T E C H N I C A L U
Designing for Investment Castings
T he investment casting process can produce
almost any shape from almost any alloy. As
with all processes, however, designing for the
process can lower cost while achieving the de-
sired performance.
The guidelines noted here for investment
casting design apply to part configuration as cast,
without machining. For complex parts with a
dimension larger than 3 inches (76mm), it is a
good idea to make a casting drawing based on
geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (ASME
Standard Y14.5M), make a finished part drawing
and establish inspection methods that assure (1)
the casting will fit into the machining fixtures and
(2) a dimensionally accurate finished part.
Alloy Selection
Because service conditions—corrosion, local
high-wear areas, weight limitations, appearance,
etc.—may require characteristics in addition to
strength, the alloy should often be selected after
establishing the part’s strength. (For a full treat-
ment of alloys and specifications, see Hitchiner
Technical Update 2D2 and talk with your
company’s or Hitchiner’s metallurgists.)
Design Information
Overall size. Hitchiner can provide most
parts that will fit into a box of about 18 inches
(457mm) cubed (and larger in aluminum).
Wall thickness. Hitchiner can provide cast-
ings as thin as 0.015 inch (0.4mm) in any of the
alloys it casts and usually in as large an area as
such a section would be mechanically suitable.
Walls as thick as 6 inches (152mm) can be cast in
all alloys.
Some areas of the part require thicker walls
and, wherever possible, it is better to have the
walls go from thin to thick in all directions, rather
than from thin to thick to thin to thick again. In
other words, avoid thicker sections surrounded
by thinner ones. Figure 1 shows recommended
ways of changing wall thickness.
Joining walls. Figure 2 shows the best ways
to join two or three walls.
Corners. Figure 3 shows the best corner
designs. Tooling outside corners sharp reduces
Technical Update 2D1
P D A T E
tooling cost. Normal processing in most alloys
will create a rounding to a maximum of about
0.015 inch (0.4mm). Special processing can keep
the edges sharp if desired. Fillets on inside cor-
ners should have radii equal to the wall thick-
ness.
Isolated bosses. Stock must often be added
locally in a more or less uniform wall to provide
machining stock for metal-to-metal contact or
bolting. Keep the boss height to the maximums
shown in Figure 4 to minimize cost. Casting holes
through the bosses is more economic for tall
bosses.
Internal features. Fluid flow passages or
internal contours of almost any shape and size
can be cast. If the passage length to the smallest-
width dimension is more than 3:1 on a closed
passage or 6:1 on a through passage, more expen-
sive methods must be used to cast them. If pos-
sible, internal walls should be thinner than the
external walls surrounding them (Figure 5). Try
to avoid thick sections on thin internal walls,
however, unless they meet the criteria for isolated
bosses.
Linear tolerances for cast dimensions. The
tolerances shown in Table 1 “Linear Tolerances
for Cast Dimensions” can be applied to length,
concentricity, fillet, and corner radii, holes
(straight and curved), flatness and straightness.
The table shows three levels of tolerances, from
lowest to highest quality (also lowest to highest
cost).
Holding closer tolerances requires more
expensive tooling, more extensive process control
and often additional operations (coining, for
example), all of which increase cost. Hitchiner’s
capabilities are world class and it can meet the
tolerances of any other foundry. Before specifying
the highest-cost tolerances, however, we recom-
mend you work with our engineers to assure you
get such tolerances at the lowest possible cost.
Wall thickness tolerances. Due to the nature
of the process, investment castings need more
allowance for wall thickness variation, regardless
of the wall thickness dimension. For lowest to
highest cost, the wall tolerances are ±0.015 inch
(0.38mm), ±0.010 inch (0.25mm), and ±0.005 inch
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(0.13mm) (cannot be held in all wall thicknesses).
Geometric surfaces. Tolerances required for
profiles, contours, perpendiculars, etc. depend on
their length, so the table for linear tolerances can
generally be used. For example, for lowest cost, a
contour could be held to within ±0.010 inch
(0.25mm) if it is one inch (25mm) long (or one-by-
one inch (25-by-25mm), ±0.013 inch (0.33mm) if it
is 2 inches long, etc. Many cast contours are
functional—threads, bearing surfaces and airfoils,
for example—and should be checked with gauges
to assure functionality.
Artwork. Almost any texture, lettering, knurl,
company logo, lines, rule and other types of fine
detail can be cast in a way that will convey the
intent effectively and permanently. For ease of
casting, negative lettering width should be
around 0.025 inch (0.64mm) or larger, the depth
should be held to the same dimension as the
width and a minimum radius of 0.005 inch
(0.13mm) should be at the base of the letter cross
section. Positive artwork can be cast to these and
larger dimensions and can be displayed on a
sunken surface as well.
Surfaces to machine. Depending on the alloy,
the cast surface finish ranges from 90 to 150 µinch
RA (2.2 to 3.8 µm). In most cases, therefore, the
only surfaces that need machining (any metal
removal) are those that require visual appeal—
such as a golf club head—and those which are
involved in metal-to-metal contact—bearing,
rubbing, bolting, fitting, threading, etc.
Any surfaces that need to be held more
closely than the tolerances outlined above will
have to be machined. Straight round holes requir-
ing tolerances better than those mentioned are
normally drilled, unless the alloy is difficult to
machine, in which case precision cores may be
economical. Hitchiner has extensive machining
facilities for providing machine finished castings
to final print, regardless of tolerance require-
ments.
If the alloy is difficult to machine (e.g., a
nickel or cobalt alloy), it may be economical to
cast threads or cam or rubbing surfaces. Some
alloys can be coined to achieve a surface that
functions quite well as a metal-to-metal operating
interface.
Machining stock. Surfaces polished for visual
appeal need at least 0.005 inch (0.13mm) stock
(depending on the alloy) to provide a great
looking surface after polishing. The amount of
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stock needed to establish tight dimensions for
surfaces working against other metal parts
increases as the part size increases to assure
enough stock for dimensional variation and to
assure surface irregularities (roughness) are
removed during machining. Since gauging does
not pick up such irregularities, at least 0.010 inch
(0.25mm) more stock than is needed to accommo-
date dimensional variation should be added. If
the alloy is difficult to machine or the part vol-
ume is high, work with Hitchiner to assure
minimum stock addition and reduce machining
cost. All areas to be machined should be marked
clearly on the casting drawing and the finished
part drawing.
Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing.
Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing should
be used for larger and more complex parts. It is a
formal system approved internationally and
documented by the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI), American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) and International Organiza-
tion for Standardization (ISO).
Hitchiner strongly recommends that its cus-
tomers get this detailed system of design language
from ASME, asking for Standard ASME Y 14.5M.
This system avoids buildup of tolerances, which
can happen when coordinate tolerancing is used,
and makes it easy to convey the maximum amount
of information. This helps to avoid costly delays in
the early stages of tool design and build as well as
later on in production. Casting designers should
use the system of datum target points, lines or
areas that can then be the basis for inspection and
machining fixtures. Figures 6 and 7 illustrate how
they can be used.
Drawing notes. Most drawings have stan-
dard blocks containing information helpful to the
user—general tolerance, fillets, corner radii,
general wall thicknesses (with tolerance), surface
finishes, some drawing symbols, material, heat
treat condition, special finishes, and more. Such
notes are helpful to the foundry. Additional notes
relating to the specific part are also desirable—
nondestructive testing methods, alloy hardness,
weld repair approval, special treatment areas,
visual quality, microstructure, grain size, sam-
pling plans, references to machining or gauging
drawings or requirements—anything that aids in
communicating your needs to the foundry.
Technical Update 2D1
 Linear Tolerances for Cast Dimensions
Lowest-to-Highest Quality & Cost–Inches (mm)
Dimension Lowest (±) Medium (±) Highest (±)
<0.25 (6) 0.010 (0.25) 0.005 (0.13) 0.0025 (0.06)
<0.50 (12) 0.010 (0.25) 0.005 (0.13) 0.0025 (0.06)
< 1 (25) 0.010 (0.25) 0.005 (0.13) 0.005 (0.13)
<2 (50) 0.013 (0.33) 0.010 (0.25) 0.008 (0.20)
<3 (76) 0.016 (0.41) 0.015 (0.38) 0.010 (0.25)
<4 (101) 0.019 (0.49) 0.017 (0.44) 0.012 (0.30)
<5 (127) 0.022 (0.56) 0.020 (0.51) 0.013 (0.34)
>6 (152) 0.25 (0.63) 0.022 (0.56) 0.015 (0.38)
<7 (178) 0.028 (0.72) 0.025 (0.63) 0.017 (0.42)
<8 (203) 0.031 (0.079) 0.028 (0.72) 0.018 (0.46)
<9 (229) 0.034 (0.87) 0.030 (0.77) 0.020 (0.50)
<10 (254) 0.037 (0.95) 0.032 (0.82) 0.021 (0.52)
>10 (254) 0.005 (0.13)* 0.004 (0.10)* 0.003 (0.08)*
* Per inch (25mm) of dimension length.
Table 1

Changes in Wall Thickness

Poor Design

Fair Design

Good Design

Best Design

Figure 1

Technical Update 2D1 Hitchiner Manufacturing Co., Inc.

 Joining Walls

Good Fair Optimum

Thin to Thick For Same Wall Thicknesses

Right is Good
Poor for Equal Wall
Thicknesses
Good As Well

3 Times Wall
Thickness
Poor

Better, Best
If Contoured
As Top Right
Figure 2

Hitchiner Manufacturing Co., Inc. Technical Update 2D1

 Corners

Poor Design

Good Design When

d
d=t=r
r

r
Good Design When
r=d

d d
Rib Thickness
= or < d

1.5 d
d

Thinning Flanges and Ribbing May Lower Cost

Figure 3

Technical Update 2D1 Hitchiner Manufacturing Co., Inc.

 Low-Cost Bosses or Raised Pads
D

3d Min.
h When D = d,
Keep h < 1.5d
d

D
3d Min.
h
When D = 1.3d,
d Keep h < 1.0d

D
3d Min.
h
When D = 2d,
d Keep h < 0.25d

D
h

d
When D = 1.3d,
Keep h < 0.33d
3d Min.
D
h
d
When D = 2d,
Keep h < 0.10d
3d Min.

D If bosses must
3d Min.
h be taller than
above, coring
d
can reduce cost.
0.5 D

Figure 4

Hitchiner Manufacturing Co., Inc. Technical Update 2D1

Keep Internal Walls Thinner Than External Walls

Section AA

A A

Figure 5

A
A
Datum Feature Symbol For Datum Plane A
(Open or filled triangles)

Target area size

6 6
Target number
A1 A1 Alternate A1
If a datum point
Datum identity
Symbols for Datum Target Area and Point
A

This Means this

A1
Symbols for Datum Target Line
Figure 6

Technical Update 2D1 Hitchiner Manufacturing Co., Inc.

 A1 A2 A3 C
A
C1
200

200 200
100 B
400 100
B1
75
B1 B2 B2
Dimensioning by Datum Target Points for a
Block. A is the Primary Datum Plane

6 6 6 A3 A Line Contact A3
A1 A2 A2

60

20 100 6mm Dia. Target

6 Areas, A1, A2
This
A3
A1 Means this

Primary Datum Plane is Established by

Two Target Areas and One Target Line
Figure 7

Hitchiner Manufacturing Co., Inc. • PO Box 2001 • Milford, NH 03055 • (603) 673-1100 • www.hitchiner.com