his might
(horizontal) spread out over
ἀνὰ τὴν χώραν
spread across the country
ἀντί (ἀντ’, ἀνθ’)
+genitive (in compounds only) against in exchange for; in place of

ἀντιτάττω ἀντὶ χρημάτων
position against/facing for money
πολέμιος ἀντὶ φίλου
enemy instead of friend
28
6. Prepositions
ἀπό (ἀπ’, ἀφ’)
+genitive (away/originating) from since, from (separation)

ἀπὸ τῶν νέων ἀπ’ ἀρχῆς ἀπὸ δόξης
from the ships since the beginning otherwise than expected
ἀφ’ οῦ (conjunction)
(!) ἀφ’ ἵππου μάχεσθαι from the moment that (origin)
fight on horseback καλεῖσθαι ἀπό τινος
be named after
ἀπὸ τῶν παρόντων
based on the available means
ἐπράχθη ἀπ’ αὐτῶν οὐδέν
nothing was done on their part
διά (δι’)
+genitive through through, ... long through, via, by means of

διὰ τοῦ θώρακος διὰ νύκτος δι’ ἑρμηνέως λέγειν
(clean) through the breastplate all night long to speak via an interpreter
διὰ βίου δι’ ἑαυτοῦ
his whole life long on his own strength
διὰ τάχους
(!) διὰ χρόνου with speed
after a long time
(!) δι’ ὀργῆς εἶναι
be furious
+accusative (causal) thanks to, on account

of, owing to
δι’ ἀρετὴν ἐνίκησαν
they won owing to their virtue
διὰ ταῦτα
because of this
εἰς/ἐς
+accusative into, to, towards, against until, up to (limitation, goal)

εἰς ὕδωρ βάλλειν εἰς ἑσπέραν πρῶτος εἰς πάντα
to throw in the water up to the evening, dusk first in everything
εἰς τὴν πόλιν βλέπειν εἴς τινα
into the city (with a limited period) for to look at someone
εἰς οἰκίαν εἰσιέναι εἰς ἐνιαυτόν ἐς Ἀθηναίους ἀγορεύειν
to go into a house for a year to speak to Athenians
εἰς Αἴγυπτον ἁμαρτάνειν ἐς τοὺς θεούς
to Egypt err against the gods
εἰς πλάγιον
to the side (with numerals) close on, about
εἰς τριάκοντα
close on thirty
29
6. Prepositions
ἐκ/ἐξ
+genitive away from, out from, since (origin) from, (out) of, from
ἐκ τῆς μάχης ἔφυγεν ἐξ ἀρχῆς within
he fled from the battle from/since the beginning ἐκ πατρὸς ἀγαθοῦ
ἐκ τούτου from a good father
after that, since that time ἐκ ξύλου
ἐξ οὗ (conjunction) (made) from wood
since ἐκ τῶν δυνάτων
judging from the possibilities
(!) ἐξ ἴσου
equally
ἐν
+dative (usually stationary) in, on, in, during, on (circumstances, manner)

among ἐν μιᾷ νυκτί ἐν τάχει
ἐν τῇ οἰκίᾳ in one night quickly
in the house ἐν τούτῳ τῷ καιρῷ ἐν μέρει
ἐν τοῖς ὅπλοις on that crucial moment taking turns
armed ἐν τούτῳ ἐν ἀπορίᾳ εἶναι
ἐν νήσῳ meanwhile to be at a loss
on an island ἐν ᾧ (conjunction) ἐν σοί ἐστι
ἐν πᾶσιν ἀνθρώποις while it depends on you
in the presence of all
(with motion)
ἐν τῇ θαλάττῃ πίπτειν
to fall in the sea
ἐπί (ἐπ’, ἐφ’)
+genitive (stationary) on (top of) during, in the time of (idiomatic)

ἔχειν τι ἐπὶ τῶν ὤμων ἐπ’ εἰρήνης ἐπ’ ἐμαυτοῦ
to have something on one’s in peacetime on my own, by myself,
shoulders τὰ ἐπ’ ἐμοῦ independently
the events of my lifetime οἱ ἐπὶ τῶν πραγμάτων
(motion) bearing for, in the those in power
direction of
ἐπ’ Αἰγύτου ἀποπλεῖν
sail off bearing for Egypt
30
6. Prepositions
+dative (near)by, on directly following on (sphere of influence)

ἐπὶ ποταμῷ οἰκεῖν ἐπὶ τούτῳ ἐφ’ ὑμῖν ἐστι
to live on a river after that, subsequently it is in your power, it is up to you
τὸ ἐπὶ θαλάσσῃ τεῖχος
the wall by the sea (cause)
γελᾶν ἐπὶ τινι
to laugh at/over someone
(condition)
ἐπὶ τούτῳ
on that condition
(motive, reason, end)

ἐπ’ ἐλευθερώσει τῶν Ἑλλήνων
in order to free the Greeks
(addition)
ἐπὶ τούτοις
moreover, in addition
+accusative (end point) up to, on to during (idiomatic)

ἐπὶ τοὺς ἵππυς ἀναβῆναι ἐπὶ πολὺν χρόνον τὸ ἐπ’ ἐμέ
to climb on the horses for a long time as far as I am concerned
ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολύ
(goal) towards, against in general, normally
ἐφ’ ὕδωρ πέμπειν
to send to get water
ἐπὶ τοὺς πολεμίους ἰέναι
to go towards the enemies
(with surfaces) extended over

ἐπὶ πᾶσαν Εὑρώπην
all over Europe
κατά (κατ’, καθ’)
+genitive down from, down toward against, to the detriment of

κατὰ τοῦ ὄρους λέγειν κατὰ τινος
down from the mountain to speak against someone
under
κατὰ γῆς κρύπτειν
to hide under the ground
(!) κατὰ νώτου εἶναι τοῦ
πολεμίου
to be in the enemy’s rear
31
6. Prepositions
+accusative (motion) following, with at the time of (manner) conforming to,

κατ’ οὖρον κατ’ ἀρχάς according to
following the wind in the beginning κατὰ τοὺς νόμους
(downwards motion) according to the laws
κατὰ τὸν ποταμόν (distributively) per, every κατὰ δύναμιν
downstream καθ’ ἡμέραν according to means, as much as
per day, every day possible
(with fixed points) off, near, κατὰ κράτος
opposite ‘conforming to his strength’ =
with all his might
κατὰ τοὺς Ἕλληνας τάττειν
to position opposite the Greeks
(with surfaces) spread out over, (relation) with relation to
everywhere on
κατὰ πάντα
κατὰ τὴν ἀγοράν in every respect
in various places in the market τὸ κατ’ ἐμέ
as to me, as far as it concerns
me
(distributively)
καθ’ ἔθνη
nation by nation, per nation
μετά (μετ’, μεθ’)
+genitive (usually with people) together (accompanying circumstance)

with, accompanied by μετὰ σπουδῆς
μετὰ τῶν συμμάχων with haste, hastily
together with the allies μετὰ τοῦ νόμου
with the law on my side
+accusative (in compounds only) after, in after (with rank) after

search of μετὰ τὰ Μηδικά ἄριστος μετά τινα
μετέρχομαί τινα after the Persian wars the best after someone
go to get someone μετὰ ταῦτα
afterwards, after that
μεθ’ ἡμέραν
after (the) day(break), during
the day
παρά (παρ’)
+genitive (origin, with motion, usually with (origin, usually with people) from
people) from (the side/quarter (the side/quarter of)
of) λαμβάνειν τι παρά τινος
ἄγγελος παρὰ βασιλέως ἥκει to get something from someone
a messenger has come from the μανθάνειν τι παρά τινος
king to hear/learn something from
someone
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6. Prepositions
+dative (usually with people) with, by (cf. in the eyes of

French chez) παρ’ ἐμοῦ
οἱ παρὰ σοί in my opinion
those with you
στρατηγεῖν παρὰ Κύρῳ
be a general in the service of
Cyrus
+accusative (end point, usually with people) during (in comparisons) next to
to, at (the side of) παρὰ πάντα τὸν χρόνον γελοῖος παρ’ αὐτὸν
ἀφικνεῖσθαι παρά τινα all the time, throughout time laughable as compared to him
to arrive at someone’s side
πέμπειν παρά τινα (exclusion) next to, apart from
to send to someone οὐδὲν ἄλλο παρὰ ταῦτα
nothing other than that
(with verbs meaning ‘put’, contrary to
‘position’) next to, with
παρὰ τοὺς νόμους
καθεζέσθαι παρά τινα in violation of the laws
to sit down next to someone
(of parallel extent) along,

alongside, beside
παρὰ τὴν ἤπειρον πλεῖν
to sail alongside the mainland
περί (never elided)
+genitive (with verbs of competition, strife,

etc.)
μάχεσθαι περὶ πατρίδος
to fight for one’s home country
(with verbs of fearing and effort)

φοβεῖσθαι περί τινος
to be very concerned about
someone/something
(with verbs of speaking, etc.)

about, over
βουλεύεσθαι περὶ τῆς εἰρήνης
to deliberate about the peace
ἀκούειν περί τινος
to hear about someone
(relations) in relation to,

concerning
τὰ περὶ τῆς αρετῆς
that which concerns virtue
(!) περὶ πολλοῦ ποιεῖσθαι

to consider of great importance
33
6. Prepositions
+accusative around around about, with respect to

(≈ ἀμφί + acc.) περὶ τὴν Ἀττικὴν περιέρχεται περὶ τούτους τοὺς χρόνους γνώμην ἔχειν περί τι/τινα
he goes around Attica around that time to have an opinion about
περὶ τὸ στρατόπεδον φυλακαὶ something/someone
ἦσαν εἶναι περί τι
around the camp there were be occupied/concerned with
sentries something
οἱ περὶ Κῦρον ἁμαρτάνειν περί τινα
Cyrus and his followers to err with respect to the gods
πρό (never elided)
+genitive in front of before in defence of, on behalf of

πρὸ τῶν ἁμαξῶν πρὸ τῶν Μηδικῶν πρὸ τῶν πολιτῶν μάχεσθαι
in front of the wagons before the Persian wars to fight for the citizens
πρὸ ποδῶν in preference to

at one’s feet αἱρεῖσθαι τι πρό τινος
to prefer something over
something
πρός
+genitive on the side of, facing on the side of

τὸ πρὸς ἑσπέρας τεῖχος πρὸς ἡμῶν ἐστίν
the wall facing the west he is on our side
πρὸς τῶν Ἑλλήνων ἐκφεύγειν
to flee to the Greeks’ side from the side of, at the hands of
πάσχειν πρός τινα
to suffer at the hands of
someone
ἀκούειν πρός τινα
to hear from someone
(!) πρὸς θεῶν
‘by the gods!’
+dative at, near (addition) with

πρὸς αὐτῇ τῇ πόλεις πρὸς τούτῳ, πρὸς τούτοις
καθίστανται moreover, on top of that
they position themselves near (!) εἶναι πρός τινι
the city itself / right near the to be occupied with something
city
34
6. Prepositions
+accusative (motion) towards, facing coming up to, about (direction, goal) towards, to
towards πρὸς ἑσπέραν πρὸς ἀνδρείαν παιδεύσθαι
ἄγειν πρός τινα dusk to be educated/raised to bravery
to bring to someone λέγειν τι πρὸς χάριν τινός
ἀποβλέπειν πρός τινα to say something to oblige
to look at someone someone/to someone’s benefit
(hostile) against (comparison) in comparison to,

πορεύεσθαι, πολεμεῖν πρός τινα according to
march against, wage war κρίνειν πρός τι
against to decide with a view to
πρὸς τὴν δύναμιν
according to means/ability
(!) πρὸς βίαν
violently
(with verbs of speaking, etc.) to,

addressing
λέγειν πρὸς τὸ πλῆθος
speak to the multitude
(!) εἰρήνην ποιεῖσθαι πρός τινα
to make peace with someone
(relations) concerning, with

regard to
φοβεῖται πρὸς τοῦτο
he is concerned on that point
πρὸς ταῦτα
in view of that, with regard to
that
χρήσιμος πρός τι
useful with regard to something
σύν/ξύν
+dative together with, accompanied by including

πολεμεῖν σὺν τοῖς φυγάσι δισχίλιαι δραξμαὶ σὺν ταῖς
wage war together with the Νικίου
exiles (very rare in Attic; 2000 drachmas including those
usually μετά + gen.) of Nicias
σὺν θεῷ
with a god’s help (accompanying circumstance)
σὺν κραυγῇ
with a loud scream
35
6. Prepositions
ὐπέρ
+genitive (stationary) above in defence of, to protect ..., on

ὑπὲρ τῶν γονάτων behalf of
above the knees ὑπὲρ τῆς πατρίδος
in defence of (his) home
country
(motion) over ἀποκρίνεσθαι ὑπὲρ τινος

ὑπὲρ τῶν ἄκρων κατέβαινον to answer on someone’s behalf
they came down over the
hilltops (reason, purpose) about, in order
to
χάριν ἔχειν ὑπέρ τινος
be grateful about something
ὑπὲρ τοῦ ταῦτα λάβειν
in order to get this
+accusative above, beyond beyond

οἱ ὑπὲρ τὸν Ἐλλήσποντον ὑπὲρ δύναμιν
οἰκούμενοι beyond means
those who live beyond the ὑπὲρ ἐλπίδα
Hellespont surpassing expectation
ὑπο (ὑπ’, ὑφ’)
+genitive under (with passive verbs and verbs

τὰ ὑπὸ γῆς with passive meaning) by
the things under the earth παιδεύεσθαι ὑπὸ τινος
to be raised by someone
πάσχειν τι ὑπό τινος
to suffer something at the
hands of someone
(with causes)
ὑπὸ λιμοῦ ἀπόλλυσθαι
to perish from hunger
(accompanying circumstance)
ὑπὸ σάλπιγγος
with a trumpet’s blast
+dative at the foot of, under (subjection)

ὑπὸ Ἰλίῳ ὑφ’ ἑαυτῷ ποιεῖσθαι
under the walls of Troy (rare in to subject to oneself
prose)
+accusative (end point) to the foot of, to in the course of, during (subjection)
under ὑπὸ τὴν νύκτα ταύτην ὑφ’ ἑαυτοὺς ποιεῖσθαι
ἔστησε τὸ στράτευμα ὑπὸ τὸν in the course of that night to subject to themselves
λόφον ὑπὸ τὴν εἰρήνην
he made the army halt at the under peacetime conditions
foot of the hill
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6. Prepositions
6.2. SOME OTHER WORDS USED AS PREPOSITIONS
ἅμα + dat. together with (also temporal: ‘at the same time with’, ἅμ’ ἕῳ = ‘at daybreak’)
ἄνευ + gen. without, apart from
δίκην + gen. in the way of, like
ἐγγύς + gen. near, close to
εἴσω, ἔσω + gen. inside
ἐναντίον + gen. opposite, in the presence of
ἕνεκα + gen. (postpositive) because of, owing to, on account of, for the sake of
ἐκτός + gen. outside of, apart from
ἐντός + gen. within (also temporal)
ἔξω + gen. outside of, out (also abstract: ἔξω φρενῶν = ‘beside his wits’)
μεταξύ + gen. between (also temporal)
μέχρι + gen. up to (also temporal: ‘up until’, μέχρι οὗ = ‘until the moment that’; also abstract: μέχρι
τούτου = ‘this far’)
ὁμοῦ + dat. together with (also temporal: ‘at the same time with’)
ὄπισθεν + gen. behind, at the rear of
πάροιθε + gen. in front of, before (also temporal)
πέλας + gen. near to, alongside
πέρα(ν) + gen. further than, beyond, on the other side of (also abstract: πέρα τοῦ μετρίου = ‘beyond
measure’)
πλήν + gen. except (also used as a conjunction: πλὴν ὅτι = ‘except that’; πλὴν εἰ = ‘except if’)
πλησίον + gen. near to
πόρρω, πρόσω + gen. far from, far in (also abstract: πόρρω σοφίας ἥκειν = ‘to come far in philosophy’)
πρόσθεν, ἔμπροσθεν + gen. at the front of, before (also temporal)
χάριν + gen. (postpositive) for the sake of
χωρίς + gen. apart from (also abstract: ‘not considering’)
ὡς + acc. to (with people only)
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7. THE VERB: TENSE & ASPECT, MOOD
7.1. INTRODUCTION TO TENSE AND ASPECT
Brief definitions of tense and aspect:

- Tense is the location of the ‘action’ (this term will be consistently used below, even though a verb form
may in fact refer to a state or uncontrolled event) in past, present or future (relative to the moment of
speaking). In this regard, the Greek tense system has only ‘absolute’ tenses (past, present, future) and no
‘relative’ tenses (past-in-the-past, past-in-the-future): the Greek pluperfect is a simple past tense, the
Greek future perfect a simple future tense!
- Aspect refers to the way in which the action is viewed: as complete (an action in its entirety) or not-
complete (an action that is ongoing or repeated).
Greek verb forms can express:

- Both tense and aspect: present indicative, imperfect, aorist indicative, perfect indicative, pluperfect,
future perfect indicative.
- Only tense: future (the future is ‘aspect-neutral’)
- Only aspect: subjunctive/optative/infinitive/participle of present, aorist, perfect.
Note that apart from the Greek future, all verb forms express aspect. However, only the future and the
indicatives of other stems express tense: e.g. the aorist subjunctive is not a past tense form!
7.2. THE GREEK TENSE SYSTEM
imperfect present indicative future

aorist indicative perfect indicative future perfect
pluperfect
past moment of speaking future
7.3. THE GREEK ASPECT SYSTEM
The Greek verb has the following aspectual values:

- The present stem (present, imperfect) signifies that an action is ongoing or repeated and is therefore
not-complete.
- The aorist stem (aorist) is used to describe an action as a whole, it signifies that an action is complete.
- The perfect stem (perfect, pluperfect, (future perfect)) signifies that an action has been completed and
that a state exists as a result.
38
7. The Verb: Tense & Aspect, Mood
7.4. SYNTHESIS: THE 7 INDICATIVES
Combining the temporal and aspectual values described above, the indicative in Greek can mean the
following:
- The present indicative refers to an action, located at the present, that is ongoing or repeated (not-
complete): κτῶμαι = ‘I am acquiring’ / ‘I (habitually) acquire’.
- The imperfect (or ‘secondary present indicative’) refers to an action, located in the past, that is ongoing
or repeated (not-complete): ἐκτώμην = ‘I was acquiring’ / ’I (habitually) acquired’.
- The future indicative refers to an action (either ongoing or as a single occurrence), located in the
future: κτήσομαι = ‘I will be acquiring’ / ‘I will acquire’.
- The aorist indicative refers to an action, located in the past, viewed as a complete whole: ἐκτησάμην = ‘I
acquired’/‘I have acquired’.
- The perfect indicative refers to a state, located at the present, that is the result of a completed action:
κέκτημαι = ‘I possess’ (< ‘I have acquired’).
- The pluperfect (or ‘secondary perfect indicative’) refers to a state, located in the past, that is the result of
a completed action: ἐκεκτήμην = ‘I possessed’ (< ‘I had acquired’).
- The future perfect indicative refers to a state, located in the future, that is the result of a completed
action: κεκτήσομαι = ‘I will possess’ (< ‘I will have acquired’).
7.5. NARRATIVE AND NON-NARRATIVE TEXTS
In translating Greek tenses, especially the aorist and imperfect, it is crucial to distinguish between narrative
and non-narrative text:
- Narrative text is ‘storytelling’, relating a sequence of events as they happened, and how they are/were
related to each other. It is in the past tense, and normally contains a mix of imperfects/pluperfects and
aorists (plus an occasional ‘historic’ present). Examples: Homer (apart from the speeches), historical
descriptions, the re-telling of events in oratory, etc.
- Non-narrative text is everything else. Main verbs will normally be presents, aorists, perfects and
futures. Examples: speeches (except for narrative passages within them), philosophical discussions (e.g.
in Plato’s dialogues), evaluative conclusions by messengers in Tragedy, etc.
Narrative and non-narrative passages can come in quick succession or mixed together. Clearly distinguishing
between the two is in some cases very difficult.
39
7.6. THE INDICATIVE IN MAIN CLAUSES
7.6.1. Present
The present indicative (generally used in non-narrative text) can refer to an action which is ongoing at the
moment of speaking:
ἀληθῆ λέγω (Lysias 13.72)
I am telling the truth.
τί κάτησθε, ὦ Πέρσαι, ἐνθαῦτα; (Herodotus 3.151.2)
What are you sitting around for over there, Persians?
It is also used to refer to repeated or habitual actions:
οὗτος μὲν γὰρ ὕδωρ, ἐγὼ δ’ οἶνον πίνω. (Demosthenes 19.46)
For this man tends to drink water, whereas I normally drink wine.
Finally, it refers to general and timeless truths (see also §7.6.2. for the ‘gnomic’ aorist):
ἄγει δὲ πρὸς φῶς τὴν ἀλὴθειαν χρόνος. (Menander, Sententiae 11)
Time brings the truth to light.
With several verbs, the present indicative may refer to the existing result of an action as well as to the action
itself. Since this meaning is very similar to the perfect indicative, these presents are often called ‘perfective’:
ἀκούω hear / have heard οἴχομαι depart / be gone
ἤκω arrive / be present πυνθάνομαι learn / be aware
ἠττάομαι suffer a defeat / be vanquished τίκτω give birth / be parent
νικάω defeat / be victorious φεύγω flee / be in exile
! Note:
Unlike in English (e.g. ‘I’m attending a class tomorrow’), the present indicative in Greek cannot normally be used to refer
to the future. However, in prophecies, where the future is sometimes seen as taking place in front of the prophet’s eyes,
the present indicative may have the force of a future:
χρόνῳ μὲν ἀγρεῖ Πριάμου πόλιν ἅδε κέλευθος. (Aeschylus, Agamemnon 126)
In time, this expedition will take Priam’s city.
Also note that the present indicative εἶμι (‘I will go’) should always be translated by an English future.
7.6.2. Aorist, imperfect, historic present
The aorist indicative should be translated differently in non-narrative and narrative text. In narrative
text the simple past (‘he did this’) is usually the best choice. In non-narrative text, the aorist is often used
simply to observe that an action has been completed by the moment of speaking: in this case the English
present perfect (‘he has done this’) is to be preferred:
οὗτος δὲ Πριηνέας τε εἷλε ἐς Μίλητόν τε ἐσέβαλε. (Herodotus 1.15)
And he (=Ardys) took Priene and launched an attack on Miletus.
ὑμέας ἐγὼ νῦν συνέλεξα, ἵνα ... (Herodotus 7.8α.2)
I have now called you together, to ...
The first example comes from Herodotus’ narrative account of the conquests of Ardys. The second is the
introduction of a speech (note the νῦν, which rules out a narrative context).
40
In narrative texts, the imperfect (aspect: not-complete) and pluperfect are often used to ‘set the stage’ or to
create a background/framework in which main, highlighted events which push the story further take place:
these main events will in turn appear in the aorist indicative (viewed in completion, as a simple occurrence):
καὶ ὅτε ἦν δεκαέτης ὁ παῖς, πρῆγμα ἐς αὑτὸν τοιόνδε γενόμενον ἐξέφηνέ μιν. ἔπαιζε ἐν τῇ κώμῃ ... μετ᾽ ἄλλων ἡλίκων
ἐν ὁδῷ. καὶ οἱ παῖδες παίζοντες εἵλοντο ἑωυτῶν βασιλέα εἶναι τοῦτον δὴ τὸν τοῦ βουκόλου ἐπίκλησιν παῖδα. ὁ δὲ
αὐτῶν διέταξε τοὺς μὲν οἰκίας οἰκοδομέειν ... (Herodotus 1.114.1-2)
Now when the boy (Cyrus) was ten years old, the following occurrence revealed him for what he was. He was
playing with others of his age. The boys while playing chose to be their king this one who was supposed to be the
son of the cowherd. Then he assigned some of them to the building of houses
The imperfect ἔπαιζε ‘sets the stage’ for the events that take place (it forms the background against which the rest of
the story is viewed). The aorists εἵλοντο and διέταξε are used to narrate the events that move the story along.
The present indicative is also used sometimes in narrative texts (the so-called ‘historic present’ or ‘narrative
present’). It is used to bring out decisive or main events in a narrative, often those that change the state of the
narrated world.
( ...) παρῆν καὶ ἡ γυνή. ἐσελθοῦσαν δὲ καὶ τιθεῖσαν τὰ εἵματα ἐθηεῖτο ὁ Γύγης. ὡς δὲ κατὰ νώτου ἐγένετο ἰούσης τῆς
γυναικός ἐς τὴν κοίτην, ὑπεκδὺς ἐχώρεε ἔξω, καὶ ἡ γυνὴ ἐπορᾷ μιν ἐξιόντα. (Herodotus 1.10.1-2)
... the woman appeared as well. Gyges saw her come in and undress. And, as the woman was getting in bed and her
back was turned to him, he slipped away and was on his way out, and the woman spotted him leaving.
The historic present ἐπορᾷ marks the pivotal moment in the story that will have dramatic consequences for the
woman, her husband the king, and his bodyguard (Gyges).
The historic present differs from other presents in aspect (it looks at single actions). It occurs only with verbs
that, by virtue of their lexical meaning, express an action with a natural end-point: thus, the present
indicative of verbs that express a state (without an end-point), like βασιλεύω, ἔχω, οἶδα, etc., is never used as
historic present.
The aspect of the imperfect (not-complete) makes it suitable for referring to repeated events:
δῶρά οἱ ἀνὰ πᾶν ἔτος ἐδίδου, καὶ τὴν Βαβύλωνά οἱ ἔδωκε. (Herodotus 3.160.2)
He gave him gifts yearly, and he also gave him Babylon.
οἵπερ πρόσθεν προσεκύνουν, καὶ τότε προσεκύνησαν. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.6.10)
The very men who earlier used to prostrate themselves before him, prostrated themselves on that occasion too.
Note the aorists ἔδωκε and προσεκύνησαν, used to highlight single events.
! Note:
To emphasise that an action occurred on repeated occasions, the word ἄν is sometimes added to the imperfect or aorist
indicative in Attic; the difference between imperfect and aorist is aspectual:
ὁ δὲ χορός γ᾽ ἤρειδεν ὁρμαθοὺς ἄν μελῶν ἐφεξῆς τέτταρας. (Aristophanes, Frogs 914)
And the chorus would be hurling forth four strings of lyrics one after the other.
σαφὲς δ’ ἂν εἶπεν οὐδὲ ἕν. (Aristophanes, Frogs 927)
And he would not say a single thing that was intelligible.
In this scene of the Frogs, Euripides is discussing dramatic techniques that Aeschylus used time and time again in his plays.
With verbs that, because of their meaning, express an action that is normally viewed in completion, like
‘persuade’ (persuading someone has a natural end-point, viz. the moment of persuasion), the aspect of the
imperfect (not-complete) often leads to a ‘conative’ interpretation (of an incomplete attempt):
ἄγγελοι ἔπειθον ἀποτρέπεσθαι· οἱ δ’ οὐκ ὑπήκουον. (Xenophon, Anabasis 7.3.7)
Messengers tried to persuade them to turn back, but they would not listen.
Ἁλόννησον ἐδίδου· ὁ δ’ ἀπηγόρευε μὴ λαμβάνειν. (Aeschines 3.83)
He (=Philip) tried to give us Halonnesus, but he (=Demosthenes) forbade us from accepting it.
41
With verbs that, because of their meaning, tend to express an incomplete action, like ‘rule’/’be king’ (‘be king’
does not have a natural end-point), the aspect of the aorist (viewed as a whole — in this case as a discrete
‘point’ in time) often leads to an ‘ingressive’ interpretation (of the beginning point of an action):
ἀνεῖλέ τε δὴ τὸ χρηστήριον καὶ ἐβασίλευσε οὕτω Γύγης. (Herodotus 1.13.2)
(This) the oracle ordained and Gyges thus became king.
The aorist of such verbs can, however, also be used (usually with an amount of time specified) as an
expression of the entire period (viewed as a complete whole): this use of the aorist is called ‘complexive’ (this
use normally occurs in non-narrative text):
ἐβασίλευσε τετταράκοντα ἔτη.
He was king for 40 years.
Since Greek has no relative tenses, each of the three Greek past tenses can convey what in English would
require the pluperfect (past-in-the-past):
ἐνταῦθα πόλις ἦν ἐρήμη· ᾤκουν δ’ αὐτὴν τὸ παλαιὸν Μῆδοι. (Xenophon, Anabasis 3.4.7)
There lay an abandoned city: in the past, Medes had lived there.
ἔπειτα δὲ ἐτράποντο ἐς τὸν Πάνορμον, ὅθενπερ ἀνηγάγοντο. (Thucydides 2.92.1)
From there they set course to Panormus, from where they had sailed.
σπανιώτερα τὰ ἐπιτήδεια ἦν. τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἀνήλατο, τὰ δὲ διήρπαστο. (Xenophon, Hellenica 6.5.50)
The supplies were too scarce: some of them had been consumed, others had been plundered.
The aorist indicative is sometimes used (in non-narrative text) to express general tendencies, habits,
procedures, etc. (see also §7.6.1). This use of the aorist is called ‘gnomic’ (γνώμη = maxim).
παθὼν δέ τε νήπιος ἔγνω. (Hesiod, Works and Days 218)
A fool learns by experience.
The gnomic aorist only occurs with verbs that express actions with a natural end-point: it cannot be used
with verbs that express a state (e.g. ‘have’, ‘be’, ‘rule’, etc.). For ‘timeless’ truths (e.g. ‘one plus one equals two’)
the present indicative must be used (see §7.6.1).
7.6.3. Aorist and imperfect: overview
AORIST INDICATIVE (AORIST STEM) IMPERFECT (PRESENT STEM)
Aspect: complete (actions viewed as a whole). Aspect: not-complete (actions viewed as ongoing or
repeated).
Used in non-narrative text simply to state that an action (Rarely used in non-narrative text.)
has been completed by the moment of speaking
(translate with present perfect).
When used in narrative text, marks highlighted events In narratives, marks background events or states that
that push the narrative forward (translate with simple provide the framework in which highlighted events
past). occur (aorists and historic presents).
Used to express single actions. Often used to express repeated or habitual actions.
‘Ingressive’ or ‘complexive’ interpretation with verbs ‘Conative’ interpretation with verbs that express actions
that express actions without a natural end-point (e.g. with a natural end-point. (e.g. ‘persuade’).
‘rule’).
‘Gnomic’ use (general tendencies, habits, etc.) with verbs

