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The linear transformation which transforms every tensor into itself is called the identity
tensor. This special tensor is denoted by I so that, for example,
1 0 0
I 0 1 0 (1.10.1)
0 0 1
The transpose of a second order tensor A with components Aij is the tensor A T with
components A ji ; so the transpose swaps the indices,
In matrix notation,
Some useful properties and relations involving the transpose are {▲Problem 2}:
A T T
A
A B A T B T
T
u v T v u
Tu uT T , uT T T u
(1.10.3)
AB T
B A T T
A : B AT : BT
(u v ) A u ( A T v )
A : BC B T A : C AC T : B
A formal definition of the transpose which does not rely on any particular coordinate
system is as follows: the transpose of a second-order tensor is that tensor which satisfies
the identity1
u Av v A T u (1.10.4)
for all vectors u and v. To see that Eqn. 1.10.4 implies 1.10.2, first note that, for the
present purposes, a convenient way of writing the components Aij of the second-order
tensor A is A ij . From Eqn. 1.9.4, A ij e i Ae j and the components of the transpose
can be written as A T ij e i A T e j . Then, from 1.10.4,
A T
ij e i A T e j e j Ae i A ji A ji .
The trace of a second order tensor A, denoted by trA , is a scalar equal to the sum of the
diagonal elements of its matrix representation. Thus (see Eqn. 1.4.3)
A more formal definition, again not relying on any particular coordinate system, is
1
as mentioned in §1.9, from the linearity of tensors, uA v u Av and, for this reason, this expression is
usually written simply as uAv
and Eqn. 1.10.5 follows from 1.10.6 {▲Problem 4}. For the dyad u v {▲Problem 5},
tr u v u v (1.10.7)
Another example is
tr(E 2 ) I : E 2
ij e i e j : E pq E qr e p e r (1.10.8)
Eiq E qi
This and other important traces, and functions of the trace are listed here {▲Problem 6}:
trA Aii
trA 2 Aij A ji
trA 3 Aij A jk Aki (1.10.9)
trA 2 Aii A jj
trA 3 Aii A jj Akk
Some useful properties and relations involving the trace are {▲Problem 7}:
trA T trA
tr AB tr BA
tr A B trA trB (1.10.10)
tr A trA
A : B tr A T B tr AB T tr B T A tr BA T
The double contraction of two tensors was earlier defined with respect to Cartesian
coordinates, Eqn. 1.9.16. This last expression allows one to re-define the double
contraction in terms of the trace, independent of any coordinate system.
Consider again the real vector space of second order tensors V 2 introduced in §1.8.5.
The double contraction of two tensors as defined by 1.10.10e clearly satisfies the
requirements of an inner product listed in §1.2.2. Thus this scalar quantity serves as an
inner product for the space V 2 :
A, B A : B tr A T B (1.10.11)
Just as the base vectors e i form an orthonormal set in the inner product (vector dot
product) of the space of vectors V, so the base dyads e i e j form an orthonormal set in
the inner product 1.10.11 of the space of second order tensors V 2 . For example,
Similarly, just as the dot product is zero for orthogonal vectors, when the double
contraction of two tensors A and B is zero, one says that the tensors are orthogonal,
A : B tr A T B 0 , A, B orthogonal (1.10.13)
Using 1.2.8 and 1.10.11, the norm of a second order tensor A, denoted by A (or A ), is
defined by
A A:A (1.10.14)
AA 1 I A 1 A (1.10.17)
The inverse of a tensor exists only if it is non-singular (a singular tensor is one for
which det A 0 ), in which case it is said to be invertible.
( A 1 ) 1 A
(A) 1 (1 / ) A 1
(1.10.18)
( AB) 1 B 1 A 1
det( A 1 ) (det A) 1
Since the inverse of the transpose is equivalent to the transpose of the inverse, the
following notation is used:
A T ( A 1 ) T ( A T ) 1 (1.10.19)
Qu Qv u v (1.10.20)
for all vectors u and v. Thus u is transformed to Qu , v is transformed to Qv and the dot
product u v is invariant under the transformation. Thus the magnitude of the vectors
and the angle between the vectors is preserved, Fig. 1.10.1.
Q Qu
v
Qv
Since
Consider a rotation tensor Q which rotates the base vectors e1 , e 2 , e 3 into a second set,
e1 , e2 , e3 , Fig. 1.10.2.
ei Qe i i 1, 2, 3 (1.10.23)
Such a tensor can be termed a change of basis tensor from e i to ei . The transpose
QT rotates the base vectors ei back to e i and is thus change of basis tensor from ei to
e i . The components of Q in the e i coordinate system are, from 1.9.4, Qij e i Qe j and
so, from 1.10.23,
which are the direction cosines between the axes (see Fig. 1.5.5).
e3 e3
e2
e2 Q
e1
e1
The change of basis tensor can also be expressed in terms of the base vectors from both
bases:
Q ei e i , (1.10.25)
from which the above relations can easily be derived, for example ei Qe i , QQ T I ,
etc.
Thus Q transforms v into a second vector v , but this new vector has the same
components with respect to the basis ei , as v has with respect to the basis e i , vi vi .
Note the difference between this and the coordinate transformations of §1.5: here there
are two different vectors, v and v .
Example
0 1
Q e i e j ei e i
1 0
1 1
Qv e i ei
1 1
e1 e2
Qv v
e2 e1
QAQ T QAij e i e j Q T Aij Qe i e j Q T Aij Qe i Qe j Aij ei ej
(1.10.27)
results in a new tensor which has the same components with respect to the ei , as A has
with respect to the e i , Aij Aij .
Any tensor A can be (uniquely) decomposed into a symmetric tensor S and a skew tensor
W, where
symA S
1
2
A AT
(1.10.28)
1
skewA W A A T
2
and
S ST , W W T (1.10.29)
Some useful properties of symmetric and skew tensors are {▲Problem 13}:
S : B S : B T S : 12 B B T
W : B W : B W : 12 B T
T
S:W 0
(1.10.31)
tr SW 0
v Wv 0
det W 0 has no inverse
where v and B denote any arbitrary vector and second-order tensor respectively.
Note that symmetry and skew-symmetry are tensor properties, independent of coordinate
system.
Wu ω u (1.10.32)
where u is any vector and ω characterises the axial (or dual) vector of the skew tensor
W. The components of W can be obtained from the components of ω through
Wij e i We j e i ω e j e i k e k e j
e i k kjp e p kji k (1.10.33)
ijk k
If one knows the components of W, one can find the components of ω by inverting this
equation, whence {▲Problem 14}
1 2 3
T Tij 4 2 1
1 1 1
into its symmetric and skew parts. Also find the axial vector for the skew part. Verify
that Wa ω a for a e1 e3 .
Solution
One has
1 2 3 1 4 1 1 3 2
1
1
S T T 4 2 1 2 2 1 3
2
T
2
2 1
1 1 1 3 1 1 2 1 1
1 2 3 1 4 1 0 1 1
1 1
W T T 4 2 1 2 2 1 1
T
0 0
2 2
1 1 1 3 1 1 1 0 0
and
e1 e 2 e3
ωa 0 1 1 e1 e 2 e 3
1 0 1
■
where
sphA 1
3
trA I
13 A11 A22 A33 0 0
0 1
3
A11 A22 A33 0
0 0 1
3
A11 A22 A
33
devA A sphA
A11 13 A11 A22 A33 A12 A13
A21 A22 13 A11 A22 A33 A23
A31 A32 A33 13 A11 A22 A33
(1.10.36)
Any tensor of the form I is known as a spherical tensor, while devA is known as a
deviator of A, or a deviatoric tensor.
tr (devA ) 0
sph (devA ) 0 (1.10.37)
devA : sphB 0
vAv 0 , v o (1.10.38)
In component form,
and so the diagonal elements of the matrix representation of a positive definite tensor
must always be positive.
It can be shown that the following conditions are necessary for a tensor A to be positive
definite (although they are not sufficient):
These conditions are seen to hold for the following matrix representation of an example
positive definite tensor:
2 2 0
A 1 4 0
0 0 1
A necessary and sufficient condition for a tensor to be positive definite is given in the
next section, during the discussion of the eigenvalue problem.
One of the key properties of a positive definite tensor is that, since det A 0 , positive
definite tensors are always invertible.
A:vv 0 (1.10.40)
1.10.14 Problems
1. Show that the components of the (second-order) identity tensor are given by I ij ij .
2. Show that
(a) (u v ) A u ( A T v )
(b) A : BC B T A : C AC T : B
3. Use (1.10.4) to show that I T I .
4. Show that (1.10.6) implies (1.10.5) for the trace of a tensor.
5. Show that tr u v u v .
6. Formally derive the index notation for the functions
trA 2 , trA 3 , ( trA ) 2 , ( trA) 3
7. Show that A : B tr ( A T B) .
8. Prove (1.10.16f), Ta Tb Tc det T a b c .
9. Show that ( A 1 ) T : A 3 . [Hint: one way of doing this is using the result from
Problem 7.]
10. Use 1.10.16b and 1.10.18d to prove 1.10.22c, det Q 1 .
11. Use the explicit dyadic representation of the rotation tensor, Q ei e i , to show that
the components of Q in the “second”, ox1 x 2 x3 , coordinate system are the same as
those in the first system [hint: use the rule Qij ei Qej ]
12. Consider the tensor D with components (in a certain coordinate system)
1 / 2 1 / 2 1 / 2
0 1/ 2 1/ 2
1 / 2 1 / 2 1 / 2
Show that D is a rotation tensor (just show that D is proper orthogonal).
13. Show that tr SW 0 .
14. Multiply across (1.10.32), Wij ijk k , by ijp to show that ω 12 ijk Wij e k . [Hint:
use the relation 1.3.19b, ijp ijk 2 pk .]
15. Show that 12 a b b a is a skew tensor W. Show that its axial vector is
ω 12 b a . [Hint: first prove that b u a a u b u a b b a u .]
16. Find the spherical and deviatoric parts of the tensor A for which Aij 1 .