estimated from many tests, and their values, as suggested by Mattock, Kriz, and Hognestad [2],

are as follows:
α1 = 0.72 for f 1c≤ 4000 psi (27.6 MPa); it decreases linearly by 0.04 for every 1000 psi
(6.9 MPa) greater than 4000 psi
α2 = 0.425 for f 1c< 4000 psi (27.6 MPa); it decreases linearly by 0.025 for every 1000 psi
greater than 4000 psi
The decrease in the value of α1 and α2 is related to the fact that high--strength concretes
show more brittleness than low-strength concretes [3].
To derive a simple rational approach for calculations of the internal forces of a section,
the ACI Code adopted an equivalent rectangular concrete stress distribution, which was
first proposed by C. S. Whitney and checked by Mattock and others [2]. A concrete stress ofc
0.85f 1 is assumed to be uniformly distributed over an equivalent compression zone
bounded by the edges of the cross section and a line parallel to the neutral axis at a distance
a = β1c from the fiber of maximum compressive strain, where c is the distance between the top
of the compressive section and the neutral axis (Fig. 3.8). The fraction β1 is 0.85 cfor concrete
strengths f 1 ≤ 4000 psi

Actual and equivalent stress distributions at failure.

 Values of β1 for different compressive strengths of concrete, f1 . c

(27.6 MPa) and is reduced linearly at a rate of 0.05 for each 1000 psi (6.9 MPa) of stress greater
than 4000 psi (Fig. 3.9), with a minimum value of 0.65.
The preceding discussion applies in general to any section, and it is not confined to a
rectangular shape. In the rectangular section, the area of the compressive zone is equal to
ba, and every unit area is acted on by a uniform stress equal cto 0.85f 1 , giving a total stress
volume equalc to 0.85f 1 ab,
ab which corresponds to the compressive force C. For any other shape,
the force C is equal to the area of the compressive zone multiplied by a constant stress equal c
to 0.85f 1 .
For example, in the section shown in Fig. 3.10, the force C is equal to the shaded area of
the cross section multiplied by 0.85f 1c:
C = 0.85f 1(6 × 3 + 10 × 2) = 32.3 f 1 lb
c c
The position of the force C is at a distance z from the top fibers, at the position of the
resultant force of all small-element
small forces of the section. As in the case when the stress is
85f 1 , the resultant force C is located at the center of gravity of the
uniform andc equals 0.85f
compressive zone, which has a depth of a.
In this example, z is calculated by taking moments about the top fibers:
? )
6 × 3 × 3 + 10 × 2(1 + 3) 107
z= 2 = = 2.82 in.
6 × 3 + 10 × 2 38

SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR SECTION IN BENDING

We explained previously that a balanced condition is achieved when steel yields at the same
time as the concrete fails, and that failure usually happens suddenly. This implies that the yield
strain in the steel is reached (εy = fy /Es ) and that the concrete has reached its maximum strain
of 0.003. The percentage of reinforcement used to produce a balanced condition is called the
balanced steel ratio, ρb . This value is equal to the area of steel, As , divided by the effective
cross section, bd :
As(balanced)
ρb =
bd
 Figure 3.10 Forces in a nonrectangular section.

where
b = width of compression face of member
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of longitudinal tension
reinforcement

Two basic equations for the analysis and design of structural members are the two equations
of equilibrium that are valid for any load and any section:

1. The compression force should be equal to the tension force; otherwise, a section will have
linear displacement plus rotation:
C=T (3.12)
 2. The internal nominal bending moment, Mn, is equal to either the compressive force, C,
multiplied by its arm or the tension force, T, multiplied by the same arm:
Mn = C(d − z) = T (d − z)
(Mu = φMn after reduction by the factor φ.) (3.13)

The use of these equations can be explained by considering the case of a rectangular section
with tension reinforcement (Fig. 3.8). The section may be balanced, underreinforced, or over re-
inforced, depending on the percentage of steel reinforcement used.

3.9.1 Balanced Section

Let us consider the case of a balanced section, which implies that at maximum load the strain
in concrete equals 0.003 and that of steel equals the first yield stress at distance dt divided by
the modulus of elasticity of steel, fy /Es . This case is explained by the following steps.

Step 1. From the strain diagram of Fig. 3.11,

cb 0.003
=
dt − cb fy /Es
From triangular relationships (where cb is c for a balanced section) and by adding the
numerator to the denominator,
cb 0.003
=
dt 0.003 + fy /Es
Substituting Es = 29 × 103 ksi,
I \
87
cb = dt (fy in ksi) (3.14)
87 + fy
where fy is in ksi.

ec = 0.003 0.85fc′
a/2
a a C = 0.85fc′ab
Cb

d
dt

As

T = As f y
ey = fy /Es
b

Rectangular balanced section.