that express actions with a natural end-point.
42
7.6.3. Future
The future indicative (normally in non-narrative text) can be used for various purposes, like
announcements, promises, threats, predictions, etc.:
πᾶς ἀποκρινόμενος ἐρεῖ θαυμάζοντι ξένῳ ... (Plato, Laws 637c)
Everybody will say to the stranger who is surprised at ... (prediction)
οὔ τοι καταπροίξει ... τοῦτο δρῶν. (Aristophanes, Wasps 1366)
You won’t get away with this behaviour (threat)
7.6.4. Perfect, pluperfect, future perfect
The perfect indicative (normally in non-narrative text) is a present tense, and as such should be translated
(if at all possible, which is certainly not always) with an English present tense: κέκτημαι = ‘I possess’,
σέσωσμαι = ‘I am free’, but λέλυκα = ‘I have set loose’. The pluperfect (used mainly in narrative text) is simply
the past tense of the perfect, the future perfect simply the future tense:
γέγραφε δὲ καὶ ταῦτα ὁ αὐτὸς Θουκυδίδης. (Thucydides 5.26.1)
Of this too the same Thucydides is the author (<‘has written’).
ταῦτα μὲν ἐς Ἄδρηστον οἱ ἐπεποίητο. (Herodotus 5.68.1)
For these actions against Adrastus, he was responsible (<‘had been undertaken by him’). (For οἱ, see §3.3.)
ἡ θύρα κεκλῄσεται. (Aristophanes, Lysistrata 1071)
The door will be kept shut (<‘will have been closed’).
With verbs that, by virtue of their lexical meaning, tend to express a state, like ‘be afraid’, ‘believe’, the perfect
stem often gives rise to a so-called ‘intensive’ interpretation (marking an extreme degree of the state):
τεθαύμακα = ‘I am very surprised’ (θαυμάζω, wonder), πεφόβημαι = ‘I am terrified’ (φοβέομαι, fear), σεσιώπηκα
= ‘I maintain complete silence’ (σιωπάω, be silent).
7.7. OTHER MOODS IN MAIN CLAUSES
7.7.1. Modal indicative
The indicative of past tenses (imperfect/pluperfect or aorist indicative) is used, either with or without ἄν, in
various expressions of ‘counterfactuality’ (or ‘unreality’): in these cases the past indicative (called ‘modal’)
refers to an action that does not or did not in fact occur.
The modal indicative is used without ἄν, but together with either εἴθε or εἰ γάρ, to express an unrealisable
wish (a wish for something that did not or cannot come true, see also §14.2):
εἰ γὰρ τοσαύτην δύναμιν εἶχον. (Euripides, Alcestis 1072)
Would that I had such power! (But I don’t.)
εἴθε σοι, ὦ Περικλεῖς, τότε συνεγενόμην. (Xenophon, Memorabilia 1.2.46)
If only, Pericles, I had met you then. (But I didn’t.)
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The modal indicative with ἄν is used in statements to express that an action would under certain
circumstances occur / have occurred, but in fact does not / did not. The condition under which the action
would occur may be expressed by a conditional εἰ-clause (see §21.5), a participle, an adverb, or left
unexpressed:
καὶ ἴσως ἂν διὰ ταῦτ’ ἀπέθανον, εἰ μὴ ἡ ἀρχὴ διὰ ταχέων κατελύθη. (Plato, Apology 32d)
And perhaps I would have been put to death on account of these things, if the government had not swiftly fallen.
(But it did.)
τότε δ’ αὐτὸ τὸ πρᾶγμ’ ἂν ἐκρίνετο ἐφ’ αὑτοῦ. (Demosthenes 18.224)
But then the case would have been decided on its own merits. (But it wasn’t.)
! Note:
The difference between the use of imperfect and aorist indicatives in these constructions is one of aspect, not of tense! As
a general rule, however, the imperfect is used to refer to something which is not true of the present, and the aorist
indicative to refer to something which failed to occur in the past (in the latter case the imperfect is also not uncommon).
εἰ ἐδίδου, ἐπὶ τούτῳ ἂν ἐδίδου ὅπως ἐμοὶ δοὺς μεῖον μὴ ἀποδοίη ὑμῖν τὸ πλέον. (Xenophon, Anabasis 7.6.16)
If he (=Seuthes) were giving me (=Xenophon) anything, he would be giving it on the understanding that by giving a
smaller sum to me he would not have to give a larger amount to you. (But he’s not giving me anything.)
κομίσας γὰρ ἂν Λακεδαιμονίοις τὴν νίκην κατὰ τὸ εἰκὸς ἔδωκεν. (Thucydides 8.87.4)
For had he brought up the fleet, he would in all likelihood have given victory to the Spartans. (But he’s didn’t.)
The imperfect indicative ἐδίδου refers to something that is not taking place at present: Seuthes is not paying
anything to Xenophon (the aspect of the imperfect is also apt in suggesting repeated bribes). The aorist indicative
ἔδωκεν refers to a single instance of giving which did not occur.
The imperfect of impersonal verbs expressing a necessity, obligation, or appropriateness (e.g. ἔδει,
(ἐ)χρῆν, καλῶς εἶχε, etc.) can be used without ἄν to express that a situation contrary to the one that exists or
existed is desired/required. This use can refer both to the present and the past.
εἶεν, τί σιγᾷς; οὐκ ἐχρῆν σιγᾶν, τέκνον. (Euripides, Hippolytus 297)
Ho, why do you keep silent? You shouldn’t be silent, my child. (But you are.)
ἔδει τὰ ἐνέχυρα τότε λαβεῖν. (Xenophon, Anabasis 7.6.23)
We should have taken the fortified positions then. (But we didn’t.)
7.7.2. Optative
The optative without ἄν is used in wishes (‘cupitive’). The negative is μή:

ὦ παῖ, γένοιο πατρὸς εὐτυχέστερος, | τὰ δ’ ἄλλ’ ὅμοιος. (Sophocles, Ajax 550-1)
Child, may you become happier than your father, but equal in all other respects.
μὴ πλείω κακὰ πάθοιεν. (Sophocles, Antigone 928)
May they suffer no more.
The optative with ἄν is used to express that the realisation of an action is possible (‘potential’). This
potential construction is used to describe actions that might arise in the future, or to cautiously state
something (to make an assertion, weaker than with the indicative):
ἀρετὴ μὲν ἄρα, ὡς ἔοικεν, ὑγίειά τέ τις ἂν εἴη καὶ κάλλος καὶ εὐεξία ψυχῆς. (Plato, Republic 444d)
Virtue, then, would — as it appears — be a kind of health and beauty and good condition.
γνοίης δ’ ἂν ὅτι τοῦθ’ οὕτως ἔχει. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 1.6.21)
You might/can/may see that this is so.
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The negative potential optative, with οὐ (nearly always with aorist optatives), expresses an emphatic
negation: it is not even possible that the action should occur.
πρὸς βίαν δ᾽ οὐκ ἂν λάβοις. (Sophocles, Philoctetes 103)
You can never take him by force.
The second person potential optative can express a cautious command (see §14.1):
λέγοις ἄν, εἴ τι τῶνδ’ ἔχεις ὑπέρτερον — λέξω, κελεύεις γάρ, τὸν ἐκ φρενὸς λόγον. (Aeschylus, Choephoroi 105-7)
If you have a better way, explain it (lit.: ‘you might say it’). — I will voice my inmost thoughts, since you command
me. (Note the κελεύεις, which makes clear that the potential optative is ‘felt’ to be a command.)
! Note:
The difference between the use of present and aorist optatives in these constructions is one of aspect, not of tense! (see
also §14.2)
ἔγωγε πολὺ ἂν ἥδιον μετὰ σου σκοποίμην εἴτ’ ἀληθὲς εἴτε μὴ τὸ λεχθέν. (Plato, Charmides 162e)
For my part I would greatly prefer to have you as partner in the inquiry as to whether what was said is true or not.
ἀλλ’ ἔγωγε ἐκεῖνο ἂν ἥδιστα, ὅπερ ἠρόμην τὸ πρῶτον, καὶ σκεψαίμην καὶ ἀκούσαιμι ... (Plato, Meno 86c)
But for my part I would like best of all to examine that question I asked at first, and hear your view.
The present optative σκοποίμην refers to an ongoing examination: Socrates is suggesting an ‘open discussion’ that
will take a while. The aorist optative σκεψαίμην, on the other hand, refers to an examination viewed in completion,
as a single event.
7.7.3. Subjunctive
The subjunctive is used in commands:

- ‘Hortative’, in the first person (usually plural), both in positive commands and in prohibitions (with μή):
ἐπίσχες· ἐμβάλωμεν εἰς ἄλλον λόγον. (Euripides, Electra 962)
Stop: let us change the subject.
ἴδωμεν δὴ εἴ τι λέγουσιν. (Plato, Charmides 159b)
Let us see if there is something in what they say.
- ‘Prohibitive’ in prohibitions (with μή) in the second (occasionally third person), always with the aorist
subjunctive:
μὴ οὖν προδόται γένησθε ὑμῶν αὐτῶν. (Thucydides 3.40.7)
Do not, then, be traitors of your own cause!
ἀλλὰ μή μ’ ἀφῇς ἔρημον. (Sophocles, Philoctetes 486)
No, don’t leave me behind alone!
The subjunctive is used in questions (always first person), to express doubt about what to do or say
(‘deliberative’):
οἴμοι τί δράσω; ποῖ φύγω μητρὸς χέρας; (Euripides, Medea 1271)
Woe, what should I do? To where should I flee from my mother’s hands?
! Note:
The subjunctive is sometimes used with μή to express a tentative, doubtful assertion (negative μὴ οὐ). This occurs
primarily in Plato:
μὴ ἀγροικότερον ᾖ τὸ ἀληθὲς εἰπεῖν. (Plato, Gorgias 462e)
I suspect it’s rather rude to tell the truth.
ἀλλὰ μὴ οὐχ οὕτως ἔχῃ. (Plato, Cratylus 436b)
But I suspect that this is not the case.
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The combination οὐ μή + subjunctive expresses an emphatic denial, a strong belief that something will not be the case:
οὐ μή ποτέ σου παρὰ τὰς κάννας οὐρήσω μηδ’ ἀποπάρδω. (Aristophanes, Wasps 394)
I shall never ever piss or fart on your fence.
οὐ μή πίθηται. (Sophocles, Philoctetes 103)
He will certainly not obey.
!
Note:
The difference between the use of present and aorist subjunctives in the constructions above is one of aspect, not of tense!
εἴπωμεν ἢ σιγῶμεν; (Euripides, Ion 758)
Should we speak or keep silent?
The aorist subjunctive εἴπωμεν refers to the act of speaking ‘in completion’: it views the speech as a whole, and thus
refers to a single event (a single utterance). The present subjunctive σιγῶμεν, on the other hand, refers to the
continuous process of keeping silent, as an ongoing (not-complete) event.
7.7.4. Imperative
The imperative is used in commands (second or third person) The negative (for prohibitions) is μή.
λεγέτω εἴ τι ἔχει τοιοῦτον. (Plato, Apology 34a)
Let him say if he has something of that nature.
ταῦτα μοι πρᾶξον, τέκνον, καὶ μὴ βράδυνε. (Sophocles, Philoctetes 1399-1400)
Do this for me, child, and do not delay.
In second person prohibitions, the imperative is used for the present stem, the prohibitive subjunctive for the
aorist stem (see §§7.7.3, 14.1) — *μὴ ποίησον is not Greek, nor is *μὴ ποιῇς; the following are correct: μὴ ποιεῖ,
μὴ ποιήσῃς.
! Note:
The difference between the use of present and aorist imperative is one of aspect, not one of tense! (see also §14.1)
σκοπεῖτε δὴ καὶ λογίσασθ’ ἐν ὑμῖν αὐτοῖς εἰ ... (Demosthenes 20.87)
Look into the matter, and in your own minds come to a conclusion about whether or not ...
The present imperative σκοπεῖτε refers to the open, continuous process of thinking, whereas the aorist imperative
λογίσασθε refers to an event viewed in completion, as a single whole, a definitive conclusion to be reached.
7.7.5. Overview of the uses of moods in main clauses
MOOD MEANINGS / USES
indicative statements and questions about present, past and future
- ἄν (1) unrealisable wishes, (2) imperf. of verbs of necessity/appropriateness

modal past indicative
+ ἄν counterfactual statements and questions
- ἄν ‘cupitive’ in wishes
optative
+ ἄν ‘potential’ in statements and questions of possibility, cautious assertions
(1) ‘hortative’ (first person exhortations), (2) ‘prohibitive’ (second person

subjunctive
prohibitions, aorist only), (3) ‘deliberative’ (first person doubtful questions)
second and third person commands and prohibitions (second person

imperative
prohibitions: present only)
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8. THE VERB: VOICE
8.1. THE GREEK VOICE SYSTEM
The Greek verbal system has three voices:

- Active: e.g. ἔπαυσα
- Middle: e.g. ἐπαυσάμην
- Passive: e.g. ἐπαύσθην
There is no formal distinction between the middle and the passive other than in the aorist (ἐπαύσθη) and
future (παυσθήσομαι) tenses (but see the first note below). The ‘middle-passive’ forms in the other tenses
cover both middle and passive meanings. How to interpret them will depend on the context; sometimes the
distinction is irrelevant.
! Note:
In classical Greek (especially in poetry), the future middle still has passive meaning very frequently. There may be an
aspectual distinction between this use of the future middle and the future passive: the middle, built off the present stem,
is used for ongoing or repeated actions, the passive, built off the aorist stem, for actions viewed as a complete whole. In
later Greek this use of the future middle disappears.
ἀλλ’ ὅστις εὔνους τῇδε τῇ πόλει, θανὼν | καὶ ζῶν ὁμοίως ἐξ ἐμοῦ τιμήσεται. (Sophocles, Antigone 210-1)
But whoever bears this city goodwill, he shall — after his death or in life — be held in esteem by me.
! Note:
It is important to distinguish between middle and passive forms and middle and passive meanings! Not all passive
forms, for example, have passive meaning: ἐβουλήθην = ‘I wanted’ (see §8.4).
When talking about voice, an important distinction to keep in mind is that between transitive and
intransitive verbs:
- Transitive verbs normally get both a subject and an object, like English ‘open’, ‘find’, ‘hit’, ‘write’, etc.
- Intransitive verbs only have a subject, like English ‘wake up’, ‘depart’, ‘assemble’, ‘stand’, etc.
8.2. PASSIVE
Passive meaning occurs only with transitive verbs. What would be the object of the active verb (usually an
accusative, sometimes genitive or dative) becomes the subject of the passive verb:
οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι παρασκευάζουσι τὰς ναῦς (active) Æ αἱ νῆες παρασκευάζονται ὑπὸ τῶν Ἀθηναῖων (passive)
The Athenians are preparing the ships. The ships are being prepared by the Athenians
παρασκευάζω = ‘ready, prepare’ takes an object in the accusative.
ἐπιβουλευόμενοι διάξουσι πάντα τὸν βίον. (Plato, Republic 417b)
They will pass their entire life being plotted against.
ἐπιβουλεύω = ‘plot against someone’ takes an object in the dative.
Intransitive verbs (without an object), in principle, do not have middle-passive forms (e.g. with νοσέω = ‘be
ill’, *νοσοῦμαι does not exist).
47
8. The Verb: Voice
The agent (the entity controlling the action) of a passive verb does not need to be expressed (‘αἱ νῆες
παρασκευάζονται’ by itself is a complete sentence); it may, however, be expressed by:
- ὑπό (sometimes πρός or ἐκ) + genitive
- A dative of agent, almost exclusively with perfect passives and adjectives in -τέος .
! Note:
Some verbs have both an object and another ‘complement’ in the accusative (‘double accusative’, see §4.4.1), e.g. ἐρωτάω
τίνα τι = ‘ask something of someone’. If such verbs are put into the passive, only the object (‘something’) can be used as
the subject of the passive verb (the second complement stays in the accusative):
ἐρωτᾷς αὐτὸν τὴν γνώμην you ask him his opinion
ἐρωτᾶται τὴν γνώμην he is asked his opinion
However, some verbs take an object and a predicative supplement, which are both put in the nominative:
στρατηγὸν αἱροῦμαι τὸν Ξενοφῶντα I appoint Xenophon general.
ὁ Ξενοφῶν στρατηγὸς ᾑρέθη Xenophon was appointed general.
8.3. MIDDLE
! Note:
There is no real scholarly agreement about the origin and ‘basic’ meaning (if there is one) of the Greek middle. One
attempt at a definition might be that the middle expresses ‘subject-affectedness’, in other words that the subject is in some
way affected by the action expressed by the verb. This basic value is present in different ‘meanings’ of the middle, which
largely depend on different types of verb.
With transitive verbs that denote a habitual physical treatment, like λούω (bathe), κείρω (shave), κοσμέω
(adorn), ἀλείφω (anoint), etc. — so-called ‘verbs of grooming’ — the middle expresses that the subject applies
the action to himself (direct-reflexive):
πάντες μὲν ἠλείφοντο. (Xenophon, Hellenica 4.5.4)
They all anointed themselves.
οὐκ ἐλούσατ’ ἐξ ὅτουπερ ἔγενετο. (Aristophanes, Wealth 85)
He hasn’t bathed since he was born
Active forms of these verbs express that the action is performed on someone other than the subject:
πρῶτον μὲν αὐτὸν ἐπὶ θάλατταν ἤγομεν, ἔπειτ’ ἐλοῦμεν. (Aristophanes, Wealth 656-7)
First we took him to the sea, then we bathed him.
! Note:
Only this category of verbs has a ‘direct-reflexive’ middle: for example, λύεται never means ‘he releases himself’ (λύω is
not a verb of grooming; ‘he releases himself’ is λύει ἑαυτόν)!
With other transitive verbs, the middle expresses that the subject has a special interest in (i.e. benefits from)
the action expressed by the verb (‘indirect-reflexive’). Compare the following pairs:
πλοῖα καὶ ἐπικούρους παρασκευασάμενοι διέβησαν ἐς τὴν νῆσον. (Thucydides 3.85.3)
Having procured ships and allies they crossed over to the island.
ναυτικὸν παρεσκεύαζον ὅτι πέμψουσιν ἐς τὴν Λέσβον (Thucydides 3.16.3)
They prepared a fleet to send it to Lesbos.
The middle παρασκευασάμενοι indicates that the subject has prepared the ships and allies for their own benefit —
they will use them; the active παρασκεύαζον does not especially benefit the subject: they are preparing the fleet for
someone else.
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8. The Verb: Voice
ἀπὸ ὀλυρέων ποιεῦνται σιτία. (Herodotus 2.36.2)

They make food from a coarse grain.
οἱ ἀστοὶ ἄλευρά τε καὶ ἄλφιτα ἐποίευν. (Herodotus 7.119.2)
The townspeople made wheat and barley meal.
The food prepared in the first sentence is used by the subject of ποιεῦνται themselves; the food in the second
sentence is made by the townspeople for the Persian king.
Finally, with transitive verbs that (in the active) denote that the subject brings about a physical or mental
change in an object (so-called ‘causative’ verbs), the middle acquires the (intransitive) sense that the change is
brought about in the subject (either by himself — ‘pseudo-reflexive’ — or someone else — ‘pseudo-passive’):
Active Middle
ἀγείρω gather together (tr.) - ἀγείρομαι assemble (intr.)
ἀπαλλάττω remove - ἀπαλλάττομαι depart
ἐγείρω arouse - ἐγείρομαι wake up
ἵστημι make to stand, set up - ἵσταμαι stand up, stand still (from movement)
κλίνω cause to lean - κλίνομαι recline, lean
κομίζω carry, convey - κομίζομαι journey, travel
πείθω persuade, prevail upon - πείθομαι be won over, listen, obey
ῥήγνυμι shatter, break (tr.) - ῥήγνυμαι burst, break (intr.)
στέλλω dispatch, send - στέλλομαι set out, journey
στρέφω turn about (tr.) - στρέφομαι turn (intr.)
τρέφω cause to grow, nourish - τρέφομαι grow up
φοβέω frighten, terrify - φοβέομαι be affrighted, be seized by fear
8.4. DEPONENT VERBS
Some verbs have only middle-passive forms. This group may be divided in media tantum (deponent middle
verbs: verbs that have only a middle aorist and future), and passiva tantum (deponent passive verbs: verbs
that have only a passive aorist and future). Some deponent verbs are:
Media tantum (there are many more!) Passiva tantum (there are a few more)
ἀφικνέομαι - ἀφικόμην arrive αἰδέομαι - ᾐδέσθην be ashamed
δέχομαι - ἐδέξαμην accept ἀρνέομαι - ἠρνήθην deny, refuse
ἕπομαι – ἑσπόμην follow βούλομαι - ἐβουλήθην want
εὔχομαι - ηὐξάμην pray δέομαι - ἐδεήθην beg, lack (need)
ἠγέομαι - ἡγησάμην lead, believe διαλέγομαι - διελέχθην converse with
θεάομαι - ἑθεασάμην gaze at δύναμαι - ἐδυνήθην be able
κτάομαι - ἐκτησάμην acquire ἐνθυμέομαι – ἐνθυμήθην ponder
μαρτύρομαι - ἐμαρτυράμην call to witness ἐπιμέλομαι - ἐπιμελήθην take care of/that
μάχομαι - ἐμαχεσάμην fight ἐπίσταμαι - ἐπιστήθην know, be able to
μέμφομαι - ἐμεμψάμην blame ἥδομαι -ἤσθην enjoy
μηχανάομαι - ἐμαχηνησάμην construct ἡττάομαι - ἡττήθην be weaker than, lose
πέτομαι - ἐπτόμην fly οἴομαι - ὠΐσθην think, believe
φείδομαι - ἐφεισάμην spare πειράομαι - ἐπειράθην attempt
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9. THE INFINITIVE
9.1. DYNAMIC AND DECLARATIVE INFINITIVES
The use of the infinitive can be broadly divided into two categories:
- In indirect discourse, with verbs of speaking/hearing/thinking. This is called the ‘declarative’ infinitive.
The negative is nearly always οὐ.
- To supplement verbs meaning ‘want’, ‘desire’; ‘command’, ‘request’, ‘suggest’, ‘decide’; ‘must’, ‘can’, ‘dare’,
‘try’, ‘be good at’, ‘teach how to’, ‘learn how to’, etc. This is called the ‘dynamic’ infinitive. The negative is
μή.
9.2. THE DECLARATIVE INFINITIVE
The declarative infinitive is one of two possible constructions (see §12.2) after verbs of speaking, hearing, or
thinking/believing, for example:
φημί say, claim νομίζω believe
ἀγγέλλω announce, report ἡγέομαι think
δηλόω make clear πιστεύω believe, trust
γιγνώσκω judge οἴομαι/οἶμαι think
λογίζομαι reckon ὑπολαμβάνω understand
ἀκούω hear ὑποπτεύω, etc. suspect
For verbs of denying, see §9.6.
The negative with the declarative infintive is οὐ (there are two exceptions: the verbs ὄμνυμι, ἐλπίζω,
ὑπισχνέομαι take μή as negative (see §9.5), and ‘verbs of denying’ always have μή, which is left untranslated
(see §9.6). The declarative infinitive can be modified by ἄν (see §12.2).
When the subject of the infinitive and the verb of speaking/thinking/etc. are the same (‘co-referential’), a
simple infinitive without the subject expressed is used:
ὑπώπτευον γὰρ ἤδη ἐπὶ βασιλέα ἰέναι. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.1)
For they already suspected that they were on their way to the king.
This is also the case when the verb of speaking/thinking/etc. is passive (the ‘nominative plus infinitive’
construction):
ὁ Ἀσσύριος εἰς τὴν χώραν ... ἐμβαλεῖν ἀγγέλλεται. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 5.3.30)
It is reported that the Assyrian will invade the country (lit.: ‘The Assyrian is reported ...’)
When the subject of the infinitive is different from that of the verb of speaking/thinking/etc., it must be
separately expressed and stands in the accusative (the ‘accusative plus infinitive’ construction).
ἥξειν νομίζεις παῖδα σον γαίας ὕπο; (Euripides, Heracles 296)
Do you think your son will return from beneath the earth?
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9. The Infinitive
9.3. THE DYNAMIC INFINITIVE
A selection of verbs that get a dynamic infinitive (there are countless more):
- Verbs of willing and desire:
αἱρέομαι choose διανοέομαι decide
βουλεύομαι plan to ἐθέλω be willing, wish
βούλομαι want, be willing σπουδάζω make haste, strive
- Verbs meaning ‘command’, ‘request’ ‘advise’, ‘compel’, etc.:
ἀναγκάζω force, compel δόκει it seems right, it is decided
δεῖ it is necessary κελεύω command
δέομαι ask, require χρῆ it is necessary
Also, most verbs of speaking can take on the meaning ‘command’: λέγω = ‘order’, ἀγγέλλω = ‘convey an order’, etc.
For verbs of preventing and hindering, see §9.6.
- Verbs of competence:
ἀγαθός εἰμι be capable ἔχω can, be able
δύναμαι be able ἰκανός εἰμι be competent
ἔξεστι it is possible
- Verbs meaning ‘learn how to’, ‘teach how to’, etc.:
διδάξω teach μανθάνω learn
- Certain adjectives and nouns:
ἐπιτήδειος suitable ὥρα it is time to
ἱκανός competent, adequate ἵμερος a desire to
The negative with the dynamic infintive is μή. The dynamic infinitive cannot be modified by ἄν.
When the subject of the action expressed by the infinitive and the main verb are the same (co-referential), a
simple infinitive without the subject expressed is used.
καὶ τέσσερας ἵππους συζευγνύναι παρὰ Λιβύων οἱ Ἕλληνες μεμαθήκασι. (Hdt. 4.189.3)
And the Greeks have the knowledge of how to yoke four horses together from the Lybians.
This is also the case when the verb governing a dynamic infinitive is passive:
ἠναγκάσθησαν ... ναυμαχῆσαι πρὸς Φορμίωνα. (Thucydides 2.83.1)
They were compelled to make a naval attack upon Phormio.
If the subject of the dynamic infinitive is different from the subject of the main verb (or if the main verb is
impersonal), it goes in the accusative:
ἔδοξε πλεῖν τὸν Ἀλκιβιάδην. (Thucydides 6.29)
It was decided that Alcibiades should sail.
However, if the of subject of the dynamic infinitive is the same as a complement of the main verb, it
does not need to be expressed again, regardless of the case that complement goes in:
οὐ βούλομαί σε πόλεμον Ἀργείοις ἔχειν. (Euripides, Heraclidae 265)
I do not want you to be at war with the Argives.
ἔδεοντο αὐτοῦ παντὶ τρόπῳ ἀπελθεῖν Ἀθηνηθεν. (Lysias 13.25)
They asked him to leave Athens at all costs. (δέομαι takes a genitive, see §4.2.1.)
βασιλεὺς ὁ Αἰθιόπων συμβουλεύει τῷ Περσέων βασιλέϊ ... ἐπ’ Αἰθίοπας στρατεύσθαι. (Herodotus 3.21.3)
The king of the Ethiopians counsels the king of the Persians to attack the Ethiopians. (συμβουλεύω takes a dative, see §4.3.1.)
51
9. The Infinitive
! Note:
In this last case, words that agree with the (unexpressed) subject of the dynamic infinitive may either go in the accusative
or ‘attract’ into the same case as the complement of the main verb.
νῦν σοι ἔξεστιν ἀνδρὶ γενέσθαι. (Xenophon, Anabasis 7.1.21)
Now it is possible for you to become a man.
Λακεδαιμονίοις ἔξεστιν ὑμῖν φίλους γενέσθαι. (Thucydides 4.29)
It is possible for you to become friends to the Spartans.
ὁ Σωκράτης ... συμβουλεύει τῷ Ξενοφῶντι ἐλθόντα εἰς Δελφοὺς ἀνακοινῶσαι τῷ θεῷ. (Xenophon, Anabasis 3.1.5)
Socrates advised Xenophon to go to Delphi and consult the god.
In the last two examples, φίλους and ἐλθόντα, which have to agree with the subject of the infinitive, go in the
accusative. In the first example, ἀνδρί is attracted into the same case as the complement of ἔξεστι (the dative σοι).
9.4. TENSE AND ASPECT OF DECLARATIVE AND DYNAMIC INFINITIVES
In indirect speech (declarative infinitive), all tenses of the infinitive are used, depending on the tense of
the verb as it would be in direct speech (see §12.2). In effect this means that the various tense-stems have the
following force:
- The present infinitive normally refers to an action going on at the same time as the verb of
speaking/thinking/etc. (‘simultaneous’):
ὁ Μεγασθένης ... φάσκων ... τοὺς μὲν οὖν Βραχμᾶνας ... γαμεῖν δ' ὅτι πλείστας εἰς πολυτεκνίαν. (Megasthenes, fr. 40 Müller)
... Megasthenes, who says that the Brachmanes marry as many wives as possible in order to produce many children.
- The future infinitive refers to an action that will occur after the time of the verb of
speaking/thinking/etc. (‘posterior’):
ὅς δ’ οἴεται Νεοπτόλεμος γαμεῖν νιν, | οὐ γαμεῖ ποτε. (Euripides, Orestes 1654-5)
And the one who thinks he will marry her, Neoptolemus, will never marry her.
- The aorist infinitive refers to an action completed before the verb of speaking/thinking/etc. (‘anterior’):
Ἑλλάνικος δὲ Τηλέμαχόν φασι Ναυσικάαν γῆμαι τὴν Ἀλκινόου. (Hellanicus, fr. 156 Jacoby)
And Hellanicus says that Telemachus married Nausicaä, the daughter of Alcinoüs.
- The perfect infinitive normally refers to a state at the same time as the verb of speaking/thinking/etc.,
resulting from a previous completed action (‘simultaneous’):
γαμεῖς, ὦ Πάμφιλε, τὴν Φίλωνος τοῦ ναυκλήρου θυγατέρα καὶ ἤδη σε γεγαμηκέναι φασίν. (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.2.15)
Pamphilus, you will marry the daughter of Philo the ships-captain, and it is said that you are already married to her.
The dynamic infinitive is limited almost exclusively to the present and aorist. The difference between
these tenses is purely aspectual: usually, the present infinitive refers to an ongoing/repeated process, the
aorist to an action viewed as a single whole.
κεῖνον ... ἐκέλευον ἀναβάντα ἐπὶ πύργον ἀγορεῦσαι ὡς ... . (Herodotus, 3.74.3)
They ordered him to go up on a tower and declare that ...
ἀνεβίβασαν αὐτὸν ἐπὶ πύργον καὶ ἀγορεύειν ἐκέλευον (Herodotus, 3.75.1)
They brought him up on a tower and ordered him to (start) speak(ing).
Herodotus narrates twice how the same person (Prexaspes) is ordered to speak. The aorist infinitive ἀγορεῦσαι looks
at the speech that Prexaspes has to make as a whole (note that the content of that speech is given by the ὡς-clause
that will follow). The present infinitive ἀγορεύειν is used to refer to the process of speaking. Note that both
infinitives have ‘future’ reference, i.e. the speaking is meant to happen after the moment of ordering.
52
9. The Infinitive
! Note:
The future infinitive does not normally occur as a dynamic infinitive, but note its use with forms of μέλλω to express the
future realization of a present or past (with ἔμελλον) intention or arrangement:
μέλλω διδάξειν, ὅθεν μοι ἡ διαβολὴ γέγονεν. (Plato, Apology 21b)
I am going to tell you what the source of the prejudice against me is.
Σοφοκλέα δὲ ... ἐπὶ τῶν πλειόνων νεῶν ἀποπέμψειν ἔμελλον. (Thucydides 3.115.5)
As for Sophocles, him they were going to send out with the main body of the fleet.
μέλλω can also take the aorist or present infinitive (with aspectual distinction).
9.5. VERBS TAKING BOTH CONSTRUCTIONS
Some verbs can be followed either by a dynamic or by a declarative infinitive (as can be seen from the use
of tenses and the negative):
- The verbs ἐλπίζω (‘hope’, ‘expect’), ὑπισχνέομαι (‘promise’) and ὄμνυμι (‘swear’, ‘state under oath’) are
usually followed by a declarative infinitive (normally a future infinitive, because the expectation /
promise / oath refers to the future; the subject of the infinitive and the main verb is always the same).
However, these verbs sometimes take a dynamic infinitive. Either way, these verbs have negative μή:
ὑπισχνοῦντο μηδὲν χαλεπὸν πείσεσθαι. (Xenophon, Hellenica 4.4.5)
They promised that they would suffer no harm.
ὄμνυσιν τὸν Διόνυσον μὴ πώποτ’ ἀμείνον’ ἔπη τούτων κωμῳδικὰ μηδέν’ ἀκοῦσαι (Aristophanes, Wasps 1046-7)
He swears by Dionysus that no one has ever heard any comic poetry better than that.
οἱ δὲ Ἀργεῖοι ὀμόσαντες ... εἰρήνην ποιήσασθαι ... παραλαβόντες ἐφρούρουν (Xenophon, Hellenica 7.4.11)
But the Greeks, who had pledged by oath to make peace … took over the place and guarded it.
The first example has a declarative future infinitive (negative μή): this is the most common construction. The
second example has a declarative aorist infinitive (again, with μή), the third example a dynamic aorist infinitive
(referring to future peace-making, the aorist has aspectual significance only).
- πείθω + declarative infinitive = ‘convince someone that something is the case’; πείθω + dynamic infinitive
= ‘persuade someone to do something’
τέλος ... πείθει τὸν ἄνδρα ταῦτα ἔχειν οὕτω. (Herodotus 4.154.2)
Finally, she convinced her husband that this was true.
οὐδὲ σφεας ξρηστήρια φοβερὰ ... ἔπεισε ἐκλιπεῖν τὴν Ἑλλάδα. (Herodotus 7.139.6)
Nor did the frightful oracles move them to abandon Greece.
In the first example, the present declarative infinitive represents ἔχει from direct speech; note the accusative plus
infinitive construction (τὸν ἄνδρα is accusative merely because it is object with πείθει). In the second example, the
dynamic infinitive is aorist for reasons of aspect.
- Most verbs of saying (+ declarative inf.) can be used as verbs of commanding (+ dynamic inf.):
εἶπον μηδένα τῶν ὄπισθεν κινεῖσθαι (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 2.2.8)
I gave instructions that no one of those behind should make a move.
- γιγνώσκω + declarative infinitive = ‘judge’; γιγνώσκω + dynamic infinitive = ‘resolve’, ‘decide’; γιγνώσκω +
participle = ‘know’ (see §10.2):
ἔγνωσαν οἱ παραγενόμενοι Σπαρτιητέων ... Ἀριστόδημον ... ἔργα ἀποδέξασθαι μεγάλα (Herodotus 1.157.3)
The Spartans that were there judged that Aristodemus had achieved great feats.
οἱ δὲ Κυμαῖοι ἔγνωσαν συμβουλῆς πέρι ἐς θεὸν ἀνοῖσαι τὸν ἐν Βραγχίδῃσι (Herodotus 1.157.3)
The Cymaeans resolved to make the god at Branchidae their judge as to what counsel they should take.
In the first example, the (declarative) aorist infinitive represents the aorist ἀπεδέξατο as it would be in direct
speech. In the second example, the (dynamic) aorist infinitive refers to an action (viewed as a single whole – aorist
aspect) that is resolved upon.
53
9. The Infinitive
- δοκέω has various different constructions. As a verb with personal forms (e.g. δοκῶ), it takes a
declarative infinitive, meaning either ‘think’ or (with the dative) ‘seem’. As an impersonal verb δόκει,
ἔδοξε and δέδοκται take a dative and a dynamic infinitive: the verb in this case means ‘it seems good’, ‘it
is resolved/decided’:
εἰ μὲν ὅσιά σοι δοκῶ παθεῖν (Euripides, Hecuba 778)
If you think that I (lit.: ‘if I seem to you to’) have experienced things that are sanctioned by the gods …
τὴν ἐγὼ τάλας | οὐκ ἂν ποτ ἐς τοσοῦτον αἰκίας πεσεῖν | ἔδοξα (Sophocles, Oedipus Coloneus 747-9)
Woe, I had not thought that she could fall to such a depth of misery.
ἔδοξ’ Ἀχαιοῖς παῖδα σὴν Πολυξένην σφάξαι (Euripides, Hecuba 220-1)
The Greeks have decided to kill your daughter Polyxena.
In the first two examples, the infinitives are declarative (δοκέω, however, means ‘seem’ in one and ‘think’ in the
other). The aorist infinitives represents ἔπαθον and ἄν πέσοι from ‘direct’ speech. In the third example the
(dynamic) aorist infinitive refers to an action (viewed as a single whole – aorist aspect) that will be performed
according to the Greek’s decision.
9.6. THE INFINITIVE WITH VERBS OF PREVENTING AND DENYING
Some common verbs of preventing and hindering and verbs of denying are:
Preventing and Hindering Denying
ἀναβάλλομαι delay ἀντιλέγω contradict, dispute
ἀπαγορεύω forbid (ἀπ-/ἐξ-)ἀρνέομαι deny
ἀπεῖπον (no present) forbid ἔξαρνός εἰμι deny
ἀπέχομαι refrain from
ἀπέχω prevent
εἴργω prevent, cut off from
ἐμποδών (adv.) εἰμι prevent (lit.: ‘be in the way’)
οὐκ ἐάω forbid
φυλάττομαι beware of
The normal construction with each of these verbs is μή + infinitive (verbs of preventing and hindering get a
dynamic infinitive, verbs of denying get a declarative infintive). μή is not translated:
ἀλλ᾽ ἀπαγορεύω μὴ ποιεῖν ἐκκλησίαν | τοῖς Θρᾳξὶ περὶ μισθοῦ. (Aristophanes, Acharnians 169-70)
But I forbid having a meeting about paying wage to the Thracians.
τὸν νοῦν τ’ ἀπείργει μὴ λέγειν ἃ βούλεται. (Euripides, fr. 67 Nauck)
He prevents his mind from speaking what it wants.
When a verb of preventing/hindering/denying is itself negated, it is followed by μὴ οὐ (not translated):
οὐκ ἄν ποτ’ ἔσχον μὴ οὐ τάδ’ ἐξειπεῖν πατρί. (Euripides, Hippolytus 658)
I would not have refrained from divulging this to my father.
( ...) οὔτ’ αὐτὸς ἐξαρνοῦμαι μὴ οὐ γεγονέναι ἐρωτικός ... (Aeschines 1.136)
... nor do I deny that I myself have been a lover ... (declarative infinitive)
Some other infinitive-constructions with verbs of preventing/hindering/denying:

- With τὸ μή or τὸ μὴ οὐ + infinitive:
ἐκόμπασε, | μηδ᾽ ἂν τὸ σεμνὸν πῦρ νιν εἰργαθεῖν Διὸς | τὸ μὴ οὐ ... ἑλεῖν πόλιν. (Euripides, Phoenissae 1175-6)
He boasted that not even the holy flame of Zeus could prevent him from taking the city.
54
9. The Infinitive
- The same, but in the genitive (τοῦ μή or τοῦ μὴ οὐ + infinitive):

πᾶς γὰρ ἀσκὸς δύ’ ἄνδρας ἕξει τοῦ μὴ καταδῦναι. (Xenophon, Anabasis 3.5.11)
For each wineskin will prevent two men from going under.
- Sometimes, with a bare infinitive (without μή):
ὀλίγους ἐπὶ Ὀλύνθου ἀποπέμπουσιν, ὅπως εἴργωσι τοὺς ἐκεῖθεν ἐπιβοηθεῖν. (Thucydides 1.62.4)
They sent a few men to Olynthus, to prevent the people there to come to aid.
! Note:
The verb κωλύω (prevent, hinder) is always construed with a simple infinitive, without μή:
χάριν δὲ δοῦναι τήνδε κωλύει τί σε; (Euripides, Iphigenia in Tauris 507)
What hinders you from giving me this favour.
προπεφύραται λόγος εἷς μοι, | ὃν διαμάττειν οὐ κωλύει; (Aristophanes, Birds 462-3)
There’s a special (lit.: ‘one’) speech whipped up for me, and nothing prevents me from kneading it into a cake.
9.7. THE ARTICULAR INFINITIVE
A neuter article can be added to an infinitive to make it into a noun, best translated by the gerund (‘-ing’) in
English. The negative is μή:
... οὐκ ἄρα τὸ χαίρειν ἐστίν εὖ πράττειν. (Plato, Gorgias, 522e)
So enjoying oneself is not to fare well.
... τοῦ μὴ λύειν ἕνεκα τὰς σπονδάς. (Thucydides 1.45.3)
... for the sake of not breaking the treaty.
The articular infinitive can appear in any case, but never changes form (the case can be seen only from the
form of the article).
! Note:
Articular infintives retain all their ‘verbal’ characteristics: they have tense and voice, they take an object in the normal case
(compare τὸ λύειν τὰς σπονδάς (acc.) in the example above with ἡ λυσίς τῶν σπονδῶν (objective genitive)), they can be
modified by adverbs, etc.
9.8. OTHER USES OF THE INFINITIVE
With verbs meaning ‘give’, ‘entrust’, etc., the dynamic infinitive can be used with the force of a purpose
clause:
ταύτην τὴν χώραν ἐπέτρεψε διαρπάσαι τοῖς Ἕλλησιν. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.19)
That country he left to the Greeks to plunder.
The infinitive is occasionally used by itself in commands (‘infinitivus pro imperativo’):

σὺ δὲ μοι ἐπὶ τὴν Ἑλλάδα στρατεύεσθαι. (Herodotus, 3.134.5)
You must undertake an expedition against Greece.
It is (infrequently) used in exclamations:

τῆς μωρίας | τὸν Δία νομίζειν ὄντα τηλικουτονί. (Aristophanes, Clouds 818-9)
What madness! To believe in Zeus, at your age!
55
10. THE PARTICIPLE
10.1. TENSE AND ASPECT OF PARTICIPLES
- The present participle describes an action going on at the same time as the main verb (simultaneous):
ταῦτα γράφων ἔννομα ἔγραψα. (Demosthenes 7.25)
In writing those things, I wrote things that were lawful.
- The aorist participle describes an action which has occurred before the action of the main verb
(anterior):
ἐν πτυχαῖς γράψας ἔπεμψα πρὸς δάμαρτα τὴν ἐμήν. (Euripides, Iphigenia in Aulis 98-9)
After writing (a message) on tablets, I sent it to my wife.
- The future participle describes an action that will occur after the action of the main verb (posterior):
οὔπω δῆλος ἦν ὁ Φιλοκράτης τοιαῦτα γράψων. (Demosthenes 19.25)
It was not yet clear that Philocrates was going to draft such proposals.
- The perfect participle describes a state resulting from a previous completed action, occurring at the
same time as the main verb (simultaneous):
ὁ Δεμοσθένης ὑπανέγνω τὸ ψήφισμα ὃ γεγραφώς αὐτὸς ἦν. (Aeschines 2.109)
Demosthenes read aloud a motion of which he himself was the author.
Being the author of a something is the ‘state’ that results from having written it (compare οἱ τεθνηκότες = ‘the dead’).
! Note:
The future participle often expresses the purpose of an action, usually in conjunction with ὡς:
ὠνοῦμαι πτυχὰς ὡς ἐπιστολὴν γράψων.
I’m buying tablets to write a letter.
But after verbs of sending and going ὡς is frequently omitted:
εἰσέρχομαι εἰς τὸν θάλαμον ἐπιστολὴν γράψων.
I’m going into the bedroom to write a letter.
! Note:
The aorist participle is sometimes used when the action expressed by the participle does not seem to precede the action of
the main verb, but to begin and end exactly when the main verb does. This is called the ‘coincident’ use of the aorist
participle, and it is especially frequent when the main verb is a verb of speaking (the participle is normally
‘circumstantial’ and to be interpreted as a modifier of manner, see §10.4):
Σόλων δὲ οὐδὲν ὑποθωπεύσας, ἀλλὰ τῷ ἐόντι χρησάμενος, λέγει· ... (Herodotus 1.30.3)
But Solon, not flattering him in any way, but relying on the truth, said: ...
The flattering and truth-using are not over before Solon’s utterance, but coincide with it. Because the begin- and
end-point of the actions are well-defined, the aorist participle (aspect: complete) may be used.
10.2. THE SUPPLEMENTARY PARTICIPLE
Some verbs normally take a construction with a participle (as a ‘required’ supplement) to complete their
sense:
- With verbs of emotion:
αἰσχύνομαι be ashamed χαίρω/ἥδομαι enjoy / be pleased
ἄχθομαι be displeased / annoyed μεταμέλομαι regret
56
10. The Participle
- With verbs meaning ‘begin’, ‘continue’, ‘end’, etc. (always with the present participle):
ἄρχομαι begin
διατελέω continue / go on
λήγω/παύομαι stop/cease
- With verbs meaning ‘endure’, ‘persist’, ‘allow’, ‘give up’ etc.:
ἀνέχομαι endure, bear ἀπεῖπον (no present) get tired of
ἀπαγορεύω give up περιοράω allow
- With some verbs expressing a way of being:
λανθάνω be hidden/unnoticed
τυγχάνω happen to be
φθάνω anticipate / be first
- With verbs of perceiving and knowing:
αἰσθάνομαι perceive μέμνημαι remember
ἀκούω hear οἶδα/ἐπίσταμαι know
γιγνώσκω know ὁράω see
μάνθανω learn πύνθανομαι learn
- With verbs meaning ‘it is clear that I...’, ‘I am obviously’:
δῆλός εἰμι be obviously, it is clear that …
φαίνομαι be obviously, it is clear that …
φανερός εἰμι be obviously, it is clear that …
With these verbs, if the subject of the main verb and the participle-phrase are the same (co-referential), the
participle is in the nominative. If the subject of the participle-phrase different from that of the main verb, the
participle usually stands in the accusative (the ‘accusative and participle’ construction):
οἶδα νικῶν. ὁρῶμεν ἀδύνατοι ὄντες.
I know that I am winning. We see that we are without strength
οἶδα αὐτὸν νικῶντα. ὁρῶμεν ὑμᾶς ἀδυνάτους ὄντας.
I know that he is winning. We see that you are without strength.
! Note:
ἀκούω is also construed with a genitive and a participle, signifying ‘direct’ hearing (the hearer is actually present):
ἀκούω αὐτὴν ἐρχομένην.
I hear that she is coming.
ἀκούω αὐτῆς ἐρχομένης.
I hear her coming.
! Note:
If a supplementary participle agrees with a noun, it stands in predicative position (see §2.2).
57
10. The Participle
10.2.1. Verbs taking either participle or infinitive
Several verbs can be construed either with a participle or with the infinitive (or with ὅτι/ὡς-clauses, see
§12.3). The participle is used with such verbs to express something factual, the declarative infinitive is used
in indirect speech, the dynamic infinitive expresses something that is possible, desired, etc.:
+ PARTICIPLE + DECLARATIVE INFINITIVE + DYNAMIC INFINITIVE
ἀγγέλλω ‘report’ (independent fact) ‘report’ (rumour)
αἰσχύνομαι ‘be ashamed that’ ‘shrink from’
ἀκούω ‘hear’ (fact (acc.) or direct (gen.)) ‘hear’ (as rumour)
ἀνέχομαι ‘endure’, ‘bear’ ‘dare to’
ἄρχομαι ‘begin -ing’ ‘begin to’
γιγνώσκω ‘realize that’ ‘judge that’ ‘decide to’
ἐπίσταμαι ‘know that’ (knowledge) ‘know how to’ (skill)
μανθάνω ‘learn that’ ‘learn to’
μέμνημαι ‘remember that’ ‘be mindful to’
οἶδα ‘know that’ (knowledge) ‘know how to’ (skill)
φαίνομαι ‘be clearly’, ‘it is clear that’ ‘seem’
Some examples:
φαίνεται τἀληθῆ λέγων. αἰσχύνομαι αὐτὸν βλάπτων.
He is clearly speaking the truth. I am ashamed to be hurting him.
φαίνεται τἀληθῆ λέγειν. αἰσχύνομαι αὐτὸν βλάψαι.
He seems to be speaking the truth. I do not dare hurt him.
10.3. THE ATTRIBUTIVE PARTICIPLE
The participle can be used as an adjective (the rules for the position of adjectives and the article apply as
normal):
ὁρῶ τὸν ἄνδρα τὸν νοσοῦντα.
I see the man who is sick.
ὁρῶ τὸν ἄνδρα νοσοῦντα would mean ‘I see that the man is sick’ (see §§2.2, 9.2)
ἐν ᾧ δὲ ὡπλίζοντο ἧκον οἱ προπεμφθέντες σκοποί. (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.2.15)
While they were arming, the scouts who had been sent ahead returned.
A participle that technically is used as an adjective may function as the most important element in the
participle-noun phrase, which is indispensible for the meaning of the sentence (the participle is then called
‘dominant’). This use is especially frequent after prepositions (compare Latin ab urbe condita):
ἐλύπει αὐτὸν ἡ χώρα πορθουμένη. (Xenophon, Anabasis 7.7.12)
The fact that the country was being ravaged grieved him.
ἐπὶ Κόδρου βασιλεύοντος (Lycurgus 84)
in the reign of Codrus
58
10. The Participle
With a definite article, it can also be used as a noun:

... ἀναλαβὼν ... τοὺς ἐν τῇ μάχῃ πρὸς τοὺς Ἔλληνας αὐτομολήσαντας. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.10.6)
... having picked up those who had defected to the Greeks during the battle.
Often, the generic article (see §2.1) is used with participles, giving the sense ‘whoever...’. The negative in this
case is μή:
πῶς ἂν γένοιντο πονηρότεροι ἄνθρωποι ἤ τοῦ παιδεύοντος τὰ τοιαῦτα; (Demosthenes 35.42)
How could there be men more wicked than whoever teaches such things?
ὁ μὴ γαμῶν ἄνθρωπος οὐκ ἔχει κακά. (Menander, Sententiae 437)
An unmarried man has no troubles.
10.4. THE CIRCUMSTANTIAL PARTICIPLE
Participles can be added to sentences freely to express temporal relations, causal relations, manner, etc.
(depending on the context). There are two possibilities:
- The subject of the participle is identical to a ‘constituent’ (subject, object, indirect object, etc.) in the main
clause — in this case the participle is connected to (and agrees with) that consituent (‘connected
participle’):
ὁ παῖς γελῶν ἀπῆλθεν.
The boy left laughing.
οὐδείς ἀθυμώτερος τούτου τοῦ παιδὸς καίπερ γελῶντος.
No one is more unhappy than that boy, even though he is laughing.
τῷ παιδὶ γελῶντι φθονεῖς.
You are jealous of the boy’s laughter. (lit.: ‘you are jealous of the boy as he is laughing’)
γελάσαντα τὸν παιδὰ ἡ μήτηρ κολάζει.
Because the boy has laughed, his mother is punishing him.
In each of these sentences, the participle agrees with a form of παῖς which is already present in the clause (as
subject, genitive of comparison, dative-complement with φθονέω, or object).
- The subject of the participle is not present in the main clause — in this case the participle and its subject
are introduced independently from the structure of the clause in which they occur, and are both put in the
genitive (‘genitive absolute’):
γελῶντος τοῦ παιδὸς ἀπήλθομεν.
While the boy was laughing we left.
In this sentence the subject of the participle is not present in the main clause (ἀπήλθομεν) as subject, object, etc., and
the participle has nothing to agree with. Participle and subject need to be ‘introduced’ separately by means of the
genitive absolute.
! Note:
It is easy to confuse the genitive absolute with participles that are in the genitive for other reasons, and sometimes you
can interpret a phrase both ways. Mind the position of the participle and the article:
βλαβείσης τῆς χειρὸς ἐξέβαλε τὸ ξίφος.
When his hand had been hurt, he dropped his sword. (genitive absolute)
τῆς βλαβείσης χειρὸς ἐξέβαλε τὸ ξίφος.
He dropped his sword from the hand that been hurt. (genitive of separation)
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10. The Participle
For impersonal verbs (without a subject) the accusative neuter is used instead of the genitive (‘accusative
absolute’, see also §11.3):
τί δὴ ὑμᾶς ἐξὸν ἀπολέσαι οὐκ ἐπὶ τοῦτο ἤλθομεν; (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.5.22)
Why then, when it was possible to kill you, did we not proceed to do so?
οἱ μάρτυρες καταμαρτυροῦσι, δέον αὐτοὺς τὸν αὐτὸν ὅρκον σοὶ διομοσαμένους. (Antiphon 5.12)
The witnesses are giving damning testimony, it being necessary that they have sworn the same oath as you.
How a circumstantial participle should be interpreted (and what type of subordinate clause to choose for a
translation into English) depends on the context, and possibly on particles or adverbs that appear with the
participle:
- Time (sometimes with a temporal adverb like ἅμα; usually an appropriate interpretation when the
participle precedes the main verb):
ἐπαιάνιζον ... ἅμα ... πλέοντες. (Thucydides 2.91.2)
They were singing a paean while rowing.
νῦν μὲν δειπνεῖτε παρ’ ἡμῖν· δειπνήσαντες δὲ ἀπελαύνετε ὅποι ὑμῖν θυμός. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia)
Now, stay with us for dinner; after dinner (lit.: ‘having dined’), go wherever your inclination to go is.
- Manner/means, note that the ‘coincident’ aorist participle is sometimes used in this case (see §10.1):
ληζόμενοι ζῶσι. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 3.2.25)
They lived by pillaging.
ἀπώλεσέν μ᾽ εἰποῦσα συμφορὰς ἐμὰς. (Euripides, Hippolytus 596)
She has destroyed me by revealing my misfortunes.
- Purpose (future participle, usually with ὡς, see §10.1):
κήρυκα ... προύπεμψαν αὐτοῖς ... ἀπεροῦντα μὴ πλεῖν. (Thucydides 1.29.3)
They sent ahead a messenger to forbid them to sail.
- Cause or motivation, often with ἅτε, οἷα, οἷον to give an ‘objective’ reason, for which the speaker takes
responsibility, or with ὡς to give a ‘subjective’ reason, for which responsibility lies with the subject of the
main verb):
κατέδαρθε πάνυ πολύ ἅτε μακρῶν τῶν νυκτῶν οὐσῶν. (Plato, Symposium 223c)
He used to slumber for a long time, because the nights were long.
αὐτοὶ ἐνταῦθ’ ἔμενον ὡς τὸ ἄκρον κατέχοντες. οἱ δ’ οὐ κατεῖχον. (Xenophon, Anabasis 4.2.5)
There they remained thinking they held the summit. But they did not hold it.
In the first example, the speaker gives the reason for the subject’s long sleep (this does not mean that the subject
decided to sleep in because of the long nights, but that the darkness affected his sleeping patterns). In the second
example, the οἱ δ’ οὐ κατεῖχον makes very clear that the reason provided is subjective: after all, the narrator
immediately makes clear that the subjects’ reasoning was false.
- Comparison, with ὥσπερ:
τί μ’ ἐσδέδορκεν ὥσπερ ἀργύρου σκοπῶν λαμπρὸν χαρακτῆρ; (Euripides, Electra 558-9)
Why is he staring intently at me, as if he is looking at a shining mark on a silver coin?
- Concession (‘although’, ‘even though’), with καίπερ or καί preceding the participle:
τὸν Ἄδρηστον κατοικτίρει, καίπερ ἐὼν ἐν κακῷ ... τοσούτῳ. (Herodotus 1.45.8)
He took pity on Adrastus, though he found himself in so much agony.
- Conditional (the negative is μή; μή + participle is nearly always conditional):
σύ δὲ κλύων εἴσει τάχα. (Aristophanes, Birds 1390)
If you listen, you will soon find out.
(τοῦτο) ὁ νῦν ὑμεῖς μὴ πειθόμενοι ἡμῖν πάθοιτε ἄν. (Thucydides 1.40.2)
That which might well happen to you now if you do not listen to us.
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10. The Participle
- A few participles are good equivalents of ‘with’ (ἔχων, χρώμενος (+dat.), φέρων, ἄγων, λάβων):
ἔρχεται τὸν υἱὸν ἔχουσα. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 1.3.1)
She comes with her son.
λαβόντες Βοιωτοὺς ὄντας ξυμμάχους οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι ἐστράτευσαν ἐπὶ Φάρσαλον. (Thucydides 1.111.1)
With Boeotians as their allies the Athenians marched against Pharsalus.
10.5. PERIPHRASTIC USES OF THE PARTICIPLE
The verbs εἰμί and ἔχω are sometimes used as ‘auxiliary’ verbs with participles, the combined pair forming a
complex verb phrase with the following meanings:
- In εἰμί + participle (usually present or perfect, rarely aorist), the combined phrase has roughly the same
value that a finite form of the verb of the participle would have:
δεινῶς ἀθυμῶ μὴ βλέπων ὁ μάντις ᾖ. (Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 747)
I have dread misgivings that the seer can see.
οἱ δὲ Αἰτωλοὶ (βεβοηθηκότες γὰρ ἤδη ἦσαν ἐπὶ τὸ Αἰγίτιον) προσέβαλλον τοῖς Ἀθηναίοις. (Thucydides 3.97.3)
But the Aetolian (since by this time they had come to the rescue of Aigition), attacked the Athenians.
The βλέπων ᾖ in the first example corresponds roughly to βλέπῃ, and the βεβοηθηκότες ἦσαν of the second example
equals βεβοηθήκασιν. There is debate about the difference between these forms and their finite ‘counterparts’, but
the periphrastic construction may emphasise that something is a permanent characteristic of the subject.
- ἔχω + participle (nearly always aorist), known as the σχῆμα Ἀττικόν, can be translated quite ‘literally’
into an English perfect:
τὸν λογον δὲ σου πάλαι θαυμάσας ἔχω ... (Plato, Phaedrus 257c)
Since long, I have wondered about your speech ...
This type of periphrastic construction occurs primarily in Sophocles, Euripides, and Herodotus. The difference
between finite forms and a form of ἔχω + aor. part. is unclear.
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11. IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTIONS
11.1. INTRODUCTION, WEATHER TERMS
Impersonal verbs have no real subject (or: a ‘null subject’). In English, the so-called ‘dummy’ pronoun ‘it’ is
used as the subject of such verbs. In Greek, the subject is not expressed — the verb appears in the third
person singular.
Almost the only genuinely impersonal verbs in English (where the word ‘it’ seems to refer to nothing at all)
are weather terms:
It is raining.
It is nice out.
Greek has impersonal expressions to describe the weather as well:
ὕει it is raining ἀστράπτει there’s lightning
νείφει it is snowing χειμάζει it is stormy
βροντᾷ it is thundering ἔσεισει there was an earthquake
! Note:
These verbs also appear with a god as subject: Ζεὺς ὕει, ἔσεισεν ὁ θεός.
11.3. OTHER IMPERSONAL VERBS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTIONS
Of the other impersonal verbs in Greek, the following take an accusative and infinitive construction:
δεῖ με (impf. ἔδει) + inf. it is necessary that I, I must/ought
χρή με (impf. (ἐ)χρῆν) + inf. it is necessary that I, I must/ought
The following take a dative and infinitive:

δοκεῖ μοι + inf. it seems a good idea to me, I have decided to
ἔξεστι/πάρεστί μοι + inf. it is possible/permitted for me, I can
πρέπει μοι + inf. it is fitting for me
προσήκει μοι + inf. it is fitting for me
συμφέρει μοι + inf. it is of use to me, it is advantageous for me
λυσιτελεῖ μοι + inf. it is profitable for me
The following take the dative and genitive:

μέτεστί μοί τινος I have a share in something
μέλει μοί τινος I care for something, I make sure of something
μεταμέλει μοί τινος I am sorry about something, I regret
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11. Impersonal Constructions
11.4. ACCUSATIVE ABSOLUTE
Impersonal verbs use the accusative absolute rather than the genitive absolute (see §10.4):
ἀδελφεοκτόνος τε, οὐδὲν δέον, γέγονα. (Herodotus 3.65.4)
And I am responsible for the murder of my brother, though there was no need for me to kill him.
ἐκβῆναι οὐκ ὃν ... ἀναγκαῖον ἦν ἐπ’ ἀγκύρας ἀποσαλεύωιν. (Xenophon Anabasis 2.5.22)
Since it was impossible to go ashore, it was necessary to ride at anchor.
Note, however, that weather terms (see §11.1 above) have a genitive absolute:
ἀνηγάγετο ἐπὶ τὴν Κύζικον ὕοντος πολλῷ. (Xenophon Anabasis 1.1.16)
He set sail for Cyzicus when it was raining heavily.
11.5. VERBAL ADJECTIVES
Greek has a gerundive in -τέος, -τέα, -τέον, expressing necessity. There are two different constructions:
- ‘Passive’ (only with transitive verbs) — in this case the gerundive is an adjective, passive in meaning, that
agrees in case, number and gender with a noun. The agent is expressed in the dative:
παυστέος πόλεμος a war that is to be ended / must be ended
ποιήτεα πράγματα ἐμοί things that must be done by me
- ‘Active’ — in this case the accusative neuter of the gerundive is used in an impersonal construction (often
with a form of εἰμί) which is active in meaning. The gerundive can take an object in the accusative,
genitive or dative as required by the verb (see §§4.2.1, 3.3.1, 3.4.1). The agent is expressed in the dative:
πειστέον πατρὸς λόγοις one must obey his father’s commands (λόγοις is dative with πείθω)
οἰστέον ἐστί τάδε ἐμοί these things must be endured by me (ἐμοί is dative of agent)
Verbal adjectives in –τός, –τή, –τόν either have the meaning of a perfect passive participle, or express
possibility:
κρυπτός hidden / possible to hide
παιδευτός educated / possible to educate
νοητός thought / thinkable
ὁρατός seen / visible
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12. INDIRECT DISCOURSE
12.1. INDIRECT SPEECH AND THOUGHT
The representation of speech (and hearing) or thought in written texts takes one of two forms:
- Direct: ‘John said to me: ‘You are my best friend here’‘;
- Indirect: ‘John said to me that I was his best friend there.’
Persons and temporal/spatial reference points often change in indirect speech, compare ‘you are...’ with ‘that I
was...’ above, and ‘here’ as opposed to ‘there’.
Indirect discourse in Greek follows verbs of speaking, hearing, or thinking/believing: λέγω, φημί, ἀγγέλλω,
ἀποκρίνομαι, δηλόω, ὁμολογέω, ἀκούω, νομίζω, ἠγέομαι, πιστεύω, οἴομαι/οἶμαι, ὑπολαμβάνω, ὑποπτεύω, etc.
There are two different constructions for indirect discourse in Greek:

- With a declarative infinitive (or accusative and infinitive construction). The following verbs normally
have the infinitive (not a ὅτι/ὡς-clause) in indirect discourse:
φημί say, claim, hold οἴομαι/οἴμαι think
φάσκω say, claim ἡγέομαι think
ὁμολογέω agree πυνθάνομαι hear, learn
νομίζω consider, believe, think
- With a subordinate clause, introduced by ὅτι or ὡς (‘that’). The following verbs normally have a
ὅτι/ὡς-clause (not the infinitive) in indirect discourse:
λέγω say, speak
ἀκούω hear
ἀποκρίνομαι reply
! Note:
The declarative infinitive does occur with forms of λέγω and ἀκούω, but nearly exclusively with expressions like λέγεται,
‘it is said that’, or οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι λέγουσιν, ‘the Athenians say’, referring to rumours, traditions, etc.
! Note:
Remember that verbs of knowing, perception and emotion, like ὁράω, οἶδα, ἐπίσταμαι, μανθάνω, γιγνώσκω, ἀκούω,
(ἐν)νοέω, θαυμάζω, ἥδομαι, χαίρω, ἀγανακτέω, etc., normally take a construction with a participle (see §10.2). Verbs that
take the participle can take ὅτι-clauses (οἶδ’ ὅτι ... = ‘I know that ...’).
! Note:
The Greek for ‘I say that ... not ...’ is οὔ φημι.
( ...) οὔ φησι χρῆναι τοὺς νέους ἀσκεῖν [ταύτην τὴν γλῶτταν]. (Aristophanes, Clouds 1059)
He says that our youths should not exercise that type of talk.
64
12. Indirect Discourse
12.2. WITH A DECLARATIVE INFINITIVE
When the subject of the infinitive and the verb of speaking/thinking/etc. are the same (co-referential), a
simple infinitive is used. When the subject of the infinitive is different than that of the verb of
speaking/thinking/etc., it must be separately expressed and stands in the accusative (accusative and infinitive
construction). See §9.2.
The passive of verbs of speaking/etc. means that something is said about someone. The subject will be the
same as the subject of the verb, so a simple infinitive is used:
Αἰγύπτιοι δ’ οὗτοι ἐλέγοντο εἶναι. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.8.9)
These men are said to be Egyptians.
The tense-stem of the infinitive is the same as the one that the verb in direct speech would have, with
the present ‘replacing’ the imperfect and the perfect ‘replacing’ the pluperfect:
DIRECT INDIRECT
ὁ Σωκράτης βασιλεύει (pres. ind.) ἔφη τὸν Σωκράτη βασιλεύειν (pres. inf.)
ὁ Σωκράτης ἐβασιλεύε (impf.) ἔφη τὸν Σωκράτη βασιλεύειν (pres. inf.)
ὁ Σωκράτης βασιλεύσει (fut. ind.) ἔφη τὸν Σωκράτη βασιλεύσειν (fut. inf.)
ὁ Σωκράτης ἐβασίλευσε (aor. ind.) ἔφη τὸν Σωκράτη βασίλευσαι (aor. inf.)
ὁ Σωκράτης βεβασίλευκε (perf. ind.) ἔφη τὸν Σωκράτη βεβασιλευκέναι (perf. inf.)
ὁ Σωκράτης ἐβεβασιλεύκει (plupf.) ἔφη τὸν Σωκράτη βεβασιλευκέναι (perf. inf.)
If the verb would have had ἄν in direct speech, the infinitive also has ἄν (for these uses of ἄν, see §§7.7.1-2):
DIRECT INDIRECT
ὁ Σωκράτης ἐβασίλευε ἄν (impf. + ἄν) ἔφη τὸν Σωκράτη βασιλεύειν ἄν (pres. inf. + ἄν)
ὁ Σωκράτης ἐβασίλευσε ἄν (aor. ind. + ἄν) ἔφη τὸν Σωκράτη βασίλευσαι ἄν (aor. inf. + ἄν)
ὁ Σωκράτης βασιλεύοι ἄν (pres. opt. + ἄν) ἔφη τὸν Σωκράτη βασιλεύειν ἄν (pres. inf. + ἄν)
ὁ Σωκράτης βασιλεύσειεν ἄν (aor. opt. + ἄν) ἔφη τὸν Σωκράτη βασίλευσαι ἄν (aor. inf. + ἄν)
12.3. WITH A ὅτι/ὡς-CLAUSE
Unlike English, Greek does not have a sequence of tenses (‘I say that I am rich’ / ‘I said that I was rich’). The
finite verb in a Greek ὅτι- or ὡς-clause always has the tense that the verb in direct speech would have.
διῆλθε λόγος ὅτι διώκει αὐτοὺς Κῦρος. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.4.7)
A report spread that Cyrus was in pursuit of them.
ἀπεκρίνατο ... ὅτι πειθομένοις αὐτοῖς οὐ μεταμελήσει. (Xenophon, Anabasis 7.1.34)
He replied that they would not regret obeying.
The present διώκει represents a present διώκει from ‘direct speech’: ‘he is in pursuit’. The future μεταμελήσει would
look exactly like that in direct speech: οὐ μεταμελήσει ὑμῖν, ‘you will not regret’.
65
Greek does, however, have a sequence of moods:

- After primary tenses (present, future, perfect) mood and tense stay the same: this is called ‘primary
sequence’:
DIRECT INDIRECT
ὁ Σωκράτης βασιλεύει (pres. ind.) λέγει ὅτι ὁ Σωκράτης βασιλεύει (pres. ind.)
ὁ Σωκράτης ἐβασιλεύε (impf.) λέγει ὅτι ὁ Σωκράτης ἐβασίλευε (impf.)
ὁ Σωκράτης βασιλεύσει (fut. ind.) λέγει ὅτι ὁ Σωκράτης βασιλεύσει (fut. ind.)
ὁ Σωκράτης ἐβασίλευσε (fut. ind.) λέγει ὅτι ὁ Σωκράτης ἐβασίλευσε (aor. ind.)
ὁ Σωκράτης βεβασίλευκε (perf. ind.) λέγει ὅτι ὁ Σωκράτης βεβασίλευκε (perf. ind.)
ὁ Σωκράτης ἐβεβασιλεύκει (plupf.) λέγει ὅτι ὁ Σωκράτης ἐβεβασιλεύκει (plupf.)
- After a verb in a secondary tense (imperfect, aorist, pluperfect), the optative may — but does not have
to — be used instead of the mood of the verb in direct speech (the tense stays the same!): this is called
‘historic’ or ‘secondary sequence’; the optative is called ‘oblique optative’ (or simply the ‘optative in
historic sequence’):
DIRECT INDIRECT
ὁ Σωκράτης βασιλεύει (pres. ind.) εἶπε ὅτι ὁ Σωκράτης βασιλεύοι or βασιλεύει (pres. opt./ind.)
ὁ Σωκράτης ἐβασιλεύε (impf.) εἶπε ὅτι ὁ Σωκράτης (βασιλεύοι) or ἐβασιλεύε (impf.)
ὁ Σωκράτης βασιλεύσει (fut. ind.) εἶπε ὅτι ὁ Σωκράτης βασιλεύσοι or βασιλεύσει (fut. opt./ind.)
ὁ Σωκράτης ἐβασίλευσε (fut. ind.) εἶπε ὅτι ὁ Σωκράτης βασιλεύσειεν or ἐβασίλευσε (pres. opt./ind.)
ὁ Σωκράτης βεβασίλευκε (perf. ind.) εἶπε ὅτι ὁ Σωκράτης βεβασιλεύκοι or βεβασίλευκε (perf. opt. /ind.)
ὁ Σωκράτης ἐβεβασιλεύκει (plupf.) εἶπε ὅτι ὁ Σωκράτης (βεβασιλεύκοι) or ἐβεβασιλεύκει (plupf.)
Some examples:
καὶ μιν πυθόμενοι ὡς εἴη Μιλτιάδεω παῖς ἀνήγαγον παρὰ βασιλέα. (Herodotus 6.41.3)
And after the learned that he was a son Miltiades, they brought him to the king.
οἱ δὲ στρατηγοὶ ἀπεκρίναντο ὅτι ... σὺν τῇ στρατιᾷ βουλεύσοιντο. (Xenophon, Anabasis 6.3.1)
The generals replied that they would take council with the army.
The present optative εἴη represents a present indicative ἐστι from ‘direct speech’: ‘he is a son of’. The future optative
βουλεύσοιντο represents a future indicative βουλευσόμεθα: ‘we will take council’.
! Note:
The future optative occurs exclusively as oblique optative; the perfect optative is extremely rare.
! Note:
There is a nuanced difference between ‘retaining’ the mood of direct speech in historic sequence and using the oblique
optative. The use of the ‘original’ mood probably presents the content of the speech as ‘seen through the eyes’ of the original
speaker, whereas the oblique optative (altogether more frequent) presents everything as ‘moderated’ by the speaker/narrator.
Note that, to prevent confusion, imperfects and pluperfects are nearly always retained as indicatives in indirect speech.
Potential optatives and counterfactual indicatives (both with ἄν, see §§7.7.1-2) are always retained in
ὅτι/ὡς-clauses:
ἀπελογοῦντο ὡς οὐκ ἄν ποτε οὕτω μῶροι ἦσαν, εἰ ... (Xenophon, Hellenica 5.4.22)
They pleaded that they would never have been so foolish, if ...
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12.4. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE
When a construction of indirect discourse has a subordinate clause (either a subordinate clause within a
construction with the declarative infinitive, or a subordinate clause within a ὅτι/ὡς-clause), the exact same
rules apply as outlined above (§12.3):
- In primary sequence, the subordinate clause stays exactly the same.
- In historic sequence, the oblique optative may — but does not have to — be used.
εἶπε ... ὅτι ἐπειδὰν τάχιστα ἡ στρατεία λήξῃ, εὐθὺς ἀποπέμψει αὐτόν. (Xenophon, Anabasis 3.1.9)
He said that he would send him off immediately as soon as the expedition ended.
ὁ δὲ ἀπεκρίνατο ὅτι οὐχ ἵνα ἀδικοίη στρατεύοιτο ... (Xenophon, Hellenica 5.3.14)
He replied that he was not setting out on an expedition in order to do wrong.
In the first example, the the aorist subjunctive λήξῃ and ἄν (in a subordinate clause introduced by ἐπειδή) are
‘retained’ in historic sequence. In the second example, the oblique optative ἀδικοίη represents the present
subjunctive ἀδικῶ that would have been used in the purpose clause (introduced by ἵνα) in direct speech.
When a subordinate clause with subjunctive + ἄν (‘indefinite’ or ‘prospective’, see §15.3) is put into the
oblique optative, ἄν is ommited:
προλέγω ὅτι, ὁπότερ’ ἂν ἀποκρίνηται, ἐξἐλεγχθήσεται. (Plato, Euthydemus 275e)
I say in advance that, whichever answer he makes, he will be refuted.
προεῖπον ὅτι, ὁπότερ’ ἀποκρίνοιτο, ἐξἐλεγχθήσοιτο.
I said in advance that, whichever answer he would make, he would be refuted.
The subjunctive and ἄν may also be retained, as in the example with ‘εἶπε ὅτι ἐπειδάν …’ above.
67
13. QUESTIONS
13.1. INTRODUCTION
There are two different types of questions:

- 1a. Questions that are answered by yes or no (‘yes/no-questions’): ‘Are roses red?’.
- 1b. A subset of this type consists of questions that give two (or more) alternatives to choose from
(‘alternative questions’ or ‘double questions’). In English, these have the word ‘or’ between the
alternatives: ‘Are roses red or (are roses) green?’.
- 2. Questions that are answered by specifying one or more persons, things, times, places, etc. (or ‘no one’,
‘nothing’, etc.) In English, these questions are usually introduced by a ‘wh-word’ (who?, when?, etc.), so
they are commonly known as ‘wh-questions’ (also: ‘specifying questions’ or ‘X-questions’): ‘What colour
are roses?’
Questions can be either direct (in independent ‘interrogative’ sentences, with a question mark) or
indirect/dependent (in indirect discourse):
- Direct: John asked me: ‘Where do you live?’
- Indirect: John keeps asking me where I live.
13.2. DIRECT YES/NO-QUESTIONS AND ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS
Questions introduced by ἆρα or ἦ (which can be left untranslated) are neutral: they do not explicitly expect
or desire a particular answer:
ἆρ’ ἐγγὺς ἁνήρ; (Sophocles, Oedipus Coloneus 1486)
Is the man near?
ἦ κἀν δόμοισι τυγχάνει τανῦν παρών; (Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 757)
Does he happen to be in the house now?
Frequently, no particle at all is used to introduce a neutral yes/no-question:
ἀδελφὴν τὴν ἐμὴν γήμας ἔχεις; (Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 757)
Are you married to my sister? (For γήμας ἔχεις, see §10.5.)
By using a question introduced by οὐ, ἆρ’ οὐ, or οὐκοῦν, a speaker signals that he expects or desires the
answer to be ‘yes’. (In English, the negative is similarly used, or ‘surely’, or a negative ‘tag question’):
οὐχὶ ξυνῆκας πρόσθεν. (Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 360)
Did you not understand me before? / Surely you understood ... ? / You understood ... , didn’t you?
ἆρ᾽ οὐκ ἄμεινον ἢ σὺ τἀν Θήβαις φρονῶ; (Sophocles, Oedipus Coloneus 1229)
Do I not understand the things in Thebes better than you?
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13. Questions
By starting a question with μή, ἆρα μή or μῶν, a speaker signals that he desires (or expects) the answer to
be ‘no’. (In English, ‘really’, ‘surely not’ or a positive ‘tag question’ can be used):
ἆρα μὴ δοκεῖς | λυτήρι’ αὐτῇ ταῦτα τοῦ φονου φέρειν; (Sophocles, Electra 446-7)
Do you really imagine that your bringing these things will absolve her of the murder? / Surely you do not imagine
... / You don’t imagine ... , do you?
μῶν τι βουλεύῃ νέον; (Sophocles, Philoctetes 1229)
You are not planning something new, are you?
Alternative questions in Greek have ἤ (‘or’) between the parts that make up the question. They can be (but do
not have to be) introduced by πότερον/πότερα (which should be left untranslated):
πότερα δ’ ἐν οἴκοις, ἢ ‘ν ἀγροῖς ὁ Λάιος, | ἢ γῆς ἐπ’ ἄλλης τῷδε συμπίπτει φόνῳ; (Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 112)
Did Laius fall to this murder in the house, in the fields, or in another country?
ἄνωθεν, ἢ κάτωθεν; (Sophocles, Philoctetes 80)
From above, or from below?
13.3. DIRECT SPECIFYING QUESTIONS
Specifying questions in Greek are introduced by a ‘question word’ which begins with τ- or π-. Some
interrogative pronouns and interrogative adverbs are:
τίς who?/which?/what? ποῦ where?
τί why? ποῖ to where?
πότερος which of the two? πόθεν from where?
how large? (sg.) πότε when?
πόσος
how many? (pl.) πῶς how?
ποῖος what sort of? πῇ (in) what way? how?
! Note:
Be mindful of the accentuation of these question words: τίς as opposed to τις, πότε as opposed to ποτε, etc.
Interrogative pronouns can be used as a ‘pure’ pronoun or adjectivally (modifying a noun).

κᾆτα τίς γαμεῖ; (Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 1500)
And then who will marry you?
τίς με πότμος ἔτι περιμένει; (Sophocles, Antigone 1296)
What fate still awaits me?
13.4. THE USE OF MOODS IN DIRECT QUESTIONS
Normally, direct questions will have the indicative. However, other moods may appear in questions as
required:
πόθεν κλέος γ ἂν εὐκλεέστερον | κάτεσχον; (Sophocles, Antigone 502-3)
From where could I have gained more honourable glory? (counterfactual indicative)
ποῦ δῆτ’ ἂν εἶεν οἱ ξένοι; (Sophocles, Electra 1450)
Where then might the strangers be? (potential optative)
69
13. Questions
Note especially the use of the first person subjunctive in deliberative questions:
ὦ Ζεῦ, τί λέξω; (Sophocles, Oedipus Coloneus 310)
Zeus, what am I to say?
Deliberative questions can be introduced by βούλει/βούλεσθε (and θέλεις/θέλετε in poetry):
θέλεις μείνωμεν αὐτοῦ; (Sophocles, Electra 80-1)
Do you want us to stay here?
13.5. INDIRECT QUESTIONS
Some verbs that can get dependent (indirect) questions (there are many more):
ἐρωτάω ask διδάσκω teach
θαυμάζω wonder μανθάνω/πυνθάνομαι learn
οἶδα know ἀγγέλλω announce, report
γιγνώσκω come to know ὁράω see
Indirect yes/no-questions are introduced by εἰ (‘whether’, ‘if’).

τίς οἶδεν εἰ κάτω ‘στιν εὐαγῆ τάδε; (Sophocles, Antigone 521)
Who knows if these things are free from blame below?
Indirect alternative questions are introduced by πότερον/α ... ἤ, εἰ ... ἤ, εἰ ... εἴτε or εἴτε ... εἴτε
(‘whether/if ... or’)
ἀθρήσατε ...| εἰ τὸν Αἵμονος | φθόγγον συνίημ᾽ ἢ θεοῖσι κλέπτομαι; (Sophocles, Antigone 1216)
Observe whether it is Haemon’s voice that I recognise, or if I am being deceived by the gods.
καὶ δείξεις τάχα | εἴτ’ εὐγενὴς πέφυκας εἴτ’ ... κακή. (Sophocles, Antigone 37-8)
And you will soon show whether you are noble by nature or if you are cowardly.
Indirect specifying questions can be introduced either by the regular question words, or by the
corresponding indefinite relative pronouns/adverbs (beginning with ὁ-).
σ’ ἐρωτᾷ τίς τε καὶ πόθεν πάρει (Sophocles, Philoctetes 56)
He asks you who and from where you are.
οὔτ’ ἔδρασ’ οὔτ’ εἶδον ὅστις ἦν ὁ δρῶν. (Sophocles, Antigone 239)
I did not do it, nor did I see who was the doer.
It may well be argued that this last example is not really an indirect question, but rather an ‘autonomous’ relative
clause (see §22.2) functioning as object with εἶδον. This is often the case with such sentences.
! Note:
After verbs of knowing, saying and perceiving (but not ‘ask’ and not after negatives), the definite relative article may also
be used:
εἶπε δ’ ἣν τέκνοις | μοῖραν πατρῴας γῆς διαίρετον νέμοι; (Sophocles, Trachiniae 162-3)
He told me what share of his ancestral land he was allotting to his children.
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13. Questions
13.6. THE USE OF MOODS IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS
In indirect questions, the same sequence of moods is used as in ὅτι-/ὡς-clauses of indirect statement: tense
and mood stay the same after present, perfect and future (primary); the optative may be used (the tense stays
the same) after imperfect, aorist indicative, pluperfect (historic/secondary):
κεῖνος δ’ ὅπου | βέβηκεν οὐδεὶς οἶδε (Sophocles, Trachiniae 40-1)
No one knows where that man is.
εἶπε μὲν λέχους ὅ τι | χρείη μ’ ἑλέσθαι κτῆσιν (Sophocles, Trachiniae 161-2)
He told me what I was to take as my dowry.
Note that the rules are no different for deliberative subjunctives: in primary sequence, the subjunctive is
retained, in secondary sequence the optative may be used:
ὅ τι λέξω δ’ ἀπορῶ. (Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 486)
I am at a loss about what to say.
τὸν θεὸν ἐπήροντο εἰ παραδοῖεν Κορινθίοις τὴν πόλιν. (Thucydides 1.25.1)
They asked the god whether they should give up the city to Corinthians. (Direct: παραδῶμεν.)
13.7. IS THAT A QUESTION?
Not all direct questions function as ‘real’ questions. The interrogative form may be used in commands,
requests, assertions (rhetorical questions), etc. Some common idiomatic expressions in Greek are:
- πῶς (γὰρ) οὐ; = ‘of course’.
- Questions with οὐ + second person future indicative are used as commands or requests. With οὐ μή,
these function as prohibitions:
οὐ θᾶσσον οἴσεις μηδ’ ἀπιστήσεις ἐμοί; (Sophocles, Trachiniae 1183)
Will you not give me your hand at once and not disobey me? (i.e. ‘give me your hand!’ / ‘don’t disobey me!’)
- In Homer, questions introduced by οὐκ ἂν δὴ + second person optative are used as requests or
commands:
οὐκ ἂν δή μοι ἄμαξαν ἐφοπλίσσαιτε τάχιστα; (Homer, Iliad 24.263)
Will you not very quickly make me ready a wagon? (i.e. ‘ready me a wagon!’)
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14 . C OMMANDS & EXHORTATIONS, WISHES
14.1. DIRECTIVES (COMMANDS AND EXHORTATIONS)
Commands in the second or third person are normally expressed by the imperative:
σὺ οὖν ἐκείναις λέγε ὅτι ἀντὶ κυνὸς εἶ φύλαξ. (Xenophon, Memorabilia 2.7.14)
You must tell those women, then, that you are their guardian in place of a dog.
λεγέτω μὲν οὖν περὶ αὐτοῦ ὡς ἕκαστος γιγνώσκει. (Thucydides 2.48.3)
Let everyone say, then, about this matter, what they know.
Imperatives are often preceded by a word like ἄγε(τε), φέρε(τε), ἴθι (often with δή), ‘come on’, ‘go ahead’:
ἄγε δή, ὦ Ἀριαῖε, ... εἰπὲ τίνα γνώμην ἔχεις. (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.2.10)
Come now, Ariaius, say what your opinion is.
Negative commands (prohibitions) in the second person are formed with μή and either the present
imperative or the aorist subjunctive (*μὴ ποίησον and *μὴ ποίῃς are not Greek!)
πιστοὺς δὲ μὴ νόμιζε φύσει φύεσθαι ἀνθρώπους. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 8.7.13)
Don’t think that men are born trustworthy by nature.
μὴ γὰρ ἄλλο τι νομίσητε τὴν γῆν αὐτῶν ἢ ὅμηρον. (Thucydides 1.28.4)
Don’t consider their land to be anything other than a hostage.
In the third person, the aorist imperative may be used with μή:
καὶ μηδεὶς αὐτὰ φαῦλα νομισάτω εἶναι. (Xenophon, Cynegeticus 2.2.4)
And let no one think that these things are meaningless.
The difference between aorist and present imperatives is one of aspect, not of tense; present imperatives
(aspect: not-complete) look at an action as an ongoing process, aorist imperatives (aspect: complete) are used
to refer to an action as a discrete, complete whole.
εἰς ἀνάκρισιν ... τῆς δίκης καλοῦμαι· ἀλλ᾽ ἀποκρίνου. (Xenophon, Symposium 3.1.9)
I’m summoning you to a preliminary hearing in the suit: be so kind as to answer my questions.
ἴθι δή, ἔφη, καὶ τόδε ἀπόκριναί μοι· ... (Xenophon, Oeconomicus 19.4.1)
Come now, he said, answer me this question also: ...
In the first example, Socrates uses the present imperative to press Critobulus to answer a series of questions. The
second imperative (aorist) is a request to answer a single question (note the singular τόδε).
The present imperative, because it refers to the process of doing something rather than the action as a whole,
may also function as an urgent request to get an action underway (this is sometimes called the ‘immediative’
use of the present imperative):
ἀνάγνωθι δὲ μοι λαβὼν τουτονὶ τὸν νόμον, ὃς διαρρήδην οὐκ ἐᾷ νόμον οὐδέν᾽ ἐναντίον εἰσφέρειν, ἐὰν δὲ τις εἰσφέρῃ,
γράφεσθαι κελεύει. ἀναγίγνωσκε. (Demosthenes 24.32)
Take up and read aloud for me this law, which plainly does not allow introducing any opposite law, and if someone
does so, commands that a charge be brought against him. Go on, read it out.
The aorist imperative is used to refer to the reading out in its entirety (a command to do something), whereas the
‘immediative’ present imperative refers to the process of reading out (a command to be doing something).
The present imperative is also used to command someone to continue or (with μή) cease doing something:
γυναικὶ δὴ ταύτῃ τῇ (relative pronoun) νῦν συνοικέεις μὴ συνοίκεε. (Herodotus 9.111.2)
Stop living with this woman with whom you are living now.
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14. Commands & Exhortations, Wishes
For ‘commands’ in the first person (singular or plural), known as exhortations, the hortative subjunctive
(present or aorist, with aspectual difference) is used. The negative is μή:
ἴωμεν ἐπὶ τοὺς πολεμίους. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 1.5.11)
Let us move against our enemies.
φέρετε, τοῦ λοιποῦ μὴ πειθώμεθα αὐτοῦ. (Herodotus 6.12.19)
Come, let us not obey him in the future. (πείθομαι is here exceptionally construed with the genitive.)
There are several other ways to express commands in Greek:

