LAGRO HIGH SCHOOL

District V, Quezon City, Metro Manila

The Area of a Polygon on a 2D Bravais Lattice System

by

Antonio, Jadiel Byron

Arambulo, Andrei Godwyn

Capiones, John Philip

De Leon, Chelse Ella

Yaco, Madison Paege

 Abstract

Lattice system is a class of lattices with the same set of lattice point groups,

which are subgroups of the arithmetic crystal classes. These lattice points, when

connected at particular pattern will form different geometric figures such as polygons,

regular or irregular, convex or non-convex. To this interest is this investigation

conducted: “How can we find the area of different types of polygons formed by lattice

points in different lattice systems?”. The result of this study would be of good help to

some related fields such as engineering.

The study attempted to expound and elaborate on Pick’s Theorem and see if

particular patterns for areas of polygons exist given a different lattice system which are

not included in the theorem. Pick’s Theorem uses boundary points and interior points of

a polygon formed in a lattice system in finding the area of a polygon; but this theorem

was only applied on only one of the 2D Bravais Lattice Systems, specifically the

Primitive Square Lattice System. 2D Bravais Lattice Systems consists of 5 different

lattice systems in which each of them has different properties than the other.These

systems are: Primitive Square, Primitive Rectangular, Centered Rectangular,

Hexagonal, and Oblique (Monoclinic) lattice systems. Since every lattice system has

properties different from the others, Pick’s Formula on the Primitive Square would most

probably exhibit less precision (or none at all) in finding the area of a polygon drawn in a

different lattice system. But zeroing in to Pick’s concept of relating boundary points and

interior points to area might also be applicable to generalize some patterns (formula)in
finding the area of a polygon drawn in a particular lattice system. Originally, Pick’s

formula is𝐴 = + 𝐼 − 1, where A is the area of the polygon, B is the number of the

boundary points (lattice points that are on the polygon), and I is the number of interior

points (lattice points in the interior of the polygon). The constant −1 indicates that +𝐼

is always greater than the area by 1. By applying it to other lattice systems with different

properties, the researchers were able to derive formulae for all the other lattice systems.

Given 𝑎 and𝑏, the length of the cell edges of a unit cell in lattice system, the formula for

the areas of a polygon formed with the lattice points as the vertices are as follow: a.)

Primitive Rectangular: 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏( + 𝐼 − 1); b.) Centered Rectangular: A = 𝑎𝑏( + − );

c.) Hexagonal: A = 𝑎 √3( + − ); d.) Monoclinic or Oblique Lattice System: A =

𝑎𝑏 sin 𝜃 + 𝐼 − 1 , where 𝜃 is the angle formed by 𝑎 and 𝑏.

 Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………….…. ………1

 Background of the Study…………………………………………………………….1

 Significance of the Study………………………………………………………….…3

 Reviews of Related Studies and Related Literatures…………………………….5

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ……………………………………………………….11

CONJECTURES …………………………………………………………………………..12

 Primitive Rectangular Lattice System..................................…………………….12

 Centered Rectangular Lattice System....................................…………………..16

 Hexogonal Lattice System..........................................................………………..20

 Oblique (Monoclinic) Lattice System..................................................................25

TESTING CONJECTURES……………………………………………………………….29

JUSTIFICATION ……………………………………………………………………………34

SUMMARY………………….………………………………………………………………..44

POSSIBLE EXTENSIONS…………………………………………………………………46

REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………………47

CURRICULUM VITAE………………………………………………………………………49
 Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

Geometry is a branch of mathematics purely devoted in the study of shapes,

sizes, relative position of the figures, and the properties of space. Coming from two

Ancient Greek words; “Geo” and “Metria” meaning “Earth” