A Time of Change:

QUESTIONING THE “COLLAPSE” OF

ANURADHAPURA, SRI LANKA

Keir Magalie Strickland

Archaeopress Archaeology
 Archaeopress Publishing Ltd
Gordon House
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Oxford OX2 7ED
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ISBN 978 1 78491 632 9

ISBN 978 1 78491 633 6(e-Pdf)

© Archaeopress and K M Strickland 2017

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 Contents

Preface.......................................................................................................................................................... vii

Chapter 1: Introduction...................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Aims.............................................................................................................................................................1
1.3 Significance of the study..............................................................................................................................2
1.4 Structure......................................................................................................................................................3

Chapter 2: Anuradhapura: Geography, Environment and History of Research..................................................5

2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................................5
2.2 The Geographical Context............................................................................................................................5
2.2.1: Geology ..............................................................................................................................................5
2.2.2: Topography ........................................................................................................................................5
2.2.3: Climate ...............................................................................................................................................6
2.2.4: The Palaeoenvironment ....................................................................................................................7
2.3 A History of Research at Anuradhapura.......................................................................................................8
2.3.1: Historical Topography ........................................................................................................................9
2.3.2: Research driven archaeology ...........................................................................................................12
2.4 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................................13

Chapter 3: Collapse.......................................................................................................................................17
3.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................................17
3.2 What is collapse & what collapses?...........................................................................................................17
3.2.1: What is collapse? .............................................................................................................................17
The Collapse...............................................................................................................................................17
The Aftermath............................................................................................................................................18
Diachronic Aspects.....................................................................................................................................18
3.2.2: What Collapses? ..............................................................................................................................18
3.3 Collapse Theory..........................................................................................................................................19
3.4 Collapse Theory in South Asia....................................................................................................................20
3.5 Sri Lankan Collapse Studies........................................................................................................................21
3.5 The “Collapse” of Anuradhapura................................................................................................................22
3.5.1: The Invasion Model .........................................................................................................................22
3.5.2: The Malarial Model .........................................................................................................................24
3.5.3: The Imperial Model .........................................................................................................................26
3.6 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................................28

Chapter 4: Methodology...............................................................................................................................29
4.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................................29
4.2: The Datasets..............................................................................................................................................29
4.2.1: Defining the Citadel .........................................................................................................................29
4.2.1.1: The Citadel Dataset .......................................................................................................................30
4.2.2: Defining the Sacred City ..................................................................................................................30
4.2.3: Defining the Hinterland ...................................................................................................................31
4.2.4: The Pali chronicles ...........................................................................................................................33
4.3 The chronological sequence.......................................................................................................................33
4.3.1: The Architectural Sequence .............................................................................................................33
4.3.2: Ceramics as Chronological Indicators ..............................................................................................36
4.3.3: Other Chronological Indicators ........................................................................................................36
4.4 Methodological Approaches to Cultural Change........................................................................................36
4.4.1: The Anuradhapura Ceramics ...........................................................................................................37
4.5 Population Estimations..............................................................................................................................39
4.6 Archaeologically characterising the models...............................................................................................39
4.6.1: The Invasion Model .........................................................................................................................40
Chapter 5: The Citadel...................................................................................................................................57
5.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................................57
5.2 Population & Monumental Construction...................................................................................................57
5.2.1: The Structural Sequence ..................................................................................................................57
5.3: Traditional elite ........................................................................................................................................67
5.3.2: Luxury goods....................................................................................................................................69
5.3.3: Summary..........................................................................................................................................70
5.4: New Elite...................................................................................................................................................70
5.4.1: Violence............................................................................................................................................70
5.5: Long distance trade, craft specialisation & manufacturing.......................................................................74
5.5.1: Glazed ceramics ...............................................................................................................................75
5.5.2: Metalworking ..................................................................................................................................79
5.5.3: Glass artefacts (excluding beads) ....................................................................................................80
5.5.4: Glass beads ......................................................................................................................................81
5.5.5: Worked and precious stone artefacts ..............................................................................................83
5.5.6: Summary .........................................................................................................................................86
5.6: Conclusion.................................................................................................................................................86

Chapter 6: The Sacred City............................................................................................................................98

6.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................................98
6.2: Population & monumental construction...................................................................................................98
6.2.1: The Structural Sequence of the Sacred City ....................................................................................99
6.2.1.1: Period F .........................................................................................................................................99
6.2.1.2: Periods C,D&E .............................................................................................................................100
6.3: Traditional elite.......................................................................................................................................104
6.3.1: The Padhanaghara Parivena and the rise of Asceticism ................................................................105
6.3.2: The Pabbata Vihara & the rise of Mahayanism .............................................................................105
6.4: New elite.................................................................................................................................................106
6.4.1: Violence .........................................................................................................................................106
6.4.2: A South Indian Influence? ..............................................................................................................107
6.5: Long distance trade, craft specialisation & manufacturing.....................................................................108
6.5.1: Imported Artefacts.........................................................................................................................108
6.5.2: Manufacturing ...............................................................................................................................110
6.6: Conclusion...............................................................................................................................................112

Chapter 7:The Hinterland............................................................................................................................124

7.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................................124
7.2 Population................................................................................................................................................124
7.3: Traditional Elite.......................................................................................................................................128
7.3.1: Late monastic construction ...........................................................................................................129
7.4: New Elite.................................................................................................................................................131
7.4.1: South Indian Influence ...................................................................................................................131
7.4.2: After Collapse ................................................................................................................................132
7.5: Monumental Construction .....................................................................................................................132
7.5.1: Monumental monastic architecture within the hinterland ...........................................................132
7.5.2: The Hydraulic Landscape ...............................................................................................................132
7.6: Trade and Manufacturing........................................................................................................................137
7.6.1: Long Distance Trade .......................................................................................................................137
7.6.2: Craft Specialisation ........................................................................................................................137
7.7: Conclusion...............................................................................................................................................137

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Chapter 8: The Discussion...........................................................................................................................147
8.1: Introduction............................................................................................................................................147
8.2 Does Anuradhapura Collapse?.................................................................................................................147
During Collapse.........................................................................................................................................147
After Collapse...........................................................................................................................................148
8.3 Testing the Invasion Model......................................................................................................................150
8.3.1: The Invasion Model – The Citadel .................................................................................................150
8.3.2: The Invasion Model – The Sacred City............................................................................................151
8.3.3: The Invasion Model – The hinterland ............................................................................................152
8.3.4: The Invasion Model – Summary ....................................................................................................153
8.4 Testing the Malarial Model.................................................................................................................153
8.4.1: The Malarial Model – The Citadel ..................................................................................................153
8.4.2: The Malarial Model – The Sacred City ...........................................................................................154
8.4.3: The Malarial Model – The hinterland ............................................................................................154
8.4.4: The Malarial Model – Summary ....................................................................................................155
8.5 Testing the Imperial Model......................................................................................................................155
8.5.1: The Imperial Model – The Citadel .................................................................................................155
8.5.2: The Imperial Model – The Sacred City ...........................................................................................156
8.5.3: The Imperial Model – The hinterland ............................................................................................157
8.5.4: The Imperial Model – Summary ....................................................................................................158
8.6: The Wider Early Mediaeval Milieu..........................................................................................................158
8.6.1: Mantai ...........................................................................................................................................158
8.6.2: North and East of Sri Lanka ............................................................................................................159
8.6.3: Polonnaruva ...................................................................................................................................160
8.6.4: Indian Ocean Region.......................................................................................................................161
8.7 Anuradhapura’s Collapse..........................................................................................................................161
8.7.1: The Economic Power of the Sangha...............................................................................................162
8.7.2: Royal power and legitimation ........................................................................................................163
8.7.3: Theoretical Perspectives ................................................................................................................164
8.7.4: Choosing to Collapse .....................................................................................................................164
8.7: Conclusion...............................................................................................................................................165

Chapter 9: Conclusion.................................................................................................................................175
9.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................................175
9.2: The Expanded Imperial Model................................................................................................................175
9.3 Future Directions......................................................................................................................................176
9.4 Problems encountered.............................................................................................................................178
9.5 Significance of research............................................................................................................................178

References.................................................................................................................................................. 179

Websites Accessed:.....................................................................................................................................197

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