- The words ὅπως and ὅπως μή + second/third person future indicative (the construction ὅπως gets when it
is a conjunction following verbs of effort, see §16.3) can stand by themselves to express an emphatic
exhortation/warning. ὅπως is not a conjunction in these cases:
ὅπως οὖν ἔσεσθε ἄνδρες ἄξιοι τῆς ἐλευθερίας ἧς κέκτησθε. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.7.3)
Ensure then that you are worthy of the freedom which you possess.
εἰ δὲ δὴ τοῦτο καὶ μετὰ δεῖπνον τρωξόμεθα, ὅπως μὴ φήσῃ τις ἡμᾶς ἡδυπαθεῖν. (Xenophon, Symposium 4.8.8)
And if we eat this after our dinner as well, take care that someone does not say of us that we were indulging our
appetites.
- Questions with οὐ + second-person future indicative function as commands or requests, or (with οὐ
μή) as prohibitions (see §13.7):
οὐ καὶ σὺ αὖ ὁμολογήσεις μηδὲν ὑπ᾽ ἐμοῦ ἀδικεῖσθαι; (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 5.5.13)
Will you not for your part also agree that you have not been wronged by me? (=‘agree that ... !’)
- The second-person potential optative (with ἄν) may sometimes have the force of a (cautious) command
(see §7.7.2):
τῷδ᾽ ἂν μὴ προέσθαι ἡμᾶς μάθοιτε. (Thucydides 1.36.3)
You should learn from this not to betray us (= ‘learn not to ... !’).
14.2. WISHES
In wishes, the cupitive optative without ἄν is used, sometimes introduced by εἴθε, εἰ γάρ or ὡς (poetic):
‘would that’, ‘if only’, or simply ‘may...’. The negative is μή:
γένοιτο κατὰ νόον τοι, βασιλεῦ. (Herodotus 7.104.5)
May it go according to plan for you, king.
εἴθ᾽, ὦ λῷστε σύ, τοιοῦτος ὢν φίλος ἡμῖν γένοιο. (Xenophon, Hellenica 4.1.38)
May you, my dear man, being such as you are, become our friend.
The difference between aorist and present optatives in wishes is one of aspect, not of tense: present optatives
(aspect: not-complete) look at an action as an ongoing/habitual process, aorist optatives (aspect: complete) are
used to refer to an action in completion, as a single whole.
ληφθείς γ’ ὑπὸ λῃστῶν ἐσθίοι κριθὰς μόνος. (Aristophanes, Peace 449)
May he be captured by bandits and eat only barley.
καὶ μήποτ’ αὐτῆς μᾶζαν ἡδίω φάγοι. (Aristophanes, Peace 3)
And may it never eat a tastier cake than that one.
In the first example, the chorus uses a present optative to emphasise the habitual/ongoing duress that they wish
‘him’ to suffer from. In the second example, the speaker is talking about the eating of a single cake, and thus uses
the aorist optative.
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14. Commands & Exhortations, Wishes
In wishes that cannot come true (unrealisable wishes), the imperfect or aorist (modal) indicative is used,
always introduced by εἴθε or εἰ γάρ (see §7.7.1). The negative is μή. Unrealisable wishes about the present
always use the imperfect, the aorist indicative is usually used for wishes referring to the past:
εἴ γὰρ τοσαύτην δύναμιν εἶχον. (Euripides, Alcestis 1072)
Would that I had such power.
εἴθε σοι, ὦ Περικλεῖς, τοτε συνεγενόμην. (Xenophon, Memorabilia 1.2.45)
If only, Pericles, I had met you then.
Unrealisable wishes may also be expressed by a form of the imperfect ὤφελον + infinitive (lit: ‘I ought to
have’, ‘I owed...’). The present infinitive is always used for wishes pertaining to the present, the aorist
infinitive usually for wishes about the past:
ὤφελε Κῦρος ζῆν. (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.1.4)
If only Cyrus were alive.
ὀλέσθαι δ’ ὤφελον τῇδ’ ἡμέρᾳ. (Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 1157)
Would that I had perished that day.
! Note:
Εἰ γὰρ ὤφελον can stand on its own, meaning: ‘If only!’.
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15. INTRODUCTION TO SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
15.1. PREDICATES, SUBORDINATION AND CLAUSES
A sentence is built up from one or more predicates (simply put: ‘what is said’ about a subject). In the
following sentences, the predicates are underlined.
John slept.
John read the book.
John gave the book to Mary.
When a sentence consists of more than one predicate, they can be connected either by parataxis (lit:
‘placement next to’) or hypotaxis (lit: ‘placement under’, i.e. subordination). In hypotaxis, one predicate is
‘superior’ to the other predicate(s) in the structure of the sentence (in the examples below, the predicate that
has double underlining is ‘superior’ to the one with single underlining):
Parataxis: John sat down and read the book.
Hypotaxis: After Jill sat down, John read the book.
Hypotaxis: Sitting down, John read the book.
Greek has many ways of making one predicate subordinate to another: connected participles, the genitive
absolute, the accusative and infinitive/participle constructions, substantival participles and infinitives, and
subordinate clauses.
A clause consists of at least a subject and a finite verb (with person, number, voice, aspect/tense and
mood). Subordinate clauses thus differ from every other method of subordination in that they have their own
finite verb (the genitive absolute, for example, is not a subordinate clause, though it must often be translated
as one into English)!
Subordinate clauses are always introduced by one of the following types of subordinator:
- A relative pronoun (ὅς, ἥ, ὅ, etc.), adjective (οἷος, ὅσος, etc.) or adverb (ἔνθα, ὡς, etc.).
- A conjunction (ὅτι, ὡς, εἰ, ὅτε, ἐπεί, etc.).
- In indirect questions, an interrogative pronoun (τίς; etc.) or indefinite relative pronoun.
Subordinate clauses can take on various syntactic functions: subject, object, predicate noun phrase, adjectival
phrase, adverbial phrase, etc. (it is useful to replace the clause with τοῦτο, etc. when thinking about this):
δῆλα γὰρ δὴ ὅτι εἰ μὴ αὐταὶ ἐβούλοντο οὐκ ἂν ἡρπάζοντο. (Herodotus 1.4.2)
It is clear that the women would not have been taken unless they wanted it themselves (the ὅτι-clause is subject).
ὅ τι μὲν ὑμεῖς, ὦ ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, πεπόνθατε ὑπὸ τῶν ἐμῶν κατηγόρων, οὐκ οἶδα. (Plato, Apology 17a)
What your experiences at the hands of my accusers are, Athenians, I do not know (the ὅ τι-clause is object).
ἐπεὶ δὲ ἠσθένει Δαρεῖος ..., ἐβούλετο τῷ παιδε ἀμφοτέρω παρεῖναι (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.1.1)
When Dareius was sick, he wanted his two sons to be present (the ἐπεί-clause is adverbial phrase).
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15. Introduction to Subordinate Clauses
15.2. TYPES OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
The following types of subordinate clause are dependent on a verb in the main clause (deleting these makes
their sentence incomplete):
- Declarative subordinate clauses (indirect speech), introduced by ὅτι or ὡς (see §12.3).
- Indirect questions, introduced by εἰ / πότερον ... ἤ / εἴτε ... εἴτε, interrogative pronouns, or indefinite
relative pronouns (see §13.5).
- Clauses dependent on verbs of fearing, introduced by μή (see §16.1).
- Clauses dependent on verbs of effort, introduced by ὅπως (see §16.2).
The following types of subordinate clause can be freely added to a sentence:

- Temporal clauses, introduced by ὅτε, ἐπεί, πρίν, ἕως, etc. (see ch. 17).
- Causal clauses, introduced by ὅτι (see §18.3).
- Purpose clauses, introduced by ἵνα, ὅπως, ὡς, or μή (see ch. 19).
- Result clauses, introduced by ὥστε (see ch. 20).
- Conditional clauses, introduced by εἰ (also concessive clauses introduced by εἰ καί/καὶ εἰ) (see ch. 21).
Finally, relative clauses, introduced by ὃς, ὅστις, etc. can or cannot be omitted depending on their function
in the sentence (see ch. 22)
15.3. ἄν
The exact workings of subordinate clauses in Greek can never be fully understood unless the various uses of
the word ἄν are memorised:
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE MEANING
(modal past indicative) modal past indicative + ἄν counterfactual (‘irrealis’):

(impf./plupf.) ‘it would happen (but doesn’t)’
(aor.) ‘it would have happened (but didn’t)’
(optative without ἄν) optative + ἄν potential:

‘it can/might happen’
subjunctive + ἄν future indicative / imperative / prospective:

hortative subjunctive ‘if/when it happens, we will be happy’
subjunctive + ἄν pres. ind. indefinite (‘generic’, ‘distributive-iterative’):

‘whenever it happens, we are happy’
(historic sequence:)
optative without ἄν imperfect ‘whenever it happened, we were happy’
! Note:
For the use of ἄν in main clauses with an imperfect or aorist indicative to express repeated actions, see §7.6.2. For its use
in (subordinate) purpose clauses with the subjunctive, see §19.2.
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16. VERBS OF FEARING AND EFFORT
16.1. VERBS OF FEARING AND APPREHENSION
The most common verbs of fearing and apprehension are:

δείδω/δέδοικα be afraid that ὑποπτεύω suspect that
φοβέομαι be afraid that φυλάττομαι take care, lest (that not)
κίνδυνός ἐστι there is danger/risk that σκοπέω take care, lest (that not)
φόβος ἐστί there is fear that ὁράω take care, lest (that not)
These verbs can express a fear or anxiety about the future (English ‘I am afraid that John will come’; the word
‘lest’ can be used here in English — ‘I am afraid lest John come’), or express a fear about something that has
become fact in the past or present (‘I am afraid that John is here’).
Verbs of fearing and apprehension can be followed by the following:

- A direct object: τοῦτο φοβοῦμαι.
- A prepositional phrase: φοβοῦμαι περὶ τούτου.
- A dynamic infinitive: φοβοῦμαι τοῦτο ποιεῖν.
- A subordinate clause with μή (‘lest’, ‘that’); negative μὴ οὐ: φοβοῦμαι μὴ τοῦτο ποίῃς.
When a clause with a verb of fearing relates to the future, it has μή (οὐ) + subjunctive:
ταῦτ’ οὖν περί μου δέδοικε μὴ διαφθαρῶ. (Aristophanes, Wasps 1358)
So that’s his worry about me, that I’ll be spoiled.
δέδοικα μή τι δρᾷ νεώτερον. (Aristophanes, Assemblywomen 338)
I’m worried that she’s up to no good.
φύλαξαι μὴ θράσος τέκῃ φόβον. (Aeschylus, Suppliants 498)
Be on your guard lest audacity breed fear
In historic sequence, the fearing-clause can (but does not have to) get an oblique optative:
καὶ τοῦτ’ ἦν φόβου πολλοῦ πλέων, | μὴ τῳ λαθραίως τέκνα γενναίῳ τέκοι. (Euripides, Electra 25-6)
Even this option was filled with great fear, that she would bear children to some noble man in secret.
When a fearing-clause relates to a present or past fact, it has μή (οὐ) + indicative. In such clauses, the
perfect indicative is especially common (it signifies a past event leading to an (undesired) state in the
present):
νῦν δὲ φοβοῦμεθα μὴ ἀμφοτέρων ἅμα ἡμαρτήκαμεν. (Thucydides 3.53.2)
And now, we are afraid that we have missed both at the same time.
δέδοικά σ’, ὦ πρεσβῦτα, μὴ πληγῶν δέει. (Aristophanes, Clouds 493)
I’m afraid, old man, that you need some blows.
! Note:
The aorist indicative is used in fearing-clauses only in Homer:
δειδω μὴ δὴ πάντα θεὰ νημερτέα εἶπεν. (Homer, Odyssey 5.300)
I am afraid that the goddess has said everything truthfully.
77
16. Verbs of Fearing and Effort
16.2. VERBS OF EFFORT, PRECAUTION AND CONTRIVING
Some common verbs of effort (pre)caution and contriving are:

ἐπιμέλομαι take care that σκοπέω see to it that
μέλει μοι I take care that ὁράω see to it that
φροντίζω take care that σκεπτέον ἐστι one must see to it that
φυλάττομαι take care that σπεύδω strive to
εὐλαβέομαι take care that παρασκεύαζομαι make preparations in order that
ποιέω make, ensure that μηχανάομαι contrive that
These verbs are regularly construed with ὅπως (sometimes ὡς) + future indicative; negative ὅπως μή:
φύλαττέ θ’ ὅπως μὴ τὴν βάλανον ἐκτρώξεται. (Aristophanes, Wasps 155)
Take care that he doesn’t eat the bolt-pin.
ὅρα δ’ ὅπως ὠθήσομεν τούσδε ... ἐξ ἄστεως. (Aristophanes, Assemblywomen 300-1)
See to it that we expel these men from the city.
The future indicative is normally retained even in historic sequence, though the oblique optative also
occurs (rare outside Xenophon):
ἔπρασσον ὅπως τις βοήθεια ἥξει. (Thucydides 3.4)
I ensured that some form of help would come.
ἐπεμελεῖτο δὲ ὅπως μήτε ἄσιτοι μήτε ἄποτοί ποτε ἔσοιντο. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 8.1.43)
He took care that they would never be without food or drink.
! Note:
Subordinate clauses with verbs of effort are similar in sense to purpose clauses (with ὅπως/ὡς/ἵνα + subj.) Occasionally,
they get the same construction, with the subjunctive rather than the future indicative after ὅπως (μή). This is especially
frequent in Xenophon:
ἐπιμελητέον ... ὅπως τρέφωνται οἱ ἵπποι. (Xenophon, On the Cavalry Commander 1.3)
Care must be taken that the horses are fed.
16.3. SOME ADDITIONAL COMMENTS
Occasionally, verbs of fearing are construed like verbs of effort (with ὅπως μή + fut. ind./subj.):
δέδοιχ’ ὅπως | μὴ’ κ τῆς σιωπῆς τῆσδ’ ἀναρρήξει κακά. (Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus 1074-5)
I fear that sorrows will break forth from this silence.
Conversely, most verbs of effort also occur construed as verbs of fearing (with μή = ‘lest’, ‘that not’)
ἥκω φράσων τοῦτ᾽ ..., ἵνα | σκοπῆτε ... μὴ προσπέσῃ | ὑμῖν ... πρᾶγμα δεινὸν. (Aristophanes, Women at the
Thesmophoria 579-81)
I have come to tell you this, so that you watch out that something terrible doesn’t happen to you.
The construction ὅπως (μή) + fut. ind. is also used independently (without a verb of effort), to express a
strong command or exhortation (see §14.1):
ὅπως δὲ τοῦτο μὴ διδάξεις μηδένα. (Aristophanes, Clouds 824)
Don’t tell this to anyone!
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17. TEMPORAL CLAUSES
17.1. INTRODUCTION
To communicate when the action expressed by a verb takes place, Greek can use the following expressions:
- A preposition phrase with temporal meaning (see §§6.1-2);
- A temporal adverb;
- A connected participle or genitive absolute expressing a temporal relation (see §10.4);
- A temporal clause.
Temporal clauses are introduced by one of the following conjunctions:

ἐπεί, ἐπειδή after, when, now that ἐν ᾧ during the time that, while
ὡς after, when ἐξ οὗ from the moment that, since
ὅτε when, now that μέχρι so long as
ὁπότε when, now that πρότερον ἤ before
ἡνίκα at the moment that, (exactly) when ἕως so long as or until
ἐπεὶ/ὡς τάχιστα as soon as πρίν before or until
When joined to the word ἄν, the conjunctions ἐπεί, ἐπειδή, ὅτε and ὁπότε become, by crasis,
ἐπήν/ἐπεάν/ἐπάν, ἐπειδάν, ὅταν and ὁπόταν.
The use of moods (and the negative) in temporal clauses varies, depending on the nature of the temporal
relationship between subordinate and main clause. There are three types:
- Temporal clauses referring to the present or past (‘When John opened the door, Susie walked in’ / ‘While
John rests, Susie is in charge’): in Greek, these have the indicative;
- Temporal clauses referring to the future (‘When John opens the door, Susie will walk in’): in Greek these
have prospective ἄν + subjunctive;
- Temporal clauses referring to a repeated/habitual occurrence (‘Whenever John opens the door, Susie
walks in’ / ‘Whenever John opened the door, Susie (would) walk(ed) in’): in Greek, the clause has
indefinite ἄν + subjunctive (for present or future), or optative without ἄν (for the past).
Note two special cases:

- The conjunction ἕως has different meanings depending on the aspectual value of the verb in the
subordinate clause.
- The word πρίν can also be followed by an infinitive.
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17. Temporal Clauses
17.2. TEMPORAL CLAUSES REFERRING TO THE PRESENT OR PAST
Temporal clauses referring to the present use the indicative of one of the tenses referring to the present:
present or perfect. The negative is οὐ:
εἰμι ἤδη ἐνταῦθα ἐν ᾧ μάλιστα ἄνθρωποι χρησμῳδοῦσιν. (Plato, Apology 39c)
I am already in that phase of my life when men make oracles most often.
καὶ ὁπότε οὕτω διάκεισαι, οἴει σοι κρεῖττον εἶναι ζῆν μᾶλλον ἢ τεθνάναι; (Plato, Greater Hippias 304d-e)
And now that you’re in that situation, do you think it’s better for you to live or to be dead?
Temporal clauses referring to the past use the indicative of one of the past tenses: imperfect, pluperfect or
aorist. Generally:
- The aorist is used for actions preceding the action in the main clause (anterior),
- The imperfect is used for actions going on at the same time as the action in the main clause
(simultaneous):
ἐπειδὴ δὲ ὀλιγαρχία ἐγένετο, οἱ τριάκοντα ... με ... προσέταξαν ἀγαγεῖν ἐκ Σαλαμῖνος Λέοντα. (Plato, Apology 32c)
And after the oligarchy was installed, the Thirty ordered me to bring Leon from Salamis
ὡς ἐγεωργοῦμεν ἐν τῇ Νάξῳ, ἐθήτευεν ἐκεῖ παρ᾽ ἡμῖν. (Plato, Eutyphro 4c)
When we were farmers on Naxos, he was a labourer for us there.
The main clause with these temporal clauses can have any mood (imperative, hortative subjunctive, etc.):
ὅτε ... διακεκρίμεθα χωρὶς τάς τε καθαρὰς ἡδονὰς καὶ τὰς ... ἀκαθάρτους ..., προσθῶμεν ... (Plato, Philebus 52c)
Now that we have a distinction between the pure and the impure pleasures, let us add ... (hortative subjunctive)
ὅτε δὴ τοῦτο οὕτως ἔχει, τόδε μοι ἀποκρίνασθε· ... (Plato, Protagoras 356c)
Now that this is so, answer me this: … (imperative)
17.3. TEMPORAL CLAUSES REFERRING TO THE FUTURE
Temporal clauses referring to the future have prospective ἄν + subjunctive. The main clause either has a
future indicative, or an imperative/hortative subjunctive (these also have future reference). The negative is μή:
καὶ ἐν ᾧ ἂν ζῶμεν, οὕτως, ὡς ἔοικεν, ἐγγυτάτω ἐσόμεθα τοῦ εἰδέναι ... (Plato, Phaedo 67a)
And while we live, we will, I think, be nearest to knowing in the following way, ...
τοὺς ὑεῖς μου, ἐπειδὰν ἡβήσωσι, τιμωρήσασθε, ὦ ἄνδρες. (Plato, Apology 41e)
Gentlemen, you must punish my sons when they grow up.
! Note:
English does not have a future in the subordinate clause here either, but uses a present tense form (as a so-called
‘concealed’ future): ‘When John opens the door, Susie will come in.’
! Note:
Greek never uses a future indicative in temporal clauses. Very rarely, a (potential) optative without ἄν is used, expressing
uncertainty about the possible future occurrence of the action in the subordinate clause:
ἀποδοτέον δὲ γε οὐδ’ ὁπωστιοῦν τότε, ὁπότε τις μὴ σωφρόνως ἀπαιτοῖ. (Plato, Republic 332a)
The knife may under no circumstance be given back, when someone should ask it back in a deranged state.
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17.4. TEMPORAL CLAUSES REFERRING TO A HABITUAL OCCURRENCE
Temporal clauses referring to a repeated/habitual occurrence (English ‘whenever’) in the present or future
have indefinite ἄν + subjunctive. The main clause contains a generalised statement, usually in the present
indicative. The negative is μή:
οἱ γὰρ ἀδικούμενοι πάντες εἰσίν, ὁπόταν τις τὴν πόλιν ἀδικῇ. (Plato, Laws 768a)
Whenever someone wrongs the city, everyone is being wronged.
Ἦ ... γιγνώσκειν ἀνάγκη τῷ ἰατρῷ ὅταν τε ὠφελίμως ἰᾶται καὶ ὅταν μή; (Plato, Charmides 164b)
Is it necessary for a doctor to know when he is healing beneficially and when not?
When the clause refers to the past, the indefinite subjunctive is replaced by the optative without ἄν. The
main clause usually has an imperfect (the tense for habitual actions, see §7.6.2):
ἐγὼ ... ὅτε μὲν ἦν νεώτερος, ... ὁπότε τις εἴποι τὸ μὴ ὄν, ἀκριβῶς ᾤμην συνιέναι. (Plato, Sophist 243b)
I used to think, when I was younger, that I understood perfectly whenever anyone used this term ‘not-being’.
17.5. ἕως
The word ἕως follows exactly the same rules as above, but it can mean either ‘as long as’ or ‘until’. Which of
the two interpretations is needed depends on the aspectual value of the verb it is found with:
- If the aspect of the verb is not-complete (present indicative, imperfect, ἄν + present subjunctive, present
optative ), ἕως = ‘as long as’;
- If the aspect of the verb is complete (aorist indicative, ἄν + aorist subjunctive, aorist optative), ἕως =
‘until’:
In temporal clauses referring to the past or present:
ἕως + pres. ind. ‘as long as’
ἕως + impf. ‘as long as’
ἕως + aor. ind. ‘until’
In temporal clauses referring to the future or a habitual occurrence:
ἕως ἄν + pres. subj. (or ἕως + pres. opt.) ‘as long as’
ἕως ἄν + aor. subj. (or ἕως + aor. opt.) ‘until’
Some examples:
ἕως δὲ ἀφειστήκη πόρρωθεν, ἐφαίνετό τί μοι λέγεσθαι. (Plato, Theaetetus 208e)
As long as I was standing at a distance, it seemed to me that something was being said.
ἐφίει τὸ δόρυ διὰ τῆς χειρός, ἕως ἄκρου τοῦ στύρακος ἀντελάβετο. (Plato, Laches 184a)
He let the spear slip through his hand until he gripped it by the butt-end of the shaft.
οὐδὲν γὰρ κωλύει διαμυθολογῆσαι πρὸς ἀλλήλους ἕως ἔξεστιν.(Plato, Apology 40a)
For nothing prevents us from chatting with each other as long as it is possible.
ἕωσπερ ἂν ἐμπνεω καὶ οἷος τε ὦ, οὐ μὴ παύσωμαι φιλοσοφῶν. (Plato, Apology 29d)
As long as I am breathing and able, I will certainly not stop practising philosophy.
ἀλλὰ χρή, ἔφη ὁ Σωκράτης, ἐπᾴδειν αὐτῷ ἑκάστης ἡμέρας ἕως ἂν ἐξεπᾴσητε. (Plato, Phaedo 77e)
‘Ah,’ said Socrates, ‘you must sing charms to him every day until you charm away his fear.’
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17.6. πρίν
The word πρίν (which is never followed by a negative) has two possible constructions:
- When the main clause is negative (or has an intrinsically negative verb like ἀπαγορεύω (‘forbid’)), πρίν
follows exactly the same rules as other temporal conjunctions. English translation: ‘before’ or ‘until’;
- When the main clause is affirmative (not-negative), πρίν is normally followed by the (accusative and)
infinitive (thus, technically, this is not a subordinate clause). English translation: ‘before’ (not ‘until’):
οὐ πρότερον κακῶν παύσονται αἱ πόλεις, πρὶν ἂν ἐν αὐταῖς οἱ φιλόσοφοι ἄρξωσιν. (Plato, Republic 487e)
The cities will not cease their wrongdoings before/until the Philosophers assume power in them.
[τοῦτό] ἐστιν ἀδύνατον γνῶναι πρὶν ἄν τις ἐπιστήμην ἱκανῶς λάβῃ τί ποτ’ ἐστίν. (Plato, Theaetetus 200d)
It is impossible to understand that before/until one adequately grasps of knowledge, what exactly it is.
ὀλίγον πρὶν ἡμᾶς ἀπιέναι μάχη ἐγεγόνει ἐν Ποτειδαίᾳ. (Plato, Charmides 153b)
Not long before we went back, a battle had taken place in Potidaea.
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18. CAUSAL CLAUSES
18.1. INTRODUCTION
To communicate for what reason, motivation or cause the action expressed by a verb takes place, Greek can
use the following expressions:
- Certain prepositions, especially διά and ἕνεκα, may have causal force (see §§6.1-2);
- A connected participle or genitive absolute may express cause, especially when modified by ὡς or
ἅτε/οἷον/οἷα (see §10.4);
- Relative clauses can also have a causal nuance (see §22.3);
- Temporal clauses referring to the present or past often have causal force;
- Causal clauses, introduced by ὅτι or διότι.
18.2. THE CAUSAL USE OF TEMPORAL CLAUSES
Temporal clauses referring to the present or past (see §17.2) which precede the main clause often have a
causal nuance, especially with the conjunctions ἐπεί, ἐπειδή, ὅτε and ὁπότε, and less frequently with ὡς:
ἐπεὶ οὐ δύναμαι σε πείθειν ... σὺ δὲ ὧδε ποίησον· … (Herodotus 1.112.2)
Now that I cannot convince you, you must act as follows …
ἐπειδὴ δ’ ὑμῖν τὰ Ἐρασιφῶντος δημεύειν ἔδοξεν, ... τὰ Ἐρασιστράτου ἀξιῶ μοι ψηφισθῆναι. (Lysias 17.6)
Now that you have decided to confiscate the property of Erasiphon, I think it right for the property of Erasistratos
be adjudged to me.
When a clause with ἐπεί or ἐπειδή follows the main clause, it always expresses the motivation for making
the preceding statement:
οὐ σύ γε ἡμέας ἀπολείψεις, ἐπεί τοι ἐγὼ μέζω δῶρα δώσω. (Herodotus 8.5.2)
You will not desert us, for I will give you a greater gift.
18.3. ὅτι AND διότι
The conjunctions ὅτι (unless when introducing indirect discourse) and διότι are used in causal clauses. Such
clauses are formed exactly like temporal clauses referring to present or past: they take a present or past
indicative, the negative is οὐ.
ἆρα τὸ ὅσιον, ὅτι ὅσιον ἐστι φιλεῖται ὑπὸ τῶν θεῶν, ἢ ὅτι φιλεῖται ὅσιον ἐστιν; (Plato, Euthyphro 10a)
Concerning that which is holy: is it loved by the gods because it is holy, or is it holy because it is loved?
ὀκνῶ εἰπεῖν ὅτι οὐκ ἔχω τι λέγω, διότι μοι νυνδὴ ἐπέπληξας εἰπόντι αὐτό. (Plato, Theaetetus 158a)
I am ashamed to say that I have nothing to say, because you’ve scolded me just now when I said that.
With main clauses referring to the past — a past tense is used (imperfect, aorist indicative, pluperfect) — the
oblique optative may be used in the causal clause when the reason is reported or alleged:
οἱ δὲ αὐτοὶ ... ἁμαρτάνοντες ψυχῆς φύσεως ὅτι πρεσβύτερον εἴη σωμάτων, ἀνέτρεψαν ... (Plato, Laws 967b-c)
And they themselves, mistaking the nature of the soul, because, in their opinion, it was older than body, upset ...
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19. PURPOSE CLAUSES
19.1. INTRODUCTION
To communicate the purpose (intentional) of an action, Greek can use the following expressions:
- A future participle, usually with ὡς (see §§10.1, 9.4);
- A relative clause with a future indicative (see §22.3);
- A purpose clause (also called ‘final’ clause).
! Note:
Greek, unlike English, does not normally use the infinitive to express purpose! However, an infinitive with purpose-value
occurs sometimes after verbs meaning ‘give’, ‘entrust’, ‘take’ (see §9.8)
19.2. CONSTRUCTION OF PURPOSE CLAUSES
Greek purpose clauses are introduced by ἵνα, ὅπως and sometimes ὡς (‘in order that’, ‘to’). Which
conjunction is used depends primarily on the preference of the author. Negative purpose clauses are
introduced by ἵνα μή, ὅπως μή, ὡς μή and occasionally by μή alone.
The mood in purpose clauses is normally the subjunctive:

χρὴ ξυμμάχους δεξαμένους ἡμᾶς ... βοήθειαν ἀποστέλλειν, ἵνα φαίνησθε ἀμύνοντές. (Thucydides 3.13.2)
You must, having accepted us as allies, send us help, in order that it is clear that you are defending us.
διανοοῦνται τὰς προσβάσεις [τοῦ ὄρου] φυλάσσειν, ὅπως μὴ ... λάθωσι σφᾶς ἀναβάντες οἱ πολέμιοι. (Thucydides
6.96.1)
They decided to guard the access routes of the mountain, so that the enemy would not ascend it unnoticed by them.
In historic sequence, the optative may (but does not have to) be used instead of the subjunctive:
ἐπρεσβεύοντο ... πρὸς τοὺς Ἀθηναίους ἐγκλήματα ποιούμενοι, ὅπως σφίσιν ὅτι μεγίστη πρόφασις εἴη τοῦ πολεμεῖν
(Thucydides 1.126.1)
Making complaints, they sent messengers to the Athenians, in order that they have as great an excuse for waging
war as possible. (optative)
οἱ πλείους αὐτῶν, ἵνα μὴ ἀπ’ οἴκου ὦσι, χρήματα ἐτάξαντο ἀντὶ τῶν νεῶν (Thucydides 1.99.3)
The majority of them, to prevent being away from home, furnished money instead of ships. (no optative)
! Note:
The difference between optative and subjunctive is probably — as with the oblique optative in indirect speech (see §12.3)
— that the subjunctive, when retained after a past tense, presents the intention ‘through the eyes of’ the subject of the
main clause, whereas the optative presents the purpose of an action as interpreted by the narrator.
After ὅπως or ὡς (but not ἵνα), and only in affirmative purpose clauses (without μή), ἄν + subjunctive (or ἄν
+ optative in historic sequence) is sometimes found:
ὡς δ’ ἂν μάθῃς ... ἀντάκουσον. (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.5.16)
So that you may learn, listen to me in turn.
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20. RESULT CLAUSES
20.1. INTRODUCTION
To communicate the result (intentional or unintentional) of an action, Greek can use the following
expressions:
- A relative clause, usually with ὅστις and negative οὐ (see §22.3);
- A result clause (also called ‘consecutive’ clause)
20.2. CONSTRUCTION OF RESULT CLAUSES
Result clauses in Greek are introduced by ὥστε, very infrequently by ὡς (‘so that’, ‘to’). In the main clause, a
‘signpost’ marking that a consecutive clause follows is often included. Such signposts are words like:
οὕτως / οὕτω so, in such a way
τοιοῦτος, τοιαύτη, τοιοῦτο such, of a kind that
τοσοῦτος, τοσαύτη, τοσοῦτο so large, so much, so many (pl.)
ἐς τοσοῦτο so far, to such an extent
There are two possible constructions for result clauses:

- ὥστε + the moods of independent sentences (normally the indicative, expressing a factual result);
- ὥστε + infinitive / acc. and inf. construction (expressing natural/likely result)
20.2.1. With the moods of independent sentences
When ὥστε is used with an indicative, the result is presented as fact, i.e. actually taking place at a particular
point in time. The negative is οὐ:
πολῖται γιγνόμενοι … μείζω ἔτι ἐποίησαν τὴν πόλιν, ὥστε καὶ ἐς Ἰωνίαν … ἀποικίας ἐξέπεμψαν. (Thucydides 1.2.6)
When they were becoming citizens, they made the city larger still, so that they sent colonies to Ionia.
αὑτοὺς ἐς κίνδυνον καθίστασαν, ὥστε τέλος ἡσυχίαν ἦγον. (Thucydides 2.100.5)
They put themselves in danger, so that in the end they desisted.
The other moods of independent sentences may also be used: ὥστε + ἄν + optative (potential) denotes a
possible consequence; ὥστε + ἄν + modal past indicative (counterfactual) denotes a result that did not come
about:
πλοῖα δ’ ὑμῖν πάρεστιν, ὥστε ὅπῃ ἂν βούλησθε ἐξαίφνης ἂν ἐπιπέσοιτε. (Xenophon, Anabasis 5.6.20)
You have ships at your disposal, so that you may make a sudden attack at whatever point you may wish.
κατεφαίνετο πάντα αὐτόθεν, ὥστε οὐκ ἂν ἔλαθεν αὐτὸν ὁρμώμενος ὁ Κλεών τῷ στρατῷ. (Thucydides 5.6.3)
This place commanded a view in all directions, so that Cleon would not have remained unnoticed while moving his
army. (But Cleon didn’t move his army.)
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20. Result Clauses
Sometimes ὥστε occurs at the beginning of a sentence, particularly when followed by an imperative or a
direct question. The moods of independent sentences are used. In such cases, translate ὥστε ‘therefore’:
ἠξιώσαμεν … κινδυνεῦσαι καὶ μὴ ὀργισθῆναι ὅτι ἡμῖν οὐ προυτιμωρήσατε. ὥστε φαμὲν οὐχ ἧσσον αὐτοὶ ὠφελῆσαι
ὑμᾶς ἢ τυχεῖν. (Thucydides 1.74.3)
We deigned to risk our lives and not be angry at you because you did not assist us. We assert, therefore, that we
have helped you no less than we have gained.
20.2.2. With the infinitive
When ὥστε is used with the (accusative and) infinitive, the speaker portrays the result as naturally or likely
resulting from the action expressed in the main clause. It is not specified whether or not the result actually
occurs, only that the action expressed in the main clause has the tendency, capacity or intention to bring on
the result. The negative is μή:
ἀλλὰ ξυνέπεσεν ἐς τοῦτο ἀνάγκης ὥστε ἐπιχειρῆσαι ἀλλήλοις τοὺς Κορινθίους καὶ Ἀθηναίους. (Thucydides 1.49.7)
But it came to such a point of necessity that the Corinthians and the Athenians attacked each other.
μετὰ τὰ Τρωικὰ ἡ Ἑλλὰς ἔτι ... κατῳκίζετο ὥστε μὴ ... αὐξηθῆναι. (Thucydides 1.12.1)
After the Trojan war, Greece was still being settled, so that it didn’t grow.
This construction is always used after a negative main clause, and after a comparative with ἤ ὥστε (‘more
X than to’ = ‘too X to’)
ἡμεῖς δὲ οὐ δικαζόμεθα πρὸς αὐτούς, ὥστε τῶν δικαίων δεῖν, ἀλλὰ ... (Thucydides 3.44.4)
But we are not engaged in a lawsuit against them to make us require legal arguments; no, …
καταφανέστερον ἢ ὥστε λανθάνειν οὐ προθύμως ξυνεπολέμει. (Thucydides 8.46.5)
(The Athenian navy) used to engage in war with a lack of zeal that was too great to be mistaken.
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21. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
21.1. INTRODUCTION
A conditional period consists of:

- A conditional subordinate clause introduced by εἰ (‘protasis’): ‘If Achilles is shot in the heel, …’
- A main clause (‘apodosis’): ‘ … (then) he will die.’
The whole of the conditional period expresses that the action in the main clause is dependent on the action in
the subordinate clause. The negative in the protasis is always μή. If εἰ is joined with ἄν, it becomes ἐάν, ἤν or
ἄν through crasis.
By using different types of conditional periods, speakers can indicate how likely they consider the condition
to be fulfilled, e.g.:
- ‘If John opens the door, Sam will walk in.’ (‘neutral’ or ‘open’ condition: no indication of likelihood)
- ‘If John had opened the door, Sam would have walked in.’ (‘counterfactual’ or ‘unfulfilled’ condition:
impossible)
- ‘If John should open the door, Sam would walk in.’ (‘potential’ or ‘remote’ condition: remotely possible)
- ‘Every time, if John opened the door, Sam walked in.’ (‘habitual’ or ‘repeated’ condition)
Greek has five basic types of conditional: neutral, prospective, potential, counterfactual and habitual; each
type expresses a different attitude of the speaker towards the likelihood of the action in the protasis being
fulfilled. Different moods and tenses are used in each of the different types.
21.2. NEUTRAL CONDITIONS
In neutral conditions, the speaker gives no indication if he thinks that the condition expressed in the
protasis has come true/is coming true/will come true. The speaker simply puts forward that ‘if it is true that
X’ or ‘if it is the case that X’, ‘then Y’. Neutral conditions in Greek have εἰ + indicative in the protasis; any
mood and tense may be used in the apodosis.
ἀξιῶ δέ, ὦ βουλή, εἰ μὲν ἀδικῶ, μηδεμιᾶς συγγνώμης τυγχάνειν. (Lysias 3.4)
I deign, if I am guilty, Council, to meet with no forgiveness.
εἰ … ὑμᾶς οἴονται … ὑπὸ τῶν διαβολῶν πεισθέντας καταψηφιεῖσθαί μου, τοῦτ’ ἂν θαυμάσαιμι. (Lysias 9.2)
If they think that you will convict me, having been persuaded by slander, that would surprise me.
εἰ μεγάλ᾽ ἐγκαλῶν ὀλίγ᾽ ἐπράξατο, οὐ … τοῦτο τεκμήριόν ἐστιν, ὡς ἡ δίαιτα οὐ γέγονεν. (Isocrates 18.14)
If, when he was making enormous demands, he exacted only little, this is not evidence that there was no
arbitration.
ἐγὼ δέ, εἰ μέν τι ψεῦδος εἴρηκα, ὁμολογῶ καὶ τὰ ὀρθῶς εἰρημένα προσδιαβάλλειν ἄδικα εἶναι. (Antiphon 3.4.2)
For my part, if I have said anything that is a lie, I am content that you treat even the things that I have said
truthfully as dishonest pleading.
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21. Conditional Clauses
The use of a neutral condition often implies a degree of scepticism on the speaker’s part, which may be made
explicit by adding a word like (ὡς) ἀληθῶς (‘really’, ‘truly’):
εἰ γάρ τις ὡς ἀληθῶς χαίρει τῇ εἰρήνῃ, τοῖς στρατηγοῖς, ὧν κατηγοροῦσιν ἅπαντες, χάριν αὐτῆς ἐχέτω.
(Demosthenes 19.96)
If anyone is truly pleased with the peace, let him be thankful for it to the generals whom everyone is accusing.
In the case of a neutral condition referring to the future (with a future indicative), the apodosis is often
implied to be unpleasant — conditionals with the future indicative is therefore often found in threats,
appeals, warnings, etc.:
ὅτι γ᾽ οὐ στήσεται, δῆλον, εἰ μή τις κωλύσει. (Demosthenes 4.43)
That he will not desist unless someone stops him (note the concealed future in English), that much is clear.
! Note:
In many grammar books, conditions with εἰ + future indicative in the protasis are called ‘future most vivid’-conditions or
‘emotional future’-conditions (because it is often found in threats, etc.).
21.3. PROSPECTIVE CONDITIONS
Prospective conditions are by far the most common type of conditionals referring to the future. By using
this type of condition, the speaker presents fulfilment of the condition as very well possible/likely: ‘If X
happens — and I consider it very well possible that it will, then Y will happen’. Prospective conditions in
Greek have prospective ἐάν + subjunctive in the protasis, and a future indicative (or another verb form with
future reference, e.g. an imperative or hortative subjunctive) in the apodosis.
The difference between the use of present and aorist subjunctives is purely aspectual. As a rule, however, the
use of ἐάν + present subjunctive (aspect: non-complete) generally indicates that the action in the protasis will
be going on at the same time as the action in the apodosis (simultaneous):
μηδ᾽ ἐὰν εὖ εἰκάζω, ἐν τούτῳ μοι ἀξιοῦτε τὴν ἀπόφευξιν εἶναι. (Antiphon 5.66)
And do not, if I seem to be guessing right, think it right that my acquittal lies in that fact.
Ἐάν + aorist subjunctive (aspect: complete) normally expresses that the action in the protasis will take place
before the action in the apodosis (anterior).
ἐὰν δὲ νῦν καταληφθεὶς ἀποθάνω, ἀνόσια ὀνείδη τοῖς παισὶν ὑπολείψω. (Antiphon 2.2.9)
If now I die, having been taken into custody, I will leave shameful disgrace to my children.
καί με μηδεὶς ἀμαρτᾶν ὑπολάβῃ τὸν λόγον τῆς γραφῆς, ἐὰν εἰς Ἑλληνικὰς πράξεις … ἐμπέσω. (Demosthenes 18.59)
And let no one suppose that I am straying from the indictment with my argument, if I touch upon Greek practice.
! Note:
This type of condition is often called ‘future more vivid’ in grammars.
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21.4. POTENTIAL CONDITIONS
Potential conditions also refer to the future. The speaker considers fulfilment of the condition possible, but
no more than that. It is usually implied that the condition is only remotely relevant: ‘If X should/were to
happen, Y would happen.’ Potential conditions in Greek have εἰ + optative in the protasis and potential ἄν +
optative in the apodosis.
The difference between the use of present and aorist optatives is purely aspectual. As a rule, however, a
present optative indicates simultaneity:
ὑμᾶς γὰρ ἂν αὐτοὺς ἀτιμάζοιτ᾽ εἰ τοιαῦτα γιγνώσκοιτε περὶ τῶν πολιτῶν. (Isocrates 20.19)
For you would be paying disrespect to yourselves, if you should have such an opinion about the citizen population.
πάντων γ’ ἂν εἴη σχετλιώτατος, εἰ μὴ βούλοιτο καταλελύσθαι ταύτην τὴν ἀρχὴν. (Isocrates 5.103)
He would be the most base of all men, if he were not to want to dissolve that empire
And an aorist optative indicates anteriority:
ὁ δὲ λόγος εἰ καλῶς διέλθοι τὰς ἐκείνου πράξεις, ἀείμνηστον ἂν τὴν ἀρετὴν τὴν Εὐαγόρου … ποιήσειεν. (Isocrates 9.4)
And the speech, if it were to discuss that man’s deeds adequately, would make the memory of Evagoras’ virtue eternal.
παραχθεὶς δὲ ὑπὸ τῶνδε εἰ ἀδίκως ἁλοίην, ἀποδραίην ἄν. (Lysias 9.21)
But if, summoned by them, I should be unjustly convicted, I would run away.
! Note:
This type of condition is variably called ‘future less vivid’, ‘should-would’ or ‘remote’ condition in grammars.
21.5. COUNTERFACTUAL CONDITIONS
When a speaker considers the fulfilment of a present or past condition impossible (or no longer possible), he
can use a counterfactual condition: ‘If X were true, Y would be true (but X isn’t true)’ or ‘If X had happened,
Y would have happened (but X didn’t happen).’ In Greek, counterfactual conditions have εἰ + modal past
indicative in the protasis and modal past indicative + ἄν in the apodosis.
The difference between modal imperfects and aorist indicatives is purely aspectual. As a rule, however,
counterfactual conditionals referring to the present generally have the imperfect:
εἰ ὡς ἀληθῶς οἷάπερ φήσει … ἦν αὐτῷ τὰ πεπραγμένα …, οὐδ᾽ οὕτω … ἐκφυγεῖν … δίκαιος ἂν ἦν. (Demosthenes 21.169)
And if his actions were really exactly such as he says, not even then would it be just for him to escape conviction.
καὶ ταῦτα εἰ μὲν ἠπίστουν, ἐξελέγχειν ἂν ἐζήτουν. (Lysias 8.9)
And if I disbelieved these things, I would seek to test them.
In counterfactual conditionals referring to the past, the aorist is most common (but imperfect is possible):
εἰ γὰρ οὗτος μὴ πλείω ἀνέγραψεν ἓξ ταλάντοις, εἴς τε τὰς θυσίας τὰς πατρίους ἂν ἐξήρκεσε καὶ τρία τάλαντα. (Lysias 30.20)
For if this man had not entered sacrifices to an excess amounting to six talents, there would have been enough for
our ancestral offerings
εἰ δὲ Λακεδαιμόνιοι ταύτην τὴν δύναμιν παρέλαβον, εὐδαίμονας ἂν καὶ τοὺς ἄλλους καὶ σφᾶς αὐτοὺς ἐποίησαν.
(Isocrates 8.95)
And if the Spartans had taken over this empire, they would have made themselves and others happy.
! Note:
This type of condition is often called ‘unfulfilled’, ‘unreal’ or ‘hypothetical’.
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21.6. HABITUAL CONDITIONS
Using a habitual condition, speakers can express that a recurring action is dependent on something else
happening, in other words, that one repeated or habitual action leads to another: ‘If (=whenever) X happens,
then Y happens.’ Different constructions are used for present and past habitual conditions.
Habitual conditions referring to the present have indefintite ἄν + subjunctive in the protasis and a present
indicative (expressing a general fact) in the apodosis:
ἀλλ᾽ ἐὰν ἐπιδεικνύῃ τίς τι τούτων, ἱκανὸν νομίζετ᾽ ἔλεγχον ἔχειν ὑμεῖς … τῆς ἀληθείας ἑκάστοτε. (Demosthenes 22.22)
But every time, if someone demonstrates one of these things, you think that you have sufficient proof of the truth.
αἰτιᾶσθε δὲ πολλάκις ἐξαπατᾶν ὑμᾶς αὐτούς, ἐὰν μὴ πάνθ᾽ ὃν ἂν ὑμεῖς τρόπον βούλησθε γένηται. (Demosthenes,
Exordia 25.1)
But you often accuse someone of deceiving you, if everything does not go the way you want.
Habitual conditions referring to the past have indefinite optative without ἄν in the protasis and an
imperfect in the apodosis:
τῶν δὲ πολλῶν εἴ τις αἴσθοιτο, ἐσίγα καὶ κατεπέπληκτο … (Demosthenes 9.61)
And if anyone among the common people learned of it, he would keep silent and be in terror.
ὑμῖν δ᾽, εἴ τι δέοισθε, χρήμαθ᾽ ὑπῆρχε κοινῇ πλεῖστα τῶν πάντων Ἑλλήνων … (Demosthenes 23.209)
And you had, if ever you lacked something, funds surpassing all Greeks in your treasury.
! Note:
This type of condition is sometimes called ‘indefinite’, ‘generic’ or ‘general’.
! Note:
The difference between habitual conditional clauses and habitual temporal clauses is only slight, and hard for speakers of
English to grasp. The protasis of a habitual condition refers to something which sometimes occurs and other times does
not occur (the apodosis applies only in the cases that it does occur); habitual temporal clauses, on the other hand, refer
simply to something that takes place more than once. In general, however, it is adequate to translate both with ‘whenever’:
εἰ τοῦτο ποιοίη, ἐκολάζετο.
Whenever he did that (out of all the possible times that he could have done or not done it), he was punished.
ἐπεὶ τοῦτο ποιοίη, ἐκολάζετο.
On the occasions that he did that (more than once), he was punished.
21.7. SOME ADDITIONAL COMMENTS
Though most examples from Greek texts follow the ‘prototypes’ above, there are also many ‘mixed’
conditionals where a protasis and an apodosis from different types are used together (remember that the
apodosis of a neutral condition can already use any tense or mood). The meaning of both parts stays the
same. Some mixed conditionals frequently found are:
- Past counterfactual apodosis, present counterfactual protasis (very common):
ἴσαι αἱ ψῆφοι αὐτῷ ἐγένοντο· εἰ δὲ μία ψῆφος μετέπεσεν, ὑπερώριστ᾽ ἄν. (Aeschines 3.252)
The votes cast over him were tied: and if one vote would have been transferred, he would now be in exile.
- Potential apodosis, present indicative in the apodosis:
εἰ γὰρ εἶναί τι δοκοίη … ἐν τούτοις ἀδίκημα, οὐδέν ἐστι δήπου πρὸς ἐμέ. (Demosthenes 18.21)
For if you were to suppose that there was any guilt in those matters, the suspicion does, I dare say, not concern me.
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- Potential apodosis, future indicative in the apodosis:

ὅλως γὰρ εἰ ‘θέλοιμεν σκοπεῖν τὰς φύσεις τὰς τῶν ἀνθρώπων, εὑρήσομεν τοὺς πολλοὺς αὐτῶν οὔτε τῶν σιτίων
χαίροντας. (Isocrates 2.45)
For if we were to be willing to examine the nature of men as a whole, we shall find that most of them do not take
pleasure in food.
Occasionally, two different types of protasis are found in quick succession, referring to different outcomes of
the same action, which are presented with different degrees of likelihood or favourability:
ὥστ᾽ εἰ μὲν ἀποψηφιεῖσθε τούτων, οὐδὲν δεινὸν δόξει αὐτοῖς εἶναι … ἐκ τῶν ὑμετέρων ὠφελεῖσθαι· ἐὰν δὲ
καταψηφισάμενοι θανάτου τιμήσητε, … τούς … ἄλλους κοσμιωτέρους ποιήσετε ἢ νῦν εἰσι … (Lysias 27.7)
If you acquit these men (neutral – unfavourable), therefore, they will think that making a profit at your expense is
in no way dangerous; but if you condemn them and sentence them to death (prospective – favourable), you will
make the rest more orderly than they are now.
Conditional clauses introduced by εἰ καί or καὶ εἰ (‘even if’) are known as concessive clauses, and express an
exceptional condition. The apodosis is considered to be true regardless of the protasis occurring. All types of
conditional occur. The main clause may have ὅμως (‘nevertheless’) to emphasise the contrast.
καὶ γὰρ εἰ μυθώδης ὁ λόγος γέγονεν, ὅμως αὐτῷ καὶ νῦν ῥηθῆναι προσήκει. (Isocrates 4.28)
For even if the story has taken the form of a myth, it is nevertheless fitting that it now be told again. (neutral)
εἰ καὶ τὸν ἄλλον χρόνον εἴθιστο συκοφαντεῖν, τότ’ ἂν ἀπαύσατο. (Isocrates 21.11)
Even if he had been accustomed in former times to bring slanderous accusations, then he would have given up the
practice. (counterfactual)
Prospective (ἐὰν + subj.) and potential (εἰ + opt.) εἰ-clauses sometimes have the force of a purpose clause, best
translated by ‘in the hope that’: such cases cannot really be called ‘conditional’ clauses. They are especially
frequent in Homer, and are normally easily recognisable:
βάλλ’ οὕτως, αἴ κέν τι φόως Δαναοῖσι γένηαι. (Homer, Iliad 8.282)
Keep on shooting in this way, in the hope that you may become a light for the Greeks.
ἐπέπλει οὖν ... πρὸς τὴν Σύμην ..., εἰ πως περιλάβοι … τὰς ναῦς. (Thucydides 8.42.1)
He sailed, therefore in the direction of Syme, in the hope that he might in some way find the ships.
Remember that in indirect discourse after a verb of saying/thinking/etc. in a past tense, the oblique optative
may be used. Subordinate clauses (including conditional clauses) in indirect speech can also get the optative,
and in that case drop ἄν if the optative replaces a subjunctive + ἄν (see §12.4):
ἡγεῖτ’ οὖν, εἰ μὲν ὑμᾶς ἕλοιτο, φίλους ἐπὶ τοῖς δικαίοις αἱρήσεσθαι. (Demosthenes 6.12)
So he thought that if he chose you, he would choose friends, based on justice.
Direct speech: ἐὰν αὐτοὺς ἕλωμαι, φίλους ἐπὶ τοῖς δικαίοις αἱρήσομαι.
A separate type of clause expressing conditionality is introduced by ἐφ’ ᾧ or ἐφ’ ᾧτε (‘on condition that’; for
ἐπί + dat. with conditional force, see §6.1). Such clauses usually have an infinitive (sometimes the future
indicative). The negative is μή.
ἀφίεμέν σε, ἐπὶ τούτῳ μέντοι, ἐφ’ ᾧτε μηκέτι ... φιλοσοφεῖν (Plato, Apology 29c)
We are letting you go; on the condition, however, that you will no longer be a philosopher.
ξυνέβησαν ... ἐφ’ ᾧ ἐξίασιν ἐκ Πελοποννήσου ὑπόσπονδοι καὶ μηδέποτε ἐπιβήσονται αὐτῆς. (Thucydides 1.103.1)
They made an agreement on the condition that they would leave the Peloponnese bound by a treaty and never enter
it again.
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21.8. OVERVIEW OF CONDITIONALS
PAST PRESENT FUTURE
protasis apodosis protasis apodosis protasis apodosis
εἰ + past ind. any time/mood εἰ + pres. ind. any time/mood εἰ + fut. ind. any time/mood
NEUTRAL εἰ τοῦτο ἐποίησε κολασθήσεται εἰ τοῦτο ποιεῖ κολασθήσεται εἰ τοῦτο ποιήσει κολασθήσεται
if he has done he will be if he is doing he will be if he does that he will be
that punished that punished punished
xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx ἐάν + subj. fut. ind./imperat.

xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx
PROSPECTIVE ἐὰν τοῦτο ποιήσῃ κολασθήσεται
xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx if he does that he will be
xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx punished
xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx εἰ + past ind. ἄν + opt.

xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx
POTENTIAL εἰ τοῦτο ποιήσειε κολασθείη ἄν
xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx if he were to do he would be
xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx that punished
εἰ + aor. ind. ἄν + aor. ind. εἰ + imperf. ἄν + imperf.

xxxx xxxx
εἰ τοῦτο ἐποίησεν ἐκολάσθη ἄν εἰ τοῦτο ἐποίει ἐκολαζετο ἄν
xxxx xxxx
COUNTERFACTUAL if he had done he would have if he were he would be
that been punished doing that punished xxxx xxxx
xxxx xxxx
Note: the difference between (modal) aor. ind. and imperf. is purely aspectual:
the ‘past’-‘present’ distinction indicated here works as a rule of thumb only!
εἰ + opt. imperf. ἐάν + subj. pres. ind. xxxx xxxx

xxxx xxxx
HABITUAL εἰ τοῦτο ποιήσειεν ἐκολάζετο ἐὰν τοῦτο ποιήσῃ κολάζεται
whenever he he was punished whenever he he is punished xxxx xxxx
did that does that xxxx xxxx
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22. RELATIVE CLAUSES
22.1. INTRODUCTION
Relative clauses are introduced by one of the following relative pronouns/adjectives/adverbs:

Definite Indefinite
ὅς - ὅστις - who(m), which, that
ὅσος - ὁπόσος - as large, much (sg.)/many (pl.) as (often best translated by ‘all’)
οἷος - ὁποῖος - such as, of the kind that
ἔνθα, οὗ - ὅπου - where
ἔνθεν, ὅθεν - ὁπόθεν - from where
ἔνθα, οἷ - ὅποι - to where
ᾗ - ὅπῃ - along which/where
ὡς - ὅπως - as, like, in the way of
Relative clauses with ὡς or ὅπως are also called ‘clauses of comparison’.
As a general rule, if the antecedent (the word in the main clause to which the relative word refers) is definite,
the definite relative word is used. If it is indefinite, the indefinite word is normally used. (For ‘definiteness’
(=identifiability), see §2.1; there are many exceptions where this rule does not appear to apply):
ὁ ἀνὴρ ὃς ἐποίησε τοῦτο κολασθήσεται.
The (specific) man that did that will be punished. (The speaker knows the man.)
ἀνὴρ ὅστις ἔποιησε τοῦτο, κολασθήσεται.
The man (whoever he may be) that did that will be punished.
The ‘definiteness’ of a definite relative may be emphasised by adding περ (ὅσπερ = ‘exactly who’). The
‘indefiniteness’ of an indefinite relative may be emphasised by adding ποτε (ὅστις ποτε = ‘whoever’).
Two types of relative clause may be distinguished:

- ‘Determinative’ (or ‘restrictive’) relative clauses: the information in the relative clause is necessary to
identify the antecedent. Without the relative clause, the sentence has no significant meaning. E.g. ‘The
man whom you see is my brother.’ (ὁ ἀνὴρ ὃν ὁρᾷς ἀδελφός μου ἐστιν). In English, this type of relative
clause does not normally stand between comma’s.
- ‘Digressive’ (or ‘explanatory’) relative clauses: the relative clause gives ‘extra’ information that is not
required to identify the antecedent. In other words, the sentence still makes sense if the relative clause is
left out, and the relative clause is much like a new sentence tacked on. E.g. ‘The Nile, which flows
through Egypt, is a major river.’ (ὁ Νεῖλος, ὃς δι’ Αἰγύπτου ῥεῖ, ποταμὸς μέγας ἐστίν.) Digressive relative
clauses are especially common with proper names. In English, this type normally stands between
commas.
Determinative relative clauses in Greek behave like temporal/conditional clauses; digressive relative clauses
behave like independent sentences.
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22.2. ANTECEDENT, AGREEMENT, ATTRACTION AND CONNECTION
The relative pronoun ὅσ(τις) and the relative adjectives (ὁπ)όσος and (ὁπ)οῖος agree in gender and number
with their antecedent, but their case is determined by their syntactic function in the relative clause:
εἶδον τὸν ἄνδρα ὃς ἐπαίδευσε τὸν Σωκράτη I saw the man who educated Socrates.
εἶδον τὸν ἄνδρα ὃν ἐπαίδευσε ὁ Σωκράτης I saw the man whom Socrates educated.
! Note:
The relative pronoun is sometimes formed according to the meaning rather than the grammatical form of its antecedent.
For this construction ‘according to sense’ (κατὰ σύνεσιν), see §1.3.
An exception to this rule is the so-called ‘attraction’ of the relative (only in determinative relative clauses).
The relative nearly always takes on the same case as its antecedent if (and only if):
- A form of ὃς, οἷος or ὅσος (but not their indefinite forms) is direct object in its relative clause (an
accusative is expected);
- The antecedent is in the genitive or dative (the antecedent is sometimes not expressed):
Μήδων ὅσων ἑώρακα ... ὁ ἐμὸς πάππος κάλλιστος. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 1.3.2)
Of all the Medes that I’ve seen, my father is the most handsome. (object with ἑώρακα, but genitive)
ὅπως ἔσεσθε ἄνδρες ἄξιοι τῆς ἐλευθερίας ἧς κέκτησθε. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.7.3)
You must be men worthy of the freedom which you possess. (object with κέκτησθε, but genitive)
ἐπαινῶ σε ἐφ’ οἷς λέγεις. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.45)
I praise you for what you say. (object with λέγεις, but genitive)
The antecedent of a determinative relative clause may be omitted (especially when it is a demonstrative
pronoun); such relative clauses are called ‘autonomous’ relative clauses:
ἐγὼ δὲ καὶ ὦν κρατῶ μενοῦμεν. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 5.1.26)
But I and (those) whom I command will remain. (omitted: οὗτοι)
ἄξω ὑμᾶς ἔνθα τὸ πρᾶγμα ἐγένετο. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 5.4.21)
I will take you (to the place) where the event took place. (omitted: ἐκεῖσε)
Sometimes it is inserted into the relative clause instead of the main clause (again, only in determinative
relative clauses). The case of the ‘antecedent’ is that of the relative (required by the function in the relative
clause):
εἰ δὲ τινα ὁρῴη ... κατασκευάζοντα ... ἧς ἄρχοι χώρας ... (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.9.19)
If he saw that a man was organising the country over which he ruled … (gen. with. ἄρχοι)
τούτους ... ἄρχοντας ἐποίει ἧς κατεστρέφετο χώρας. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.9.14)
He appointed them as rulers of the territory which he was subduing. (with relative attraction – gen. with. ἄρχοντας)
The relative pronoun is occasionally used to introduce a new independent sentence (the antecedent stands in
a previous sentence). This is called ‘relative connection’. The relative in such cases has almost the same
function as the demonstrative pronoun οὗτος (and should be translated as such):
καὶ γὰρ ἄπληστον καὶ ἐλπίδας τινὰς γλυκείας παρέχει. οὗ ἕνεκα ἀφεκτέον ἐγώ φημι εἶναι φιλημάτων τῶν ὡραίων.
(Xenophon, Symposium 1.1.1)
For it is insatiable and holds out seductive hopes. For this reason I say that one must refrain from kissing those in
the bloom of beauty.
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22.3. MOODS AND TENSES IN RELATIVE CLAUSES
In digressive relative clauses, the use of moods and tenses is identical to that of independent sentences
(main clauses), including the imperative, hortative subjunctive, optative of wish, etc. The negative is normally
οὐ, unless μή is required (e.g. in a wish with the optative).
ἀπῆλθεν εἰς Ἔφεσον, ἣ ἀπέχει ἀπὸ Σάρδεων τριῶν ἡμερῶν ὁδόν. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.45)
He left for Ephesus, which is a three-day journey from Sardis.
κρατῆρές εἰσιν ... ὧν κρᾶτ’ ἔρεψον. (Sophocles, Oedipus Coloneus 473)
There are mixing-bowls, the brims of which you must cover. (imperative)
οἴομαι ἂν ἡμᾶς τοιαῦτα παθεῖν, οἷα τοὺς ἐχθροὺς οἱ θεοὶ ποιήσειαν. (Xenophon, Anabasis 3.2.3)
I think we should endure such things as — I pray — the gods may inflict upon our enemies. (cupitive optative)
ἥξετε ἐπὶ Ἅλυν, ὃν οὐκ ἂν δύναισθε ἄνευ πλοίων διαβῆναι. (Xenophon, Anabasis 5.6.9)
You will come to the Halys, which you could not cross without boats. (potential optative)
In most determinative relative clauses, the use of moods and tenses is very much like that of
temporal/conditional clauses; thus, the following can be found in determinative relative clauses:
- Indicative (negative either οὐ or μή — the latter with a conditional nuance):
ἐπιδεικνὺς ἃ οὐκ ἐνόμιζον ἐπίστασθαι ἀναπείθεις ... ὡς καὶ ταῦτα ἐπίσταμαι. (Xenophon, Oeconomicus 19.15)
By pointing out the things which I did not think I knew, you persuade me that I know those things as well.
δικαίως ἂν αὐτὸν ᾤετο δεδέσθαι ὑπὸ τῶν ἐπισταμένων ἃ μὴ αὐτὸς ἐπίσταται. (Xenophon, Memorabilia 1.2.50)
He might think that he has been justly bound by those who know the things he does not himself know.
The first example has οὐ because the relative clause refers to specific things which the ‘I’ did not think he knew but
now does. The second example has μή, with a conditional nuance: ‘ ... by those who, if there are things that he does
not know, know those things.’
- Prospective: ἄν + subjunctive (negative μή) in the relative clause, the main clause refers to the future,
e.g. future indicative, imperative, etc. (see §21.3):
ἀκούοντες καὶ σοῦ καὶ τῶν τοῦ Λακωνικοῦ αἱρησόμεθα ἃ ἂν κράτιστα δοκῇ εἶναι. (Xenophon, Anabasis 7.3.8)
We will, listening to both you and the Spartan’s messengers, choose the option that seems best to us (=‘if an option
seems best to us’).
τῷ ἀνδρὶ ὃν ἂν ἕλησθε πείσομαι. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.15)
We will obey the man that you choose (=‘if you choose one’).
- Potential: optative without ἄν in the relative clause (negative μή), potential optative with ἄν in the main
clause (see §21.4):
ἐγὼ γὰρ ὀκνοίην μὲν ἂν εἰς τὰ πλοῖα ἐμβαίνειν ἃ ἡμῖν δοίη. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.17)
For I would hesitate to embark in the vessels that he were to give us (=‘if he were to give us any’).
- Counterfactual: modal past indicative in the relative clause (negative μή), modal past indicative + ἄν in
the main clause (see §21.5):
οἱ παῖδες ὑμῶν, ὅσοι ἐνθάδε ἦσαν, ὑπὸ τούτων ἂν ὑβρίζοντο. (Lysias 12.98)
Your children, as many of them as were present (=‘if any were present’), would be insulted by these men.
- Habitual: indefinite subjunctive + ἄν (present) or optative without ἄν (past) in the relative clause
(negative μή), present or imperfect in the main clause (see §21.6):
πάντα γὰρ ἀγαθὰ μὲν … ἐστι πρὸς ἃ ἂν εὖ ἔχῃ, κακὰ δὲ … πρὸς ἃ ἂν κακῶς. (Xenophon, Memorabilia 3.8.7)
For everything is good in relation to the things to which they are well suited, and bad in relation to those to which
they are poorly suited (=‘if ever they are well/poorly suited’).
ἐθήρα ὅπου ἐπιτυγχάνοιεν θηρίοις. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia)
He hunted wherever he came upon animals (=‘if ever he came upon animals’).
95
Relative clauses may also have the force of a causal, purpose or result clause:
- Causal relative clauses (normally digressive) have the indicative (negative οὐ):
θαυμαστὸν ποιεῖς, ὃς ἡμῖν οὐδεν δίδως. (Xenophon, Memorabilia 2.8.3)
You do a strange thing, you who have given us nothing (=‘because you have …’).
- Purpose relative clauses (determinative) get the future indicative (negative μή):
κρεῖττόν ἐστιν τοῖς τοιούτοις τῶν ἔργων ἐπιτίθεσθαι, ἃ καὶ πρεσβυτέρῳ γενομένῳ ἐπαρκέσει. (Xenophon,
Memorabilia 2.8.3)
It is better to take up those types of work that will sustain you even after you’ve grown older (=‘to sustain …’).
ἔδοξε τῷ δήμῳ τριάκοντα ἄνδρας ἑλέσθαι, οἳ τοὺς … νόμους συγγράψουσι. (Xenophon, Hellenica 2.3.2)
The people decide to elect thirty men to codify the laws.
- Result relative clauses normally have a form of ὅσ(τις) + indicative and negative οὐ, and always follow
the main clause:
τίς οὕτω μαίνεται ὅστις οὐ βούλεται σοι φίλος εἶναι. (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.5.12)
Who is so mad, that he doesn’t wish to be your friend?
The optative with ἄν (potential, negative οὐ) and modal past indicative with ἄν (counterfactual, negative οὐ)
may occur in determinative as well as in digressive relative clauses.
τὰς δ’ ἐπ’ Ἰλλυρίους ... καὶ ὅποι τις ἂν εἴποι παραλείπω στρατείας. (Demosthenes 1.13)
I omit his expeditions against the Illyrians and to wherever one might speak of. (determinative – potential)
διεφύλαξε τὴν πόλιν … ὅπου … τῷ παντὶ πλέον ἂν εἶχον οἱ πολέμιοι, οὐκ ἐξάγων ἐνταῦθα. (Xenophon, Agesilaus
2.24)
He defended the city, not leading his men out to where the enemy would be wholly at advantage. (determinative –
counterfactual)
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23. OVERVIEW OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
MOOD/TENSE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSE MOOD/TENSE IN MAIN CLAUSE
Declarative (Indirect Speech): ὅτι, ὡς (see §12.3)
normally indicative (tense of direct speech);

any tense/mood
ἄν + modal past indicative or ἄν + optative is possible
oblique optative (tense of direct speech) past tense
Indirect Questions: εἰ, πότερον ... ἤ, εἴτε ... εἴτε, τίς (etc.) or ὅστις (etc.) (see §§13.5-6)
normally indicative (tense of direct question);

any tense/mood
deliberative subjunctive is possible
oblique optative (tense of direct question) past tense
Fearing: μή (see §16.1)
subjunctive (tense according to aspect) any tense/mood

- referring to future
oblique optative (tense according to aspect) past tense
- referring to pres. or past indicative (usually perfect) any tense/mood
Effort: ὅπως (see §16.2)
future indicative any tense/mood
oblique future optative (rare) past tense
Clauses after verbs of effort are sometimes construed as fearing clauses, or as purpose clauses.
Temporal: ὅτε, ὡς, ἐπεί, ἐπειδή, ἐν ᾧ, ἕως, πρίν, etc. (see ch. 17)
- referring to pres. or past present or past indicative present or past indicative
- referring to future ἄν + subjunctive (tense according to aspect) future indicative, imperative, etc.
- referring to habitual ἄν + subjunctive (tense according to aspect) present indicative

occurrence optative without ἄν (tense according to aspect) imperfect
- ἕως as above (ἔως = ‘until’ / ‘as long as’, depending on aspect of verb in subordinate clause).
as above negative main clause, any tense/mood

- πρίν
infinitive (tense according to aspect) any tense/mood
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23. Overview of Subordinate Clauses
MOOD/TENSE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSE MOOD/TENSE IN MAIN CLAUSE
Causal: ὅτι, διότι (see ch. 18)
present or past indicative any tense/mood
Temporal clauses with ὅτε, ἐπεί and ὡς are often used with causal force.
Purpose: ἵνα, ὅπως, ὡς, μή (neg.) (see ch. 19)
subjunctive (tense according to aspect) any tense/mood
Result: ὥστε (see ch. 20)
- factual result indicative (any tense) any tense/mood
- natural/likely result infinitive (tense according to aspect) any tense/mood
Conditional: εἰ (concessive with καὶ εἰ / εἰ καί) (see ch. 21)
- neutral indicative (any tense) any tense/mood
- prospective ἄν + subjunctive (tense according to aspect) future indicative, imperative, etc.
- potential optative without ἄν (tense according to aspect) ἄν + optative (tense according to aspect)
modal past indicative ἄν + modal past indicative

- counterfactual
(imperf./aor. according to aspect) (imperf./aor. according to aspect)
ἄν + subjunctive (tense according to aspect) present indicative

- habitual
optative without ἄν (tense according to aspect) imperfect
Subordinate clauses and main clauses from two different types of conditional are often combined (‘mixed conditionals’).
Relative: ὃς (etc.), ὅστις (etc.), ἔνθα, ὡς, etc. (see ch. 22)
- digressive use of moods and tenses as in main clauses
use of moods and tenses as in temporal and conditional clauses;

- determinative
ἄν + modal past indicative or ἄν + optative is possible
The future indicative is used in relative clauses with purpose value; past or present indicatives are used with causal value or
result value (usually after ὅστις).
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24. PARTICLES
24.1. INTRODUCTION
The words commonly classed as particles are mostly short words that are not declined. They are considered a
class separate from adverbs, conjunctions and interjections (ἐ ἐ, οἶμοι, etc.), even though they often share
features with these classes of words.
Particles have no ‘meaning’ in the same way that words like οἰκία (‘house’), σοφία (‘wisdom’), βαίνειν (‘walk’),
ἀνδρεῖος (‘courageous’) have meaning. Such words refer to something in ‘reality’, something that can
generally be visualised or imagined. Particles, rather, have a function, which is to say that they play a role in
the organisation and structure of texts (how a text is presented), or the attitudes of speaker and hearer to what
is said (how people interact through their language).
Because they have a function rather than a ‘meaning’, and because there is not always an English word with
the exact same function, there is no one-on-one translation for Greek particles into English. As such, particles
can ‘mean’ vastly different things in different contexts. What should be kept in mind is that the same
‘function’ can lead to different interpretations, which in turn lead to different possible translations. But it is
often not easy to determine what the exact function of a particle is: ‘To catch the subtle and elusive meaning
of these often apparently insignificant elements of speech challenges the utmost vigilance and skill of the
student.’ (H.W. Smyth (1920), Greek Grammar, Harvard UP, p.631)
The descriptions of certain particles below may seem highly theoretical, so it is important to realise that — to
a speaker of Greek — these were very natural devices used to ‘control the flow’ of their text and mark certain
nuances. Particles ‘flesh out’ texts and make them lively.
Many particles cannot occur in the first position of a clause. They stand in second position (if they modify
the whole clause) or after the specific word they belong to. These postpositive particles are: ἄρα, γάρ, γε, δέ,
δή, μέν, μέντοι, μήν, νυν, οὖν, περ, που, τε, τοι, τοίνυν. They are marked below with #.
24.2. PARTICLES THAT PLAY A ROLE IN STRUCTURING A TEXT
#μέν, #δέ and καί

- The particles δέ and καί operate on different levels within a text. δέ is used to mark a shift from one topic
or section (one informational unit) to another, whereas καί (‘and’) links several things within such a unit.
As such, δέ is often found when the subject of a stretch of text changes, whereas καί is often used to link
several things said about a subject.
- μέν signals that there is more to say about something than the one sentence or clause it stands in: it is a
particle marking open-endedness. μέν is nearly always picked up by δέ or ἀλλά. The combination μέν ...
δέ (... δέ ... etc.) is the most common marker of contrast in Greek, but it need not signify more than a
simple catalogue/enumeration (X μέν did this, Y δέ did that, Z δέ did that, etc.)
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24. Particles
- When δέ simply introduces a new topic, it is often best left untranslated. Alternatively, one may use ‘and’,
or ‘as to’, ‘as regards’ (‘as to X, he did this’). When it marks a contrast, especially following μέν, ‘but’ is
often a good translation, or (emphatically translated) ‘one the one hand (μέν) .... on the other hand (δέ)’.
! Note:
The particle ἀτάρ is virtually a synonym of δέ, and used where δέ cannot be used (e.g. after vocatives).
οὐδέ/μηδέ; οὔτε/μήτε
- οὐδέ/μηδέ is the negative of καί, used only after a preceding negative: οὐκ X οὐδὲ Y = ‘not X and not Y’.
- οὔτε/μήτε is used with pairs: οὔτε X οὔτε Y = ‘neither X nor Y’.
#τε
- Connective particle similar to καί but following the word it connects to the preceding: X Y τε = ‘X and Y’.
- τε is also very commonly used to signal that something is the first in an enumeration, in which case καί
or another τε follows it X τε καὶ Y = ‘X and Y’; X τε Y τε = ‘X and Y’.
ἀλλά
- ἀλλά is a connective particle that eliminates or corrects a preceding alternative and replaces it with
another (not X, but Y). It can be translated by ‘but’, ‘on the contrary’, ‘no’.
- The particle can be used within informational units (‘he didn’t do X but Y’), but also on a larger scale to
structure the text. In this case, the speaker uses ἀλλά to break off a certain topic of conversation (‘but
enough about that’) and move in another direction.
#γάρ
- The particle γάρ introduces an explanatory discussion, branching off from the ‘main’ line of the
discussion/narrative to give additional information. Usually, suitable translations are ‘for’, ‘because’, and
‘since’.
- γάρ is very common in specific combinations, mostly in questions: πῶς γὰρ οὔ; (‘for how not?’ =
‘naturally’, ‘of course’); ἦ γάρ; / οὐ γάρ; / τί γάρ; (‘for surely that’s the case?’, ‘for isn’t that true?’, ‘for what
else?’)
- γάρ can also be used in answers, meaning ‘yes, because’: πάντα ταῦτ’ ᾔδη — σοφὸς γὰρ εἰ (‘I knew all
that. — Yes, because you’re clever.’)
! Note:
The combination ἀλλὰ γάρ / ἀλλά ... γάρ keeps the force of both particles. It signifies that a speaker breaks off his
discussion, and explains why he does so: ‘but enough about that, for ...’.
#οὖν (spelled ὦν in Ionic)

- In the structure of a text, οὖν marks a new step in a narrative or argument, which is in some way
connected to the previous step. The preceding text is characterised as preliminary or leading up to the
new argumentative, narrative step.
- οὖν can get vastly different interpretations (and translations) depending on the relationship between the
sentence it stands in and what precedes it. In conclusions that round off a preceding discussion, οὖν
means ‘therefore’, ‘so’, ‘as such’. But in picking up and continuing, a line of narrative (sometimes after a
digression), οὖν can simply mean ‘and then’, ‘next’, etc.
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24. Particles
- In the combination οὐκ + οὖν, the emphasis can lie on the οὐκ (accented οὔκουν = ‘it isn’t the case, then,
that...’), or on the οὖν (usually in questions, accented οὐκοῦν = ‘isn’t it the case, then, that...?’)
ἤ
- Connects two alternatives: ‘or’ (sometimes ἤ ... ἤ = ‘either ... or’).
- After comparatives: ‘than’.
#μέντοι, καίτοι (there is no real agreement about what these particles mean, but it is likely something along
the following lines:)
- μέντοι marks a new unit of information that contradicts or modifies the expectations raised by what
precedes. So whereas ἀλλά actually eliminates an alternative (not A, but B), μέντοι goes against certain
expectations (A, nevertheless B; A, however, B: ‘he is rich μέντοι he is unhappy’).
- καίτοι can be roughly paraphrased as ‘and on this point you should note specifically that’. The new point
often contrasts with what precedes, causing it to be reconsidered in light of the new information (A, but
on that point B). It can function as the reverse of μέντοι, signalling that the preceding information is true
notwithstanding the expectations that might have been raised by the new point introduced by καίτοι (in
which case καίτοι comes close to ‘even though’: ‘he is unhappy καίτοι he is rich’).
#νυν and #τοίνυν

- νυν is often combined with μέν... δέ, rounding off a previous step and beginning a new one: ‘well then
(μὲν νυν), so much about X; as to Y (δέ), ...’. The form τοίνυν has a similar function, stressing the
importance of the new step: ‘I come to the point, and note this well’
- In commands, νυν marks that the command flows naturally from the preceding: ‘and so you must...’.
An example of the use of the particles discussed above:

