The Science of Cytology

a. Cell Theory: The Principle Core of Biology

The cell is the basic unit of life and is the principle core of the study of life itself. If
it weren’t for the cell, no life on Earth will exist.

The cell was first discovered in 1665 by Robert Hooke upon examining a thin slice
of cork and discovering tiny “cells” in it. During the 1800’s, more scientists have
added their own discoveries about the cell and it ultimately lead to the
formulation of the cell theory proposed by Theodore Schwann, Rudolf Virchow,
and Matthias Schleiden. The cell theory states that:
Figure 1. Microscopic view
1. All living things are composed of cells. of the cork slice as seen by
2. Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living organisms. Robert Hooke
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.

b. The Cell: The Basic Unit of Life

The cell is a microscopic unit that composes all life whether it is the simplest bacteria or the complex
human body.

• Types of Living Organisms: Unicellular and Multicellular

There are two types of living organisms: the unicellular and multicellular. A unicellular organism
is made up of only one cell, because the word uni- means one. Since they are only composed of
one cell, they are mostly microscopic and some examples of unicellular organisms include
bacteria, diatom, amoeba, and euglena. Multicellular organisms, on the other hand, are
composed of multiple numbers of cells and can be seen by the naked eye. This type of organisms
includes plants and animals.

• Classification of Cells: Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic

There are two classifications of cells. The prokaryotic cells or simply called prokaryotes are less
complex and are mainly unicellular. Prokaryotes don’t have a true nucleus but their genetic
material is located in the nucleoid region. Prokaryotes also don’t have membrane-bound
organelles. Although they do have smaller ribosomes, these are not membrane-bound. They
undergo metabolism through anaerobic (without oxygen) and aerobic (with oxygen) means.

Figure 2. An illustration of the parts of Prokaryotes [left] and Eukaryotes [right]

 Eukaryotic cells or eukaryotes on the other hand are more complex since they have a true nucleus
and they have membrane-bound organelles that maintain their own internal conditions. When
we say “true nucleus,” the genetic material of the cell is encased inside a nuclear membrane. They
are able to gain energy through aerobic metabolism. Eukaryotic cells may either be unicellular or
multicellular and the include plant cells, animal cells, fungi, algae, and protists.

It is wrong to generalize that eukaryotic cells are only present in multicellular organisms because
there are unicellular organisms that are actually eukaryotic cell like the protozoa and paramecium
bacteria. The classification of an organism mainly depends on the structures inside of the cells
whether they are complex and membrane-bound.

• Animal cell vs Plant cell

Both animal and plant cells are eukaryotic in nature but there are main differences between the
two. One prominent difference is there shape since animal cells have much more of an oval shape
while the plant cells have a more rectangular and rigid shape due to the presence of the cell wall.
Second is the size of the water vacuole where animal cells have a normal size for its vacuoles, the
plant cells have a larger central vacuole since plants need more water for their survival. Third is
the presence of chlorophyll which is the pigment responsible for the green color of leaves and
aids the process of photosynthesis. Other than that, there are huge similarities between cell parts
and functions as discussed below.

c. Cell Parts and Functions

The three main parts of the cell include the cytoplasm, cell or plasma membrane, and the nucleus.
These are all present in both animal and plant cell.

Cells, although small in size, are complex living structures and the parts indicated above are composed
of organelles which are tiny organs present inside the cell and have specific functions and role in the
survival of the cell.

• The Nucleus is an organelle that contains chromosomes which are wrapped with special proteins
into a chromatin network. It contains all the genetic information and acts as the control center
of the cell and this directs all other organelles to do a specific task.

The nucleus is composed of the:

- Nucleolus where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized based on the instructions of the DNA and
this is also where ribosomes are assembled. For clarification, nucleoli are not membrane-bound
but are a tangle of chromatin and unfinished ribosomal precursor.
- Nuclear membrane / nuclear envelope which is a selectively permeable membrane that encloses
the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm. It contains pores that allow transportation of
bigger molecules.

Figure 3. The parts of an animal cell [left] and plant cell [ right]

• The Cytoplasm or Cytosol is a semi-fluid substance where cellular components such as organelles
are suspended. There are numerous organelles splattered in the cytoplasm and these include:
- Ribosomes are the ones responsible for assembling proteins. They can be found free-floating in
the cytoplasm, where their main purpose is to produce proteins for the self itself, or bound in the
endoplasmic reticulum, where proteins are produced for export outside the cell.

- Peroxisomes are organelles that contain catalase which is an enzyme that transforms hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) into water with the release of oxygen atoms. They also detoxify alcohol in liver
cells.

- Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is a system of channels and are composed of flattened sacs that
transverse the cytosol. It has two types: the rough ER which is studded with ribosomes and
produces proteins for export and the Smooth ER that detoxifies the body, Stores Ca++ ions for
muscle contraction, and synthesizes steroid hormones.

- Golgi Apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs that are stacked and are surrounded by
vesicles. They process and package the products formed in the ER and delivers them to other parts
of the cell or exports them outside.

- Mitochondria can be simply called the powerhouse of the cell due to the fact that it is the site of
cellular respiration. It has an outer double membrane and an inner site of membranes called
cristae. It also contains its own DNA, which serves as a strong evidence of endosymbiosis.

- Vacuoles are membrane-bound organelles used for storage. Mature plants cells usually have a
bigger vacuole since most plants need a large amount of water for their survival.
 - Cytoskeleton is a complex mesh of protein filaments that extends throughout the cytoplasm and
is responsible for maintaining the cell’s shape and guiding the position of organelles as well as its
movements.

- Lysosomes are the principal site of intracellular digestion due to their digestive enzymes enclosed
in a single membrane. This is a specialized organelle that can be found in animal cells only. The
lysosomes purpose is to destroy any infective agent inside the cell or destroy the actual cell itself
through apoptosis.

- Chloroplast contains green pigment called chlorophyll that absorbs light energy and synthesizes
sugar for ATP. This is usually found inside plant cells.

• The Cell Membrane or Plasma Membrane is a selectively permeable membrane that regulates
how substances enter and exits the cell. It separates the contents of the cell from its external
environment. Both animal and plant cell have cell membranes but only plant cells, algae, fungi,
and bacteria have Cell Wall that gives the organisms its rigid shape and protective covering.

Activities
Exercise 1: Label the animal cell and plant cell diagrams correctly.

Animal Cell
Exercise 2: Cell City
In order to understand how each organelle is related to each other, compare a cell to a city. In the box
below, draw and designate a government office to each organelle and explain why you chose that
specific office for that cell. There will be a presentation in front of the class how cell organelles function
with each other like how government offices do.