THE HONG KONG

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY_________________________________________________ ___

Department of Electrical Engineering

CHAPTER 5 ISOLATED DC/DC CONVERTERS

5.1. Introduction

Non-isolated DC/DC converters have difficulty of converting large or small voltage ratio. For example,
a buck converter has a very poor efficiency when converting from 320V to 5V. Solving this problem,
engineers have developed several isolated DC/DC converter topologies from some non-isolated DC/DC
converter topologies. Each isolated DC/DC converter has a high frequency transformer built in the
circuit. The advantages of the isolated DC/DC converters are:
- Wide range of voltage conversion with high efficiency
- Electrical isolation
- Low electromagnetic interference (EMI)
- Meeting international regulations and standards
However, their manufacturing costs are higher than non-isolated DC/DC converters because of the cost
of the transformers and/or other additional devices. The most common isolated DC/DC converters
included:
- Flyback converters (developed from buck-boost converters)
- Forward converters (developed from buck converters)
- Phase-shift converters (similar to full-bridge inverters)
Flyback converters, forward converters and phase-shift converters are suitable for the applications of low
power, medium power and high power, respectively. Also, Flyback converters and forward converters
are able to operate in both continuous mode and discontinuous mode operations. This chapter discusses
the principle of operation of these isolated DC/DC converters.

5.2. Flyback Converters

Fig. 5.1 shows the circuit diagram of a flyback Tx vD

converter. The structure of a flyback converter is 1:N
similar to a buck-boost converter while there is a high ip D is
+

frequency transformer in the circuit instead of an vp Lp Ls vs C R Vo

inductor for providing electrical isolation and higher or + iC
Vin -
lower voltage conversion ratio. This transformer is
considered as a coupled inductor. The method of T vT
designing this transformer is similar to designing an
inductor.
Fig. 5.1. Circuit diagram of a flyback converter

5.2.1. Principle of Operation of Flyback Converter in Continuous Mode

In continuous mode, the magnetising current of the transformer of a flyback converter is continuous.
The operation of flyback converters in continuous mode is considered as 2 different states. They are On-
state and Off-state. Its operation is very similar to a buck-boost converter. Equivalent circuits and
idealised waveforms of a flyback converter operating in continuous mode are shown in Fig. 5.2 and Fig.
5.3, respectively. Each state of operation of a flyback converter in continuous mode is described and
explained in more details in the followings:
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D
Tx Tx
ip D iC

+
+ Lp Ls C R + Lp Ls iC C R
Vin Vin is
- -
T T
(a) On-state (b) Off-state
Fig. 5.2. Equivalent circuits of states of operation of a flyback converter in continuous mode

5.2.1.1. On-state [t0 – t1] vgs

T is switched on at t0. During this state, D is reverse DTs (1-D)Ts
biased. The voltage of the primary winding of the 0 t
transformer, vp, is Vin so that the primary side of the ip
Iin ΔIp
transformer, Tx, is charged from the voltage source.
The current of the primary winding of the
0 t
transformer, ip, increases linearly. The current flows is On-state Off-state
from the voltage source through the primary winding, Io+Iin/N ΔIs
Lp and T. C discharges to R to maintain the output
voltage, Vo, with low ripple. iC is equal to -Io, where 0 t
Io is equal to Vo/R. Current through from Vin through iC
Lp and T. T is switched off at t1. ΔIs
5.2.1.2. Off-state [t1 – t2] 0 t
-Io
T is switched off at t2. D is forward biased during vT
this state. The transformer demagnetises and Vin+Vo/N
discharges from its secondary winding, Ls, to the
0 t
load and to charge C. The current of the secondary
winding of the transformer, is, and iC decreases vD
linearly. Current flow from Vin through Ls and D to NVin +Vo
C and R. The voltage of the secondary winding, vs, 0 t
t0 t1 t2
is Vo. T is switched on again and one switching
cycle is completed at t2. Because the magnetising Fig. 5.3. Idealised waveforms of
inductance of the secondary side of the transformer, a flyback converter in continuous mode
Ls, is high, magnetising current of the converter is
continuous.

5.2.2. Voltage Conversion Ratio of Flyback Converters in Continuous Mode

The turns ratio of the transformer is 1:N. Considering volt-second balancing of the transformer of a
flyback converter, it gives:
Vo
V in DTS  (1  D)TS (5.1)
N
Then, the voltage conversion ratio of a flyback converter in continuous mode is derived as:
Vo ND
 (5.2)
Vin 1  D

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Similar to buck-boost converters, the characteristics of the voltage conversion ratio of a flyback
converter in continuous mode are:
- D must be less than 1 otherwise short circuit occurs in the converter circuit.
- The voltage conversion ratio tends to infinity when D tends to 1.
- The voltage conversion ratio is in the range of zero to almost infinity.
- The voltage conversion ratio is independent of the load conditions.
- The voltage conversion ratio is dependent of the turns ratio of the transformer.

5.2.3. Current of Windings of Transformer of Flyback Converters in Continuous Mode

The change of current of the primary and the secondary windings of a flyback converter in continuous
mode are:
V DT
I p  in S (5.3)
Lp
I p Vin DTS
I s   (5.4)
N NLp

Average current of the primary winding of the transformer of a flyback converter in continuous mode is:
2
Vin  ND 
i p  I in    (5.5)
R 1 D 
Peak current of the primary winding of the transformer of a flyback converter in continuous mode is:

I p
iˆp   I in (5.6)
2
Average current of the secondary winding of the transformer of a flyback converter in continuous mode
is:
NDV in
is  I o  (5.7)
R (1  D )

5.2.4. Output Voltage Ripple of Flyback Converters in Continuous Mode

The peak to peak output voltage ripple of a flyback converter in continuous mode is:
I o DTS V
Vo   DTs o (5.8)
C RC
and its voltage ripple to output voltage ratio is:
Vo DTs
 (5.9)
Vo RC
which is the same as those of a buck-boost converter.

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5.2.5. Principle of Operation of Flyback Converters in Discontinuous Mode

The operation principle of a flyback converter is very similar to that of a buck-boost converter except
there is a coupled inductor (transformer) instead of an inductor. In discontinuous mode, the magnetising
current of the transformer (coupled inductor) is discontinuous. The equivalent circuits and the idealised
waveforms of a flyback converter in discontinuous mode are shown in Fig. 5.4 and Fig. 5.5, respectively.

Tx vgs
ip D iC

+
Lp Ls C R DTs (1-D)Ts
+ 0 t
Vin - ip On-state Off-state
1 2
T ΔIp a b
(a) On-state 0 t
is
D
Tx ΔIs t
0
+

+ Lp Ls iC C R iC
Vin is δTs
-
ΔIs t
T 0
-Io
(b) Off-state 1a vT Vin+Vo/N
D Vin
Tx 0 t
iC vD NVin+Vo
+

+ Lp Ls C R
Vin is Vo
-
0 t
T t0 t1 t2 t3 t4
(c) Off-state 1b Fig. 5.5. Idealised waveforms of
a flyback converter in discontinuous mode
Tx
D iC
+

+ Lp Ls C R
Vin -
T
(d) Off-state 2
Fig. 5.4. Equivalent circuits of states of operation
of a flyback converter in discontinuous mode

5.2.6. Voltage Conversion Ratio of Flyback Converters in Discontinuous Mode

The change of current of the primary winding of the transformer of a flyback converter in discontinuous
mode is:

Vin DTS VoTS

I p   (5.10)
Lp NL p
NVin D
 (5.11)
Vo

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Voltage conversion ratio of a flyback converter in discontinuous mode is expressed by equating its input
and output power. The input power is:
I p  V DT 
Pin  Vin i p  Vin D  Vin D in S  (5.12)
2  2L 
 p 
The voltage conversion ratio of a flyback converter in discontinuous mode is expressed by:
2 2
Vin D 2TS Vo
 (5.13)
2L R
Vo D 2Lp
 , K (5.14)
Vin K RT S

From equation (5.14), it is noted that the voltage conversion ratio of a flyback converter in discontinuous
is independent of the turns ratio of the transformer and directly proportional to D.

5.3. Forward Converters

Fig. 5.6 shows the circuit diagram of a forward vD2 vL

converter. The operation of a forward N 1 : N 3 : N 2

converter is similar to a buck converter. A D2 L

v2 D1 vD1 C

+
high frequency 3-winding transformer is used v1 v3 R Vo
in the circuit to provide electrical isolation and i C
Vin
+ Tx i2 iD1 iL
wide range of voltage conversion ratio. Vin, T, -
D1, L and C built a buck converter where D1 is T vT D3 vD3
the freewheel diode. Two diodes, D2 and D3,
are added in the buck converter to build a i1 i3
forward converter. D2 is for blocking AC
Fig. 5.6. Circuit diagram of a forward converter
component of the current from the secondary
winding of the transformer. The tertiary winding and D3 provide a path for the transformer to
demagnetise.

Because of the L-C filter structure of the output side of the converter, forward converters are suitable for
higher power applications than those of flyback converters. However, there are more components in a
forward converter so that the costs and size of forward converters are higher and larger. Principles of
operation of forward converters in continuous and discontinuous mode are discussed in the followings.

5.3.1. Principle of Operation of Forward Converter in Continuous Mode

The operation of a forward converter is very similar to a buck converter. Operating in continuous mode,
inductor current of a forward converter, iL, is continuous. Not concerning the behaviour of the output
capacitor, C, the operation of a forward converter in continuous mode can be considered as three states –
On-state, Off-state 1 and Off-state 2. The transformer of the converter demagnetises through its tertiary
winding in Off-state 1. The output inductor current is freewheeling in both Off-state 1 and Off-state 2.
The behaviour can be referred to the principle of operation of buck converters in continuous mode in
Section 2.2.1. Fig. 5.7 shows the equivalent circuits of a forward converter in continuous mode.

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N1 : N3 : N2 D2 L N1 : N3 : N2 L
D2
i1 i3

+
D1 C R D1 C R
+ +
Vin iL Vin iL
- Tx - Tx
T D3 T D3

(a) On-state (b) Off-state 1

N1 : N3 : N2 L
D2

+
D1 C R
+
Vin iL
- Tx
T D3

(c) Off-state 2
Fig. 5.7. Equivalent circuits of states of operation of
a forward converter in continuous mode

5.3.2. Voltage Conversion Ratio of Forward Converters in Continuous Mode

Referring to Fig. 5.6, the turns ratio of the transformer is N1:N2:N3. Considering volt-second balancing
of the inductor of a forward converter, L, it gives:
N2
Vo (1  D)Ts  ( Vin  Vo ) DTS (5.15)
N1
Then, the voltage conversion ratio of a flyback converter in continuous mode is derived as:
Vo N 2
 D (5.16)
Vin N1
Off-state 1 is the duration of the transformer to demagnetise and reset the magnetic flux. The current of
the tertiary winding, i3, must reach zero before switching on the transistor again in next period to avoid
saturation of the transformer occur. As a result, the maximum duty ratio depends on the turns ratio of
the transformer, N1:N3. The relationship of turns ratio and maximum duty ratio is shown in Table 5.1.
The equation of the maximum duty ratio of a forward converter is:
N1
Dmax = (5.17)
N1  N3

Table 5.1. Relationship between turns ratio and maximum duty ratio

Turns ratio Maximum Duty ratio

N1 = N3 0.5

N1 < N3 < 0.5

N1 > N3 > 0.5

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5.3.3. Forward Converters with Transformer Equivalent Circuit

Equivalent circuits of transformers can be applied for

simplifying analysis of forward converters. Fig. 5.8 Rp Lkp im Lks' Rs'
shows the equivalent circuits of a transformer. Applying
the most simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer in vp Ep vs'
Lm Rc
Fig. 5.8(c), equivalent circuit of a forward converter ip is'
equivalent to the primary side is shown in Fig. 5.9. This
equivalent circuit shows that the current the primary (a) Full T-equivalent circuit
winding of the transformer, i1, is equal to im  i2 ' in On-
Lkp im Lks'
state where im is the magnetising current of the
transformer. vp vs'
Lm
vD2' vL'
ip is'
i1 im D2' i2' L' iC' (b) Equivalent circuit with leakage inductance
+

Lm v1 vD1' D1' C' R' Vo' im

vD3b'
iD1' iL' vp vs'
Lm
D3b' ip is'
+ D3a' vD3a'
Vin - T vT
i3' (c) Equivalent circuit with magnetising
inductance only
Fig. 5.9. Equivalent circuit of a forward converter Fig. 5.8. Equivalent circuits of a transformer

Referring to Fig. 5.9 and assuming that the turns ratio of the transformer is N1:N2:N3, the equivalent
capacitance, inductance, resistance, current and voltage of the components referring to primary side of
the transformer are:
N1 N N N N
Vo '  Vo , vD1 '  1 vD1 , vD 2 '  1 vD 2 , vL '  1 vL , vD 3a 'vD 3b '  1 vD 3 (5.18)
N2 N2 N2 N2 N3
N N N N N N
i2 '  2 i2 , iD1 '  2 iD1 , i2 '  2 i2 , iL '  2 iL , iC '  2 iC , i3 '  3 i3 (5.19)
N1 N1 N1 N1 N1 N1
2 2 2
N  N  N 
R'   1  R , L'   1  L , C '   2  C (5.20)
 N2   N2   N1 

5.3.4. Overlapping of the secondary side diode current of Forward Converters in Continuous Mode

In practice, leakage inductance of the transformer in a forward converter has to be considered. The
leakage inductance behaves a series inductance with the transformer secondary side. Assuming the
inductance of the output inductor, L, is very high as iL is constant, the equivalent circuit and the
waveforms of a forward converter with leakage inductance on the secondary winding of the transformer
are shown in Fig. 5.10 and Fig. 5.11, respectively.

The leakage inductance on the primary and tertiary winding of the transformer is neglected. When T is
on, the voltage across the secondary winding, v2, is equal to N2Vin/N1. Because of the leakage
inductance, D1 is still conducting until iD1 reaches zero. iD1 decreases to zero and iD2 increases to iL
linearly. Because of the leakage inductance, the duration of overlapping is expressed by:

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di2 N
Lk  v2 _ on  2 Vin (5.21)
dt N1
NI
Tov  Lk 1 o (5.22)
N 2Vin
where v2_on is the voltage across the secondary winding of the transformer when T is on. Because vD1 is
zero when D1 is conducting, the reduced voltage of the output voltage is:
v2 _ onTov Io
Vo   Lk (5.23)
Ts TS

This shows that the output voltage is reduced by the vgs

leakage inductance of the transformer. The effect of Off-state On-state
the overlapping should be limited as low as possible. 0 t
v2 N2Vin/N1
Reduction of leakage inductance has to be concerned
in transformer design. 0 t
iL Tov
Io
0 t
N1:N2 iD2
Lk L Io Io
D2 0 t
+

v1 v2 D1 C R Vo iD1
+
iD1 iL Io
Vin Tx i2
- 0 t
vD1 N2Vin/N1
T
0 t
Fig. 5.10. Equivalent circuit of Overlapping of Fig. 5.11. Waveforms of Overlapping of conducting
conducting of D1 and D2 of a forward converter of D1 and D2 of a forward converter

5.3.5. Voltage Ratings of Transistors of Forward Converters

According to Fig. 5.6 and Fig. 5.7, D3 and the tertiary winding of the transformer conduct for the
transformer to demagnetise. When the transformer is demagnetising, there is a voltage across the
tertiary winding of the transformer. The voltage across the primary winding of the transformer and the
voltage across the transistor in Off-state 1 are:
N1 N
v1 _ off 1   v3 _ off 1   1 Vin (5.24)
N3 N3
 N 
vT _ off 1  Vin 1  1  (5.25)
 N3 
 N 
The voltage rating of the transistor is Vin 1  1  which is higher than that of buck converters.
 N3 
5.3.6. Voltage Conversion Ratio of Forward Converters in Discontinuous Mode

Behaviour of forward converters in discontinuous is similar to buck converter. Assuming all devices and
components are ideal in the circuit, the output conversion ratio of a forward converter in discontinuous
mode is:
Vo N 2 2
 (5.26)
Vin N1 1  1  4 K / D 2
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5.4. Single-ended Two-transistor Forward Converters

Fig. 5.12 shows a circuit diagram of a single-ended

Two-transistor Forward Converter. The operation DB
TA
of this type of converters is similar to that of buck Tx
+
converters. The transformer in this converter has Vin -
only two windings. TA and TB are switched on and
off at the same time. When the transistors are ON, DA TB
the voltage of the primary winding of the
transformer is equal to Vin. If the turns ratio of the
transformer is N1:N2, the voltage across the D2 L

+
secondary winding of the transformer is equal to D1 C R Vo
N2Vin/N1. When the transistor is just off, the
transformer demagnetises through DA and DB. The Fig. 5.12. Circuit diagram of a single-ended two-
voltage across DA and DB are zero when they are transistor forward converter
conducting the magnetising current.

As a result, one of the advantages of this converter is that the voltage ratings of both transistors are Vin
which is lower than the those of single-transistor forward converters. Also, comparing with full-bridge
or half-bridge converters, there is no shooting problem (one transistor affects the gate signal of another
transistor when switching it on and off) because the transistors are not connected in series. The
disadvantage of this type of converters, obviously, is that there are one more diode and transistor in the
circuit. This type of converter is suitable for higher power and higher input voltage applications than
single-transistor forward converters.

5.5. Phase-shift Full Bridge Converters

Fig. 5.13 shows a circuit diagram of a full D1A D1B

bridge converter. The output voltage of a full
T1A vAB T1B
bridge converter can be regulated by PWM.
+ Tx
However, for high power applications, this Vin 1
- :
type of converter controlled by phase-shift of
the gate signals of the transistors has become T2A N T2B
more popular nowadays. This type of D2A D2B
converters with phase-shift control is called
phase-shift full bridge converters or phase- L iL
shift converters. D1 D3
+

C R Vo
5.5.1. Principle of Operation of Phase-shift
Full Bridge Converters D2 D4
A phase-shift full bridge converter is
constructed with a full-bridge inverter which Fig. 5.13. Circuit diagram of a full-bridge converter
T1A and T2B form a leg, Leg A, while T1B and
T2B form another leg, Leg B, as shown in Fig. 5.13. A high frequency transformer is connected to the
output of the full-bridge inverter. The output voltage of the inverter is pure AC. A full-bridge rectifier
with L-C filter is connected to the secondary side of the transformer to provide DC voltage. Fig. 5.14
shows idealised waveforms of a phase-shift full bridge converter. T1A and T2A are switched on and off
alternately. T1B and T2B are switched on and off alternately as well. The duty ratios of the gate signals
of all transistors, ideally, are 0.5.

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In practise, there is a short dead-time applied on the Ts

v1A
gate signals of the transistors to ensure one transistor
0 t
is switched off completely before another transistor is v2A
on in the same leg. The gate signals of Leg A and θTs/2π
0 t
Leg B have a phase difference in the range of 0º to v1B
180 º. The average voltage of the primary winding of 0 t
the transformer and also the output voltage are v2B
regulated by the shifting the phases of the gate 0 t
vAB
signals. Ideally, the voltage across the windings of Vin
the transformer is pure AC. There is a rectifier on the 0 t
secondary side of the circuit to rectify the voltage DTs/2 -Vin
from AC to DC. The diodes parallel with the iL
transistors are for demagnetising the transformer if Io
there is any DC voltage component on the voltage 0 t
across the transformer in practical cases. This type of Fig. 5.14. Idealised waveform of a phase-shift
converter is commonly operated in continuous mode. full-bridge converter

5.5.2. Voltage Conversion Ratio of Phase-shift Full Bridge Converters

The idealised waveforms of a phase-shift full bridge converter in Fig. 5.14 shows that there is a phase
difference with θ between the gate signals of Leg A and Leg B. Duty ratio of the primary side of the
transformer, D, is equal to:

D and 0     (5.27)

If turns ratio of the transformer is 1 : N, voltage conversion ratio of a phase-shift full bridge converter is:
Vo N
 ND  (5.28)
Vin 

Equation (5.28) shows that the output voltage is regulated linearly with the phase-difference of the gate
signals of the legs.

5.5.3. Features of Phase-shift Full Bridge Converters

Phase-shift full bridge converter is suitable for high v1A
power applications because of the ease of heat
dissipation from the power loss by the 4 transistors. 0 t
Since the duty ratio of the gate signals of the v1B Switching Noise
transistors are 0.5, applying AC square-wave gate
signals, such as ±15V, to drive the transistor is 0 t
possible if the transistors are MOSFETs. Unwanted
turn-on of a MOSFETs by switching loss from the Fig. 5.14. AC square-wave gate signals avoiding
switching of another transistors can be avoided effect of switching noise
shown in Fig. 5.15. Zero-voltage switching technique
can be applied with adding a resonant capacitor in the circuit to resonate with the leakage inductance of
the transformer. The range of operation with zero-voltage switching is very large comparing with other
DC/DC converters. Frequency of iL is double of the switching frequency so that the size of the inductor
is smaller than other typical DC/DC converters. Since there are many components in the converters and
many transistor driving circuits, the cost of phase-shift full bridge converters are comparatively high.

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