οὐκ ἄρξασθαί μοι δοκεῖ ἄπορον εἶναι, ὦ ἄνδρες δικασταί, τῆς κατηγορίας, ἀλλὰ παύσασθαι λέγοντι· τοιαῦτα 1
αὐτοῖς τὸ μέγεθος καὶ τοσαῦτα τὸ πλῆθος εἴργασται, ὥστε μή ... τἀληθῆ βουλόμενον εἰπεῖν ἅπαντα δύνασθαι, 2
ἀλλ᾽ ἀνάγκη ἢ τὸν κατήγορον ἀπειπεῖν ἢ τὸν χρόνον ἐπιλιπεῖν. τοὐναντίον δέ μοι δοκοῦμεν πείσεσθαι ἢ ἐν τῷ 3
πρὸ τοῦ χρόνῳ. πρότερον μὲν γὰρ ἔδει τὴν ἔχθραν τοὺς κατηγοροῦντας ἐπιδεῖξαι, ἥτις εἴη πρὸς τοὺς φεύγοντας· 4
νυνὶ δὲ παρὰ τῶν φευγόντων χρὴ πυνθάνεσθαι ἥτις ἦν αὐτοῖς πρὸς τὴν πόλιν ἔχθρα ... οὐ μέντοι ὡς οὐκ ἔχων 5
οἰκείας ἔχθρας καὶ συμφορὰς τοὺς λόγους ποιοῦμαι, ἀλλ᾽ ὡς ἅπασι πολλῆς ἀφθονίας οὔσης ὑπὲρ τῶν ἰδίων ἢ ὑπὲρ 6
τῶν δημοσίων ὀργίζεσθαι. ἐγὼ μὲν οὖν, ὦ ἄνδρες δικασταί, οὔτ᾽ ἐμαυτοῦ πώποτε οὔτε ἀλλότρια πράγματα 7
πράξας νῦν ἠνάγκασμαι ὑπὸ τῶν γεγενημένων τούτου κατηγορεῖν, ὥστε πολλάκις εἰς πολλὴν ἀθυμίαν κατέστην, 8
μὴ διὰ τὴν ἀπειρίαν ἀναξίως καὶ ἀδυνάτως ὑπὲρ τοῦ ἀδελφοῦ καὶ ἐμαυτοῦ τὴν κατηγορίαν ποιήσομαι. ὅμως 9
δὲ πειράσομαι ὑμᾶς ἐξ ἀρχῆς ὡς ἂν δύνωμαι δι᾽ ἐλαχίστων διδάξαι. (Lysias 12.1-3) 10
The difficulty that faces me, gentlemen of the jury, is not in beginning my accusation, but in bringing my speech to
an end: so enormous, so numerous are the acts they have committed, that [not] with every desire to speak mere
truth could one tell the whole; of necessity either the accuser must be tired out or his time must run short. It seems
to me that our positions will be the reverse of what they were in former times: for previously the accusers had to
explain their enmity towards the defendants; but in the present case inquiry must be made of the defendants as to
the motive of their enmity towards the city ... It is not, in deed, from any lack of private enmities and sufferings that
I make these remarks, but because of the abundant reasons that all of us have for anger on personal grounds, or in
the interest of the public. Now as for myself, gentlemen, having never engaged in any suit either on my own
account or on that of others, I have now been compelled by what has occurred to accuse this man: hence I have been
often overcome with a great feeling of despondency, from a fear lest my inexperience might cause me to fail in
making a worthy and able accusation on my brother’s and on my own behalf. Nevertheless I will try to inform you
of the matter from the beginning, as briefly as I can. (Transl. Lamb)
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24. Particles
Comment:
- ἀλλά (1, 3, 6) marks an exclusive contrast, eliminating the preceding alternative: ‘not beginning, but
ending’; ‘one could not finish, on the contrary, time would run out’; ‘not because of a lack of personal
suffering, no: for the entire city’.
- καί (2, 6, 9, 9) simply links ‘so enormous’ and ‘so numerous’, ‘enmities’ and ‘sufferings’, etc. See also οὔτε
... οὔτε in 7.
- ἤ ... ἤ (3) gives two alternatives (either... or) — in the third instance (3), with τοὐναντιον, ἤ means ‘(the
opposite) of’ — the other instance (6) simply means ‘or’.
- δέ (3) signals a new argumentative topic: first Lysias spoke about the number of crimes, now he discusses
their nature.
- He clarifies (γάρ, 4) his point by means of a contrast (μέν (4) ... δέ (5)) between the current situation and
past convention.
- μέντοι (5) anticipates the possible suspicion that Lysias has mentioned the crimes against the city because
there were none against himself: there were such crimes, says Lysias. (Lamb’s ‘indeed’ gets the force
wrong; ‘still’ or ‘yet’ could be tried here).
- οὖν (7) marks a completely new step in the argumentation (Lysias’ qualifications as an accuser), which
pushes all that preceded into the background (Lamb’s ‘now as for myself’ is excellent).
- In that new step, he contrasts his lack of experience (μέν, 7) with his intention to conduct this lawsuit
(ὅμως δέ, 9-10).
Another example:
ὅτι μὲν ὑμεῖς, ὦ ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, πεπόνθατε ὑπὸ τῶν ἐμῶν κατηγόρων, οὐκ οἶδα: ἐγὼ δ᾽ οὖν καὶ αὐτὸς ὑπ᾽ 1
αὐτῶν ὀλίγου ἐμαυτοῦ ἐπελαθόμην, οὕτω πιθανῶς ἔλεγον. καίτοι ἀληθές γε ὡς ἔπος εἰπεῖν οὐδὲν εἰρήκασιν. 2
μάλιστα δὲ αὐτῶν ἓν ἐθαύμασα τῶν πολλῶν ὧν ἐψεύσαντο, τοῦτο ἐν ᾧ ἔλεγον ὡς χρῆν ὑμᾶς εὐλαβεῖσθαι μὴ ὑπ᾽ 3
ἐμοῦ ἐξαπατηθῆτε ὡς δεινοῦ ὄντος λέγειν. τὸ γὰρ μὴ αἰσχυνθῆναι ὅτι αὐτίκα ὑπ᾽ ἐμοῦ ἐξελεγχθήσονται ἔργῳ, 4
ἐπειδὰν μηδ᾽ ὁπωστιοῦν φαίνωμαι δεινὸς λέγειν, τοῦτό μοι ἔδοξεν αὐτῶν ἀναισχυντότατον εἶναι, εἰ μὴ ἄρα δεινὸν 5
καλοῦσιν οὗτοι λέγειν τὸν τἀληθῆ λέγοντα: εἰ μὲν γὰρ τοῦτο λέγουσιν, ὁμολογοίην ἂν ἔγωγε οὐ κατὰ τούτους 6
εἶναι ῥήτωρ. οὗτοι μὲν οὖν, ὥσπερ ἐγὼ λέγω, ἤ τι ἢ οὐδὲν ἀληθὲς εἰρήκασιν, ὑμεῖς δέ μου ἀκούσεσθε πᾶσαν τὴν 7
ἀλήθειαν—οὐ μέντοι μὰ Δία, ὦ ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, κεκαλλιεπημένους γε λόγους, ὥσπερ οἱ τούτων, ῥήμασί τε καὶ 8
ὀνόμασιν οὐδὲ κεκοσμημένους, ἀλλ᾽ ἀκούσεσθε εἰκῇ λεγόμενα τοῖς ἐπιτυχοῦσιν ὀνόμασιν—πιστεύω γὰρ δίκαια 9
εἶναι ἃ λέγω—καὶ μηδεὶς ὑμῶν προσδοκησάτω ἄλλως. (Plato, Apology 17a-c) 10
How you, men of Athens, have been affected by my accusers, I do not know; but I, for my part, almost forgot my
own identity, so persuasively did they talk; and yet there is hardly a word of truth in what they have said. But I was
most amazed by one of the many lies that they told—when they said that you must be on your guard not to be
deceived by me, because I was a clever speaker. For I thought it the most shameless part of their conduct that they
are not ashamed because they will immediately be convicted by me of falsehood by the evidence of fact, when I
show myself to be not in the least a clever speaker, unless indeed they call him a clever speaker who speaks the
truth; for if this is what they mean, I would agree that I am an orator—not after their fashion. Now they, as I say,
have said little or nothing true; but you shall hear from me nothing but the truth. Not, however, men of Athens,
speeches finely tricked out with words and phrases, as theirs are, nor carefully arranged, but you will hear things
said at random with the words that happen to occur to me — for I trust that what I say is just — and let none of you
expect anything else. (Transl. Fowler)
Comment:
- There are two sets of corresponding μέν ... δέ (lines 1 and 7), both marking a contrast (your experience vs.
my experience; their speech vs. my speech)
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24. Particles
- The combination δ’ οὖν (1) marks the contrast (with μέν), and brings the new point (about Socrates
himself) to the forefront, marking it as the new relevant step. In 7, οὖν is used to pick up the main line of
the argument after a long digression (the ὥσπερ ἐγὼ λέγω points specifically back to the point that οὖν
picks up).
- καίτοι (2) latches on to Socrates ‘admiration’ for the speech of their accusers: he immediately wants to
make the point (calling into question the whole admirability of that speech) that they spoke falsely. ‘And
yet’ (Fowler) is a perfect translation.
- With δέ (3), Socrates moves on to, or perhaps ‘zooms in on’, a specific lie that the Athenians made. ‘But’
(Fowler) is good.
- Two instances of γάρ (4, 6) introduce an explanation of why Socrates found the one point particularly
amazing, and within that explanation another explanation (note how the second γάρ is joined with a μέν
which is not picked up: perhaps marking a contrast which is left unexpressed – note here the potential
ὁμολογοίην ἄν: Socrates implies that his accusers did not mean that). The last γάρ (9) explains why
Socrates will not go through a ‘planned’ speech (by the way, the whole speech is of course carefully
planned...).
- μέντοι (8) goes against the expectation that so-called ‘truthful’ oratory requires careful composition and
ornamentation: Socrates rather plans to use words as they occur to him. (Fowler’s ‘however’ is quite
adequate).
- οὐδέ (9), καί (8, 10) and τε (8) are all used regularly (see comments above).
24.3. PARTICLES OF SCOPE
The particles #γε, #περ and καί (negative οὐδέ) are particles that delimit the ‘scope’ or ‘applicability’ of a
certain statement. Instead of saying that X is true, these particles denote that X is true ‘at least in the case of
Y’, ‘even in the case of Y’ or ‘only in the case of Y’.
#γε
- The basic idea expressed by γε is that of ‘concentration’: it focuses attention on the word (group) it
follows, and limits the applicability of the statement to (at least) that specific element. Sometimes, the
only way of ‘translating’ γε is by emphasis, but in many cases, it means roughly ‘at least’, ‘in any case’:
- In an answer to a yes/no-question, γε often means ‘yes’, concentrating the answer on a specific aspect:
οὐκ ἔφη ἑαυτοῦ γε ἄρχοντος οὐδέν᾽ ἂν Ἑλλήνων εἰς τὸ ἐκείνου δυνατὸν ἀνδραποδισθῆναι. (Xenophon, Hellenica
1.6.14)
He said that, at least while he was commander, no Greek would be reduced to slavery, as far as was in his power.
καίτοι ἀληθές γε ὡς ἔπος εἰπεῖν οὐδὲν εἰρήκασιν. (Plato, Apology 17a)
And yet, so to say, they’ve said nothing that was true. (or: ‘they’ve said nothing, or in any case not anything truthful’)
δοκεῖ παρεικαθεῖν; — ὅσον γ’, ἄναξ, τάχιστα. (Sophocles, Antigone 1102)
Does it seem best to you that I should give way? — Yes, my lord, and with all speed.
! Note:
The combination γε + οὖν is written #γοῦν; it is often used in arguments used to prove an assertion, meaning ‘in any
case’, ‘at any rate’, ‘at least’ (as in ‘John is a coward; at least, he ran away.’)
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24. Particles
#περ
- The particle περ limits the applicability exactly and exclusively to the word (group) it follows. It is very
common with relatives (ὃσπερ = ‘exactly who’) and with εἰ (‘exactly if’, ‘if and only if’)
- In earlier Greek (e.g. Homer, Hesiod, Aeschylus), περ often has concessive force, especially with
participles (also, preceding the participle, with καί => καίπερ):
Πάντ’, ἔφη, λέγεις οἷά περ ἂν γένοιτο. (Plato, Republic 538c)
He said: ‘You say all exactly as it may occur’.
μένει τὸ θεῖον δουλίᾳ περ ἐν φρενί. (Aeschylus, Agamemnon 1084)
The divine power remains in the mind, even though it is enslaved.
καί
- καί (in its ‘adverbial use’) signals that the applicability of a statement extends ‘even’ or ‘also’ to the word
(group) following it. The negative is οὐδέ (‘not even’):
βουλόμενος δὲ καὶ αὐτὸς λαμπρόν τι ποιῆσαι ... καταθεῖ. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 5.4.15)
And wanting also himself to do something illustrious, he ran off. (καταθεῖ is historic present.)
ἐρρήθη γάρ που οὕτως ἡμῶν εἶναι ἡ ψυχὴ καὶ πρὶν εἰς σῶμα ἀφικέσθαι, ὥσπερ ... (Plato, Phaedo 92d)
For, I think, it was said by us that the soul, even before it enters the body, is of the following nature ...
24.4. INTERACTIONAL PARTICLES
The particles #ἄρα, ἦ, #μήν, #δή, #τοι and #που (also μέντοι, καίτοι and τοίνυν described above) play a role in
the attitudes and beliefs that speaker and hearer have towards what is said. English has similar devices, such
as ‘perhaps’, ‘surely’, ‘really’, ‘apparently’, etc. By using these particles, a speaker can signal that his utterance
should be interpreted in a specific way, or he can anticipate what the hearer might or should think about it.
These particles (often called ‘modal’ or ‘attitudinal’) are by far the hardest to translate, and the ‘definitions’
below are by no means certain (the debate about the exact function of these particles, especially ἄρα, δή and
μήν, is ongoing).
#ἄρα
- ἄρα signals that the speaker is forced by what precedes to conclude (often surprisingly) what he now says:
paraphrasing very elaborately, it may mean something like ‘I have no other choice but to conclude, in
view of what I (and you) have said before, that...’. To translate, one can often do no better than ‘(well)
then’, ‘so’.
- As a marker of surprise (‘apparently’, ‘it seems, then’), it is especially common with the imperfect (used
when someone realises to his surprise that something was the case).
εἶπεν αὐτῷ ὅτι βασιλεὺς οὐ μαχεῖται δέκα ἡμερῶν· Κῦρος δ’ εἶπεν· οὐκ ἄρα ἔτι μαχεῖται, εἰ ἐν ταύταις οὐ μαχεῖται.
(Xenophon, Anabasis 1.7.18)
And he said to him that the king would not fight within ten days. And Cyrus answered: ‘Well then, if he does not
fight within that time, he will not fight at all any more.’
τοῦ θεοῦ καλοῦμαι δοῦλος εἰμί τ᾽, ὦ γύναι. — ἀνάθημα πόλεως, ἤ τινος πραθεὶς ὕπο; — οὐκ οἶδα πλὴν ἕν· Λοξίου
κεκλήμεθα. — ἡμεῖς σ᾽ ἄρ᾽ αὖθις, ὦ ξέν᾽, ἀντοικτίρομεν. (Euripides, Ion 309-12)
I am called a slave of the god, and I am one, lady. — As an offering of some city, or sold by someone? — I know
nothing but this one thing: it is said about me that I belong to Apollo — Then I, in turn, pity you, stranger.
βαρέως δὲ φέρων τῇ ἀτιμίᾳ ... εἶπεν: Ὦ Ἀγησίλαε, μειοῦν μὲν ἄρα σύγε τοὺς φίλους ἠπίστω. (Xenophon, Hellenica 3.4.9)
And not bearing his disgrace well, he said: ‘It seems that you, at any rate, Agesilaus, knew how to humiliate your
friends.’
104
24. Particles
ἦ
- In statements, ἦ signals that the speaker considers what he is saying absolutely true: ‘really’, ‘certainly’, ‘truly’.
- In questions (also combined with ἄρα => ἆρα), it has a force similar to ‘do you really mean..?’; sometimes,
it introduces a suggested answer (‘disguised’ as a question, often sarcastic):
ἦ πολὺ πλεῖστον ἐκεῖνοι κατὰ τὴν ἀρετὴν ἁπάντων ἀνθρώπων διήνεγκαν. (Lysias 2.40)
Truly, these men greatly surpassed all in valour.
ἦ κἀν θεοῖσι ταὐτὸν ἐλπίζεις τόδε;. (Euripides, Hippolytus 97)
Do you really expect that the same is this same thing is true among the gods?
τίς ὁ θάψων νιν; τίς ὁ θρηνήσων; | ἦ σὺ τόδ᾽ ἔρξαι τλήσῃ, (Aeschylus, Agamemnon 1542)
Who is the one that will bury him? Who the one that will sing the lament? I assume you will dare to do that ...?
#μήν
- With μήν, a speaker signals that what he says is true no matter what the hearer believes. Μήν anticipates
possible disbelief or scepticism on the part of the hearer. As possible translations, ‘I assure you’, ‘truly’,
‘certainly’, etc. can work; sometimes the particle is best left untranslated, or paraphrased:
ἀλλ’ ὅστις ὁ τόπος ἦ μάθω μολοῦσα ποι; — ναί, τέκνον, εἴπερ ἐστί γ’ ἐξοικήσιμος. — ἀλλ’ ἐστὶ μὴν οἰκητός.
(Sophocles, Oedipus Coloneus 26-8)
But should I really go and find out which place it is? — Yes, child, at least if it is really habitable. — Oh, but it is
inhabited, be assured of that.
καὶ μὴν οὐδὲν αὐτὸς ἐξηῦρον ὁπόθεν ἂν εἰκότως ὑπερείδετε τὴν ἐμὴν ὁμιλίαν. οὔτε γὰρ ὑμᾶς σοφωτάτους ἑώρων
ὄντας, ἐμαυτὸν δ᾽ ἀμαθέστατον, οὐ μὴν οὐδὲ πολυφίλους ὑμᾶς, ἐμαυτὸν δ᾽ ἔρημον φίλων. (Lysias 8.7)
And I myself have certainly discovered no ground on which you could reasonably have despised my company. For
neither could I see that you were very wise but I very stupid, nor indeed that you were surrounded with friends but I
myself was destitute of them.
! Note:
ἦ and μήν are often combined in oaths: ἦ μήν then means ‘truly and honestly’, vel sim.
#δή
- With δή, a speaker throws his own weight behind something which he considers important, often
because he is personally involved. It is sometimes used with a single word to put specific, sometimes
‘emotional’ emphasis on that word. Translating δή adequately is virtually impossible, but ‘indeed’, ‘truly’
or simple emphasis occasionally suffice.
- The particle often does little more than to mark the importance of a new point in a narrative or argument,
or of a question or a command. In such cases, it perhaps also gets somewhat of a connective function,
structuring the discourse. ‘(Well) now’, ‘then’ or the use of a so-called ‘cleft sentence’ (‘it was X who did Y’
rather than ‘X did Y’) are often the best one can do for a translation.
πατέρων μὲν Μυκηναίων ἄπο γεγῶσιν· οὐ δὴ τοῦτό γ’ εξελέγχομαι. (Euripides, Electra 36)
(I come from) parents of Mycenean ancestry: on that at least, indeed, I am above reproach.
μακάριος ἐς τἀρχαῖα δὴ καθίσταμαι. (Aristophanes, Knights 1387)
I am returned to my original state, how happy I am!.
κίνησις γὰρ αὕτη μεγίστη δὴ τοῖς Ἕλλησιν ἐγένετο καὶ μέρει τινὶ τῶν βαρβάρων (Thucydides 1.1.2)
For this was, certainly, the greatest movement in history, for the Greeks as well as a part of the barbarian world.
κἄπειτα θάλαμον ἐσπεσοῦσα καὶ λέχος | ἐνταῦθα δὴ ‘δακρυσε καὶ λεγει τάδε ... (Euripides, Alcestis 26-8)
And after that, when she had entered her bedchamber, it was there that she wept and said this: ...
τούτων δὴ μηδεν φροντίζειν τάχ’ ἂν ὁ νομοθέτης δόξειέν τισιν, οὐκ ὀρθῶς δοκοῦν. (Plato, Laws 925e)
To these considerations, then, the lawgiver may perhaps appear to some to be paying no heed — a false appearance.
105
24. Particles
! Note:
The particle δῆτα is a stronger form of δή, used specifically in questions.
#που (Ionic: κου)

- By using που a speaker signals that he is not completely sure about what he is saying: ‘perhaps’, ‘I think’,
‘it appears to me’, etc. are good translations
ἀλλὰ ταῦτα δαίμονί κου φίλον ἦν οὕτω γενέσθαι. (Herodotus 1.87.4)
No, it was perhaps the desire of a god that it happened in that way.
εἶπον δέ που, πρὶν ἀναγιγνώσκεσθαι τούτους, ὡς ἄξιος εἴην οὐ μόνον ... (Isocrates 15.75)
I said, I think, before these words were read, that I was responsible not only for ...
#τοι
- τοι (originally a dative of the personal pronoun, second person) is used to bring a point to the specific
attention of the hearer, often to change his mind about something. ‘You should know’, ‘be aware’, ‘mark’,
are all good translations:
δεινά τοι λέγεις. (Aeschylus, Persae 245)
Mark you, you utter terrible words!
ὦ Πρωταγόρα, πρὸς σέ τοι ἤλθομεν. (Plato, Protagoras 316b)
Protagoras, it is to you, know that, that we have come.
106
25. NEGATIVES
25.1. INTRODUCTION
The distinction between two different negatives in Greek, οὐ and μή, extends throughout their use in various
compound forms:
οὐ μή not
οὔτε ... οὔτε μήτε ... μήτε neither ... nor; not ... and not
οὐδέ μηδέ and not; but not; not even
οὐδείς μηδείς no one / nothing
οὐδαμοῦ μηδαμοῦ nowhere
οὔποτε μήποτε never
οὔ πω μή πω not yet (in poetry also: ‘in no way’)
οὐκέτι μηκέτι no longer
Before vowels, οὐ gets the form οὐκ. Before vowels with rough breathing, οὐχ. There is also an intensive,
emphatic form, οὐχί.
Very generally speaking, the distinction between the two negatives is as follows:
- οὐ is the neutral negation, expressing something about ‘truth’ or fact. It contradicts or denies: οὐκ ἔστι
ταῦτα = ‘that is not true’;
- μή is the subjective negation, expressing something about what is what is desired or hoped. It rejects
and deprecates: μὴ ἔστω ταῦτα = ‘let that not be true’.
25.2. MULTIPLE NEGATIVES
If there are two or more negatives in one clause, they cancel each other if (and only if):
- The second negative is not a compound form;
- Both negatives have the same ‘domain’ (they belong to the same word or group of words):
οὐδεὶς ἀνθρώπων ἀδικων τίσιν οὐκ ἀποτίσει. (Herodotus 5.56.1)
No unjust man will not get punishment = Every unjust man will be punished.
The second negative is not a compound form and both negatives belong to the same domain, so they cancel each other.
A second negative that is a compound intensifies the first (only one should be translated!):
οὐκ ἔστιν ἀνδρί ἀγαθῷ κακὸν οὐδέν. (Plato, Apology 41d)
Nothing evil happens to a good man.
The second negative is a compound form, so it strengthens the first.
Two negatives belonging to different expressions both keep their force:

οὐ διὰ τὸ μὴ ἀκοντίζειν οὐκ ἔβαλον αὐτόν. (Antiphon 3.δ.6)
It was not because they didn’t throw (lit.: ‘because of the not-throwing’) that they didn’t hit him.
107
25. Negatives
25.3. IN MAIN CLAUSES
In statements, οὐ and its compounds are used, with the following moods:
- The indicative.
- The optative with ἄν (potential).
- The modal past indicative with ἄν or imperfects like ἐδεῖ/(ἐ)χρῆν without ἄν (counterfactual).
In negative wishes, negative adhortations, prohibitions, etc., μή and its compounds are used:
- With the imperative or aorist subjunctive (in prohibitions) (see §§7.7.3-4, 14.1).
- With the first- or third-person subjunctive (in negative adhortations) (see §7.7.3, 14.1).
- With the optative without ἄν (in negative wishes) (see §§7.7.2, 14.2).
! Note:
The combination μή (οὐ) + subj. can express a doubtful assertion (see §7.7.3).
The combination οὐ μή + (aor.) subj. expresses a strong belief that something will not be the case (see §7.7.3).
25.4. IN QUESTIONS
When introducing a yes/no-question, οὐ/οὐκοῦν signals that the answer ‘yes’ is expected: ‘isn’t it X?’, ‘it is X,
isn’t it?’, ‘surely it’s X?’ (see §13.2).
Μή/μῶν is used in yes/no-questions to indicate that the answer ‘no’ is expected/desired: ‘is it really X?’, ‘it
isn’t X, is it?’, ‘surely it isn’t X?’ (see §13.2).
25.5. WITH INFINITIVES
The negative with the declarative infinitive (used in indirect speech) is οὐ (see §§9.2, 12.2).
The negative with the dynamic infinitive (to supplement verbs) is μή. This negative is always used (and left
untranslated) with verbs of preventing, denying, forbidding, etc (see §§9.3, 9.6).
! Note:
When a verb that takes a dynamic infinitive is itself negated, the negative is μή οὐ. When a verb of preventing, etc. is
negated, it is followed by μὴ οὐ (which is left untranslated):
ἔξεστί σοι μὴ δουλεύειν. εἴργω σε μὴ τοῦτο ποιεῖν.
It is possible for you not to be a slave. I prevent you from doing this.
οὐκ ἔξεστί σοι μὴ οὐ δουλεύειν. οὐκ εἴργω σε μὴ οὐ τοῦτο ποιεῖν.
It is not possible for you not to be a slave. I do not prevent you from doing this.
The ‘articular’ infinitive (with the article) has negative μή (see §9.7).
108
25. Negatives
25.6. WITH PARTICIPLES
With the supplementary participle with verbs (e.g. τυγχάνω, οἶδα, χαίρω), the negative is οὐ (see §10.2).
The attributive participle (used as an adjective, or — with the article — as a noun) has:
- οὐ when it is used as an adjective: ὁ οὐ βαίνων ἀνήρ = ‘the man who is not walking’
- οὐ when it is used as a noun and the noun is specifically identifiable: ὁ οὐ βαίνων = ‘the (specific) man
who is not walking’
- ‘Generic’ μή when it is used as a noun and the noun denotes an entire species or class: ὁ μὴ βαίνων =
‘whatever man is not walking’ (see §10.3)
! Note:
This same ‘generic’ use of μή is also common with nouns and with adjectives used as nouns: οἱ μὴ πλούσιοι = ‘whoever are
not rich’ (the non-rich); ὁ μὴ ἱατρός = ‘whoever is not a doctor’.
The circumstantial participle (‘connected’ or in a genitive absolute construction) has οὐ, unless it is used to
express a conditional relationship, in which case it has μή: ἥξει μὴ πως κωλυθείς = ‘he will come if he isn’t
prevented somehow’ (see §10.4).
25.7. IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
In the following types of subordinate clause, οὐ is used:

- Declarative ὡς/ὅτι-clauses (indirect speech) (see §12.3);
- Clauses with verbs of fearing (N.B. μή in these clauses means ‘that’/’lest’) (see §16.1);
- Temporal clauses referring to the present or past (ἐπεί, ὅτε, etc.) (see §17.2);
- Result clauses (ὥστε) with the moods of independent sentences (result = fact) (see §20.2);
- Causal clauses (ὅτι, διότι) (see §18.3);
- Most ‘digressive’ relative clauses (ὃς, etc.), including relative clauses with causal force; also relative
clauses with result-meaning (see §22.3).
In the following types of subordinate clause, μή is used:

- Clauses with verbs of effort (ὅπως) (see §16.2);
- Purpose clauses (ἵνα, ὅπως, ὡς) (see §19.2);
- Result clauses (ὥστε) with the infinitive (result = likely, natural) (see §20.2);
- Conditional clauses (εἰ) and concessive clauses (εἰ καί/καὶ εἰ) (see ch. 21);
- Temporal clauses referring to the future or to repeated/habitual occurrences (see §§17.3-4);
- Most ‘determinative’ relative clauses (ὃς, etc.), including relative clauses with the force of purpose-
clauses (see §22.3).
109
26. ὡς
26.1. AS A CONJUNCTION
The word ὡς functions as a conjunction in the following cases:

- In (relative) clauses of comparison, ‘such as’, ‘like’, either with or without οὕτω(ς) in the main clause
(see §22.1):
ὡς ἔοικε as it appears
ὡς ἐμοὶ δοκεῖ as it seems to me
ἐκέλευσε τοὺς Ἕλληνας, ὡς νόμος αὐτοῖς εἰς μάχην, οὕτω ταχθῆναι ... (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.15)
He ordered that the Greeks be stationed as was their custom in battl
- After verbs of speaking/etc., ‘that’ (see §12.3):
λέγει ὡς … he says that …
- In indirect questions, ‘how’ (see §13.5):
ἐρωτᾷ ὡς … he asks how …
- In purpose clauses with the subjunctive (or optative in historic sequence), sometimes with ἄν, ‘so that’,
‘in order to’ (see §19.2):
καὶ ἅμα ταῦτ’ εἰπὼν ἀνέστη ὡς μὴ μέλλοιτο ... τὰ δέοντα. (Xenophon, Anabasis 3.1.47)
And as soon as he had said these things, he stood up, so that what was required would not be delayed.
- In temporal clauses, ‘when’, ‘after’, ‘as soon as’ (especially in the form ὡς ... τάχιστα) (see §17.1):
ὡς τάχιστα ἕως ὑπέφαινεν, ἐθύοντο. (Xenophon, Anabasis 4.3.9)
As soon as a shimmer of daylight appeared, they sacrificed.
ὡς διαβαίνειν ἐπειρᾶτο ὁ Κῦρος, ἐνταῦθα ... (Herodotus 1.189.1)
When Cyrus tried to cross, at that moment ...
- In result clauses (ὥστε is far more common), with infinitive or moods of independent sentences, ‘so
that’, ‘with the result that’ (see §20.2):
( ...) ὑψηλὸν οὕτω ὡς τὰς κορυφὰς οὐκ οἶά τε εἶναι ἰδέσθαι. (Herodotus 2.111)
... so high that it was impossible to see the mountaintops.
- After verbs of effort, with the future indicative (ὅπως is far more common): ‘that’ (see §16.2)
26.2. AS AN ADVERB
In the following constructions, ὡς is an adverb:

- In exclamations, ‘how!’:
ὡς πολλον ἀλλήλων κεξωρισμένα ἐργάσαο. (Herodotus 7.46.1)
How different from each other the things that you have done!
- With a superlative, ‘as … as possible’:
ὡς κράτιστα as strong as possible
110
26. ὡς
- With a participle, giving a subjective reason, cause, purpose (future participle) or comparison, ‘on the
grounds that’, ‘to’, ‘as if’ (see §12.3):
ταύτην τὴν χώραν ἐπέτρεψε διαρπάσαι τοῖς Ἕλλησιν ὡς πολεμίαν οὖσαν. (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.19)
He turned this country over to the Greeks to ravage, on the grounds that it was hostile.
παρεσκευάζοντο ὡς πολεμήσοντες. (Thucydides 2.7.1)
They made preparations to go to war.
οἱ δέ μιν ἐπένθεον ὡς τεθνεῶτα. (Herodotus 4.95.5)
They mourned him thinking he was dead.
- With numerals and words indicating degree, ‘roughly’:
ὁπλίτας ἔχων ὡς πεντακοσίους (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.3)
having about five hundred hoplites
- As a demonstrative adverb, normally accented ὥς, ‘so’, ‘thus’, ‘that way’:
καὶ ὥς even so
οὐδ’ ὥς not even in that case
ὡς αὔτως in the same way
26.3. AS A PREPOSITION
ὡς functions as a preposition meaning ‘to’ only with persons (see §6.2):

ὡς Σωκράτη to Socrates
111

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A CONCISE SYNTAX OF

Evert van Emde Boas

1. AGREEMENT 4 7.6.1. Present 40

3. PRONOUNS 12 8. THE VERB: VOICE 47

13.5. Indirect Questions 70 21. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES 87

1.1. SUBJECT - FINITE VERB

 There are various exceptions to the basic rule:

1.2. NOUN - ADJECTIVE/PRONOUN

 There are various exceptions to the basic rule:

1.3. ANTECEDENT - RELATIVE PRONOUN

 There are various exceptions to the basic rule:

 A few special cases should be noted:

2.1. MEANING OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

 English has an indefinite and a definite article:

 Abstract nouns (identifiable as a discrete concept) usually take the article:

2.2. POSITION OF THE ARTICLE AND ADJECTIVAL PHRASES

 Some words always take the predicative position:

2.3. PRONOMINAL USES OF THE ARTICLE

3.1. THE THREE USES OF THE ‘INTENSIVE’ PRONOUN αὐτός

 In predicative position or by itself, αὐτός means ‘self’:

 Some idiomatic translations of αὐτός, ‘self’:

3.2. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS (ὅδε, οὗτος, ἐκεῖνος)

 Their meanings differ as follows:

3.3. PERSONAL PRONOUNS (ἐγώ, σύ, X; ἡμεῖς, ὑμεῖς, X)

 Personal pronouns are either contrastive (‘emphatic’) or non-contrastive:

3.4. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS (ἐμός, σός, X; ἡμέτερος, ὑμέτερος, X)

3.5. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS (ἐμαυτόν, σεαυτόν, ἑαυτόν/αὑτόν; ἡμᾶς

3.6. THE RECIPROCAL PRONOUN (ἀλλήλους)

 The reciprocal pronoun means ‘each other’:

3.7. ἄλλος AND ἕτερος

 ὁ ἄλλος (with the article) means ‘the rest’, ‘the other(s)’:

3.8. THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN (τις)

4.1. MEANINGS AND LABELS

4.2. THE GENITIVE

4.2.1. As required supplement with verbs/adjectives

 The following adjectives are supplemented by a genitive:

4.2.2. With nouns (attributively)

4.2.3. With sentences (adverbially)

 The price of something is expressed in the genitive — genitive of price/value (pretii):

4.3. THE DATIVE

4.3.1. As required supplement with verbs/adjectives

 The dative is the required case to supplement the following verbs:

 The following adjectives are supplemented by a dative:

4.3.2. With nouns (attributively)

4.3.3. With sentences (adverbially)

 The dative of cause (causae) expresses reason or cause:

4.4. THE ACCUSATIVE

4.4.1. As required supplement with verbs

4.4.2. Internal object

4.4.3. With sentences (adverbially)

4.4.4. Apposition to a sentence

5.1. TEMPORAL MODIFIERS

Genitive Dative Accusative

5.2. SPATIAL MODIFIERS

Genitive Dative Accusative

 The genitive normally follows prepositions to refer to motion away from:

 In general, the accusative is used with prepositions to indicate motion towards:

In poetry only, the bare accusative is sometimes used to express direction:

6.1 FREQUENT USES OF THE PREPOSITIONS

SPATIAL TEMPORAL ABSTRACT

+accusative around around, about (with numerals) about

+accusative (vertical) up along (distributively) (with proportions)

There are various exceptions to the basic rule:

There are various exceptions to the basic rule:

There are various exceptions to the basic rule:

A few special cases should be noted:

English has an indefinite and a definite article:

Abstract nouns (identifiable as a discrete concept) usually take the article:

Some words always take the predicative position:

In predicative position or by itself, αὐτός means ‘self’:

Some idiomatic translations of αὐτός, ‘self’:

Their meanings differ as follows:

Personal pronouns are either contrastive (‘emphatic’) or non-contrastive:

The reciprocal pronoun means ‘each other’:

ὁ ἄλλος (with the article) means ‘the rest’, ‘the other(s)’:

The following adjectives are supplemented by a genitive:

The price of something is expressed in the genitive — genitive of price/value (pretii):

The dative is the required case to supplement the following verbs:

The following adjectives are supplemented by a dative:

The dative of cause (causae) expresses reason or cause:

The genitive normally follows prepositions to refer to motion away from:

In general, the accusative is used with prepositions to indicate motion towards:

Brief definitions of tense and aspect:

Greek verb forms can express:

The Greek verb has the following aspectual values: