TYPES OF FLUID FLOW IN FLUID MECHANICS

1. Steady and unsteady flow

Steady flow
Steady flow is basically defined as the flow in which, the properties of fluid such as density, velocity,
pressure at a point do not change with time.
In simple, if a fluid flow is not a function of time then that flow will be termed as steady flow. Flow
of water with constant discharge through a pipe line will be considered as steady flow.
Un-steady flow
Un-steady flow is basically defined as the flow in which, the properties of fluid such as density,
velocity, pressure at a point changes with time.
In simple, if a fluid flow is a function of time then that flow will be termed as unsteady flow. Flow of
water with varying discharge through a pipe line will be considered as unsteady flow.

2. Uniform and non-uniform flow

Uniform flow is basically defined as the flow in which, the properties of fluid such as density,
velocity, pressure at a given time do not change with respect to space.

Non-uniform flow is basically defined as the flow in which, the properties of fluid such as
density, velocity, pressure at a given time changes with respect to space.

3. Laminar flow and Turbulent flow

Laminar flow
Laminar flow is basically defined as that type of flow in which the fluid particles will move along the
well defined paths or streamlines. These streamlines will be straight and parallel with each other.
Therefore in case of laminar flow, particles will move in laminas or layers, smoothly gliding over
each other.
Turbulent flow
Turbulent flow is basically defined as the flow in which the particles of fluid will move in zig-zag
way. As fluid particles will move in zig-zag way in turbulent flow, there will be formation of eddies
and that will be responsible for high energy loss.
[Let us consider we have one pipe and fluid is flowing through this pipe. Type of fluid flow will be
determined on the basis of a non-dimensional number i.e. Reynolds’s number.
Reynolds’s number, Re = ρVD/μ
Where,
D = Diameter of pipe through which fluid is flowing
V= Velocity of fluid flow
ρ = Density of the fluid
μ = Viscosity of the fluid
If Reynolds’s number is less than 2000, fluid flow will be considered as laminar fluid flow. Laminar
flow is also termed as viscous flow or stream-line flow.
If Reynolds’s number is more than 2000, fluid flow will be considered as turbulent fluid flow.
If Reynolds’s number is in between 2000 and 4000, fluid flow will be considered as transitional fluid
flow.]

4. Compressible and incompressible flow

Compressible flow is basically defined as the flow in which the density of the fluid will be changed
from point to point. In simple words we can say that, density of the flowing fluid will not be constant.
Incompressible flow is basically defined as the flow in which the density of the fluid will not
changed from point to point. In simple words we can say that, density of the flowing fluid will be
constant.
For compressible flow, Density (ρ) ≠ constant
For incompressible flow, Density (ρ) = constant

5. Rotational and irrotational flow

Rotational flow is basically defined as the flow in which fluid particles while flowing along the
stream lines will also rotate about their own axis.
Irrotational flow is basically defined as the flow in which fluid particles while flowing along the
stream lines will not rotate about their own axis.

6. One, two and three dimensional flow

One dimensional flow

One dimensional flow is basically defined as the flow in which the flow parameters such as velocity
will be a function of time and one space co-ordinate only.
Variation of velocities in other two mutually perpendicular directions will be negligible.
Two-dimensional flow
Two-dimensional flow is basically defined as the flow in which the flow parameters such as velocity
will be a function of time and two rectangular space co-ordinates only.
Variation of velocity in third direction will be negligible.
Three-dimensional flow
Three-dimensional flow is basically defined as the flow in which the flow parameters such as velocity
will be a function of time and three space co-ordinates.
 What is discharge or flow rate?
Flow rate is basically defined as the quantity of a fluid flowing through a section of pipe or channel
per unit time.
Flow rate or discharge = Quantity of fluid flowing through a section of pipe/Time
For incompressible fluid, such as water, flow rate will be defined as the ratio of volume of fluid
flowing through the section and time.
For compressible fluid, such as gas, flow rate will be defined as the ratio of weight of fluid flowing
through the section and time.
Fluid flow rate or discharge will be represented by Q.

Unit of flow rate

For incompressible fluid i.e. liquid

Flow rate or discharge = Volume of fluid flowing through a section of pipe/Time
Unit: m3/s
For compressible fluid i.e. gas
Flow rate or discharge = Weight of fluid flowing through a section of pipe/Time
Unit: Newton/s or N/s
Let us consider that we have one pipe of diameter D and water is flowing through this pipe with a
velocity of V. Flow rate of discharge through the section of the pipe is
Q=AxV
Where, A is the area of cross-section of the pipe

 State and explain Continuity equation

When fluid flow through a full pipe, the volume of fluid entering in to the pipe must be equal
to the volume of the fluid leaving the pipe, even if the diameter of the pipe vary.
Therefore we can define the continuity equation as the equation based on the principle of
conservation of mass.

Therefore, “for a flowing fluid through the pipe at every cross-section, the quantity of fluid
per second will be constant”.

Let us consider we have one pipe through which fluid is flowing. Let us consider two section
1-1 and 2-2 as displayed here in following figure.

Where,
V1 = Average velocity of flowing fluid at cross-section 1-1
ρ1= Density of flowing fluid at cross-section 1-1
A1 = Area of cross-section of pipe at cross-section 1-1
V2 = Average velocity of flowing fluid at cross-section 2-2
ρ2= Density of flowing fluid at cross-section 2-2
A2 = Area of cross-section of pipe at cross-section 2-2
Flow rate at section 1-1 = ρ1 A1 V1
Flow rate at section 2-2 = ρ2 A2 V2

Recall the principle of conservation of mass, we will have

Flow rate at section 1-1 = Flow rate at section 2-2
ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2
Above equation will be termed as continuity equation and this equation will be applicable for
compressible and incompressible fluid.
If we want to secure the continuity equation for only incompressible fluid, we will recall the basic
definition of incompressible fluid and we will have ρ1 = ρ2
Therefore, continuity equation for incompressible fluid will be given by following equation as
mentioned here.
A1 V1 = A2 V2

 Derive Bernoulli’s Equation

Euler’s Equation of motion

Euler’s equation of motion of an ideal fluid, for a steady flow along a stream line, is basically
a relation between velocity, pressure and density of a moving fluid. Euler’s equation of
motion is based on the basic concept of Newton’s second law of motion.

In Euler’s equation of motion, we will consider the forces due to gravity and pressure only.
Other forces will be neglected.

Assumptions

Euler’s equation of motion is based on the following assumptions as mentioned here

1. The fluid is non-viscous. Frictional losses will be zero
2. The fluid is homogeneous and incompressible.
3. Fluid flow is steady, continuous and along the streamline.
4. Fluid flow velocity is uniform over the section
5. Only gravity force and pressure force will be under consideration.

Let us consider that fluid is flowing from point A to point B and we have considered here one
very small cylindrical section of this fluid flow of length dS and cross-sectional area dA as
displayed here in following figure.

Let us think about the forces acting on the cylindrical element

Pressure force PdA, in the direction of fluid flow

Pressure force [P + (∂P/∂S) dS] dA, in the opposite direction of fluid flow
Weight of fluid element (ρ g dAdS)
Let us consider that θ is the angle between the direction of fluid flow and the line of action of
weight of the fluid element.

As we have mentioned above that Euler’s equation of motion is based on the basic concept of
Newton’s second law of motion. Therefore, we can write here following equation as
mentioned here
Net force over the fluid element in the direction of S = Mass of the fluid element x
acceleration in the direction S.

Above equation is termed as Euler’s equation of motion.

Bernoulli’s equation from Euler’s equation of motion could be derived by integrating the
Euler’s equation of motion.

According to Bernoulli’s theorem.....

In an incompressible, ideal fluid when the flow is steady and continuous, the sum of pressure
energy, kinetic energy and potential energy will be constant along a stream line.
Assumptions(Same as Euler’s)

[Assumptions made for deriving the Bernoulli’s equation from Euler’s equation of motion is as
mentioned here.

1. Fluid is ideal, i.e. inviscid and incompressible.

2. Fluid flow is steady, one-dimensional and uniform
3. Fluid flow is irrational
4. Forces which are considered are only pressure force and gravity force. Rest forces acting on fluid
are neglected.]

Let us recall the Euler’s equation of motion. We will integrate the Euler’s equation of motion
in order to secure the Bernoulli’s equation.

Practical Applications of Bernoulli’s Theorem

1. Venturimeter

Venturimeter is basically defined as a device which is used for measuring the rate of flow of
fluid flowing through a pipe.

Venturimeter works on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation and continuity equation.

Venturimeter consist of three parts as mentioned here

1. Converging Part
2. Throat
3. Diverging part

Types of Venturimeter

There are basically three types of venturimeter as mentioned here

1. Horizontal venturimeter
2. Inclined venturimeter
3. Vertical venturimeter
Equation for the rate of flow of fluid or discharge

d1 = Diameter at section 1 (Inlet section)

P1 = Pressure at section 1 (Inlet section)
v1 = Velocity of fluid at section 1 (Inlet section)
a1 = Area at section 1 (Inlet section) = (П/4) x d12
d2 = Diameter at section 2
P2 = Pressure at section 2
v2 = Velocity of fluid at section 2
a2 = Area at section 2 = (П/4) x d22

Above equation is termed as equation for theoretical discharge. Actual discharge will be less than the
theoretical discharge.

2. Orifice meter or Orifice plate

Orifice meter is basically defined as a device which is used for measuring the rate of flow of
fluid flowing through a pipe. Orifice meter is also known as Orifice plate.

Orifice meter works on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation and continuity equation.

Orifice meter is less costly as compared to the venturimter. Venturimeter is also very reliable
flow measuring device.

Orifice meter consists of one flat circular plate and this circular plate will have one circular
sharp edge hole bored in it. The circular sharp edge hole is termed as orifice.

Diameter of orifice will be 0.5 times of diameter of pipe through which fluid is flowing.

Orifice plate is installed in pipe between two flanges of pipe.

d1 = Diameter at section 1 (Inlet section)
P1 = Pressure at section 1 (Inlet section)
v1 = Velocity of fluid at section 1 (Inlet section)
A1 = Area of pipe at section 1 (Inlet section)
d2 = Diameter at section 2
P2 = Pressure at section 2
v2 = Velocity of fluid at section 2
A2 = Area at section 2

Discharge through orifice meter.

3. Pitot Tube

Pitot tube is basically defined as a device which is used for measuring the velocity of flow at
any point in the pipe or a channel.

Working Principle of Pitot tube

Pitot tube works on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation. If the velocity of flow at a point
decreases, pressure will be increased at that point due to the conversion of kinetic energy in
to pressure energy.
Pitot tube will be made of a glass tube bent at right angle as displayed here in following
figure. Lower end of Pitot tube will be bent at right angle and will be directed in upstream
direction as displayed here.

Due to conversion of kinetic energy in to pressure energy, liquid will rise up in the glass rube.
Rise of liquid level will provide the velocity of flow at any point in the pipe or a channel.

Derivation of veloctiy of flow through pitot tube

Let us consider one pitot tube as displayed here in following figure. Let us say that water is
flowing through the horizontal pipe.
P1 = Pressure at section 1 (Inlet section)
v1 = Velocity of fluid at section 1 (Inlet section)
A1 = Area of pipe at section 1 (Inlet section)

P2 = Pressure at section 2
v2 = Velocity of fluid at section 2
A2 = Area at section 2
H = Depth of tube in the liquid
h = Rise of kiquid in the tube above the free surface.

Let us recall the Bernoulli’s equation and applying at section 1 and section 2.

According to Bernoulli’s theorem.....

In an incompressible, ideal fluid when the flow is steady and continuous, the sum of pressure
energy, kinetic energy and potential energy will be constant along a stream line.

We will have following equation after applying Bernoulli’s equation at section 1 and section
2.

1. Define Orifice.
An orifice is basically a small opening of any cross-section such as triangular, square or rectangular on the side
or at the bottom of tank, through which a fluid is flowing. Orifice is basically used in order to determine the rate
of flow of fluid.

2. Derive an expression for the flow through an orifice.

Let us consider one tank with a circular orifice fitted at one side of the tank as displayed here in following
figure.
Liquid flowing through the orifice is developing a liquid jet whose cross-sectional area is smaller than the cross-
sectional area of the circular orifice. Area of liquid jet is decreasing and area is minimum at section CC.

Section CC will be approximately at a distance of half of diameter of the circular orifice. At section CC, the
streamlines are straight and parallel with each other and perpendicular to the plane of the orifice. This section
CC will be termed as Vena-contracta. Beyond the section CC, liquid jet diverges

Let us consider that h is the head of the liquid above the centre of orifice.

Let us consider two points 1 and 2 as displayed in above figure. Point 1 is displayed inside
the tank and point 2 is shown at the Vena-contracta.

Assumption

Let us consider that flow is steady and at a constant differential head h.

p1 = Pressure at point 1
v1 = Velocity of fluid at point 1
p2 = Pressure at point 2
v2 = Velocity of fluid at point 2

Now we will apply the Bernoulli’s equation at point 1 and 2.

Area of tank is quite large as compared with area of liquid jet and therefore v 1 will be very
small as compared with v2. Therefore above expression for theoretical velocity could be re-
expressed as mentioned here.

𝑽𝟐 = √𝟐𝒈𝒉

MAJOR AND MINOR LOSSES IN PIPES

There are two types of head losses in pipe flow system i.e. Major head loss and Minor head
loss.
Head loss in pipe flow system due to viscous effect i.e. due to friction will be termed as
major head loss and will be indicated by h L-Major.

Head loss in pipe flow system due to various piping components such as valves, fittings,
elbows, contractions, enlargement, tees, bends and exits will be termed as minor head loss
and will be indicated by h L-Minor.
h L = h L-Major + h L-Minor
Major Head loss
1. Darcy-Weisbach formula
Major Head losses in pipe flow problem will be calculated with the help of Darcy-Weisbach
formula as mentioned below and this Darcy-Weisbach formula will be used to calculate the
major loss in pipe flow, it does not matter that pipe is horizontal, vertical or on inclined plane.
𝟒𝒇𝒍𝑽𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = [Use this equation when V is given or to find V]
𝟐𝒈𝒅
Where hf = head loss due to friction
f = friction factor, l = length of pipe in m, V = flow velocity in m/s, d = diameter of pipe
𝒇𝒍𝑸𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = 𝟓 [use this equation when discharge is given or to find discharge]
𝟑𝒅

Where Q = Discharge in m3/s

2. Chezy’s Formula
𝑽 = 𝑪√𝒎𝒊
Where V – velocity of flow, C- Chezy’s constant
𝒅 𝒉𝒇
𝒎 = 𝟒 for uniform circular pipe and 𝒊 = loss of head per unit length of pipe
𝒍
hf = head loss due to friction in meters, l = length of pipe in m

3. Minor head losses in pipe flow [Equations Only)

Head loss in pipe flow system due to friction will be termed as major head loss and will be indicated by h L-
Major.

Head loss in pipe flow system due to various piping components such as valves, fittings, elbows, contractions,
enlargement, tees, bends and exits will be termed as minor head loss and will be indicated by h L-Minor.

Minor head losses in pipe flow are

Loss of head due to sudden enlargement

Loss of head due to sudden contraction
Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe
Loss of head at the exit of a pipe
Loss of head due to an obstruction in a pipe
Loss of head due to bend in the pipe
Loss of head in various pipe fitting

To evaluate the loss of head in small pipe, above losses must be considered as such losses will be comparable
with the loss of head due to friction.

Loss of head due to sudden enlargement

Let us assume that a liquid is flowing through a pipe which has a sudden enlargement as displayed here in
following figure.

Loss of head due to sudden enlargement will be given by following equation.

(𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 )𝟐
𝒉𝒆 =
𝟐𝒈
Where,
V1 = Velocity of fluid flow at section 1-1
V2 = Velocity of fluid flow at section 2-2
he = Loss of head due to sudden enlargement
g = Acceleration due to gravity

Loss of head due to sudden contraction

Let us assume that a liquid is flowing through a pipe which has a sudden contraction as displayed here in
following figure.

Loss of head due to sudden contraction will be given by following equation.

𝟎. 𝟓𝑽𝟐𝟐
𝒉𝒄 =
𝟐𝒈
Where,
V2 = Velocity of fluid flow at section 2-2
hC = Loss of head due to sudden contraction

Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe

Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe is the loss of head when a liquid enters a pipe which is connected with a
large tank or reservoir.

Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe will be given by the following equation as mentioned here.
𝟎. 𝟓𝑽𝟐
𝒉𝒊 =
𝟐𝒈

Where,
V = Velocity of fluid flow in the pipe
hi = Loss of head at the entrance or inlet of a pipe

Loss of head at the exit of a pipe

Loss of head at the exit of a pipe will be given by the following equation as mentioned here.
𝑽𝟐
𝒉𝒆 =
𝟐𝒈

Where,
V = Velocity of fluid flow at the outlet of pipe
hO = Loss of head at the exit or outlet of a pipe

Hydraulic Coefficients
1. Co-efficient of velocity, CV
Co-efficient of velocity is basically defined as the ratio of actual velocity of liquid jet at vena-contracta to the
theoretical velocity of the liquid jet.

Actual velocity of liquid jet at vena-contracta will be less than the theoretical velocity due to the friction of the
orifice.

Co-efficient of velocity = Actual velocity of liquid jet at vena-contracta / theoretical velocity

Value of co-efficient of velocity varies from 0.95 to 0.99 depending on the types of orifices, shape and size of
orifice.

2. Co-efficient of contraction, CC
Co-efficient of contraction is basically defined as the ratio of area of liquid jet at vena-contracta to the area of
the orifice.

Co-efficient of contraction is denoted by CC and will be given as mentioned here

Co-efficient of contraction = Area of liquid jet at vena-contracta / Area of the orifice

Value co-efficient of contraction varies from 0.61 to 0.69 depending on shape and size of orifice and head of
liquid under which liquid flow takes place.

We will take usually 0.64 for Co-efficient of contraction.

3. Co-efficient of discharge, Cd
Co-efficient of discharge is basically defined as the ratio of actual discharge from an orifice to the theoretical
discharge from the orifice.

Co-efficient of discharge = Actual discharge from an orifice / Theoretical discharge from the orifice

Cd = Q/Qth
Where,
Q = Actual discharge from an orifice
Qth = Theoretical discharge from an orifice
Q = Actual velocity x Actual area
Qth = Theoretical velocity x Theoretical area

Co-efficient of discharge = (Actual velocity x Actual area) / (Theoretical velocity x Theoretical area)

Co-efficient of discharge = (Actual velocity / Theoretical velocity) X (Actual area / Theoretical area)

Co-efficient of discharge = Co-efficient of velocity X Co-efficient of contraction

Cd = C V x C C
The co-efficient of discharge is the product of Co-efficient of velocity and Co-efficient of contraction.

Value co-efficient of discharge varies from 0.61 to 0.65 depending on shape and size of orifice.
We will take usually 0.62 for Co-efficient of discharge.

Notch
Notch is basically defined as a device which is used for determining the flow of liquid
through a small channel or a tank.
Notches might be defined as the opening provided in one side of a tank or reservoir or a small
channel in such a way that the liquid surface in the tank or channel is below the top edge of
opening.

Classification of notches
1.There are following types of notches on the basis of shape of opening and these are as
mentioned here
Rectangular Notch

Triangular Notch or V- notch

Trapezoidal Notch

Stepped Notch

2.There are following types of notches on the basis of the effect of sides on the nappe and
these are as mentioned here

1. Notch with end contraction

The notch width or length is equal to the width of channel
2. Notch without end contraction or suppressed notch
Notch width or length is less than the width of channel

Weir
A weir will be basically a concrete or masonary structure which will be located in an open
channel over which flow will take place.
Weir will be usually in the form of vertical wall, with a sharp edge at the top, running all the
way across the open channel.

 Difference between orifice and notch

Orifice
Small opening in the side or bottom of a tank through which
the fluid flows.
The upper edge of the orifice is below the free surface of
liquid in the tank
The stream of water flowing through an orifice is termed as
jet
Head of water compared to orifice dimension is large.
Pressure on the upstream side of orifice is more than the
downstream side pressure (atmospheric)
Notch
Large opening in the side of a tank or dam
Upsream liquid level is below the upper edge of the notch
The sheet of water flowing over a notch is termed as nappe
or vein
Head of water over the sill of the notch is small compared to
the notch dimensions
Pressure on upstream and downstream side of the notch is
atmospheric.
Power Transmission By A Pipeline

The potential head of water in the reservoir = H ( the difference in the water level in the reservoir and
the turbine center)

The head available at the pipe exit (or at the turbine entry)
Ha = H- hf
Where hf is the loss of head in the pipeline due to friction.

The power transmitted (in watts) through the pipe = Weight of water flowing in N/s x Head of water in m
So power, P = wQ (H-hf)
Where w – specific weight (ρg) of liquid, Q – discharge
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
Efficiency of pipe transmission =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑯−𝒉𝒇
𝜼= 𝑯

 The Conditions For Maximum Power Transmission

H=3hf
i.e. The head lost due to friction is one third of the Total Supply Head.

 Explain water hammer in pipes

When water flowing through a long pipe is brought to rest by suddenly closing the valve , there will
be a sudden raise in pressure due to the loss of momentum or Kinetic energy. A pressure wave is
generated and transmitted along the pipe which create a noise called knocking. Sudden raise in
pressure has the effect of hammering action on the walls of the pipe, hence the phenomenon is known
as water hammer or hammer blow.
The magnitude depends on
(i) Speed at which valve is closed
(ii) Flow velocity of water in the pipe
(iii) Length of pipe
(iv) Elastic properties of the material of pipe as well as the flowing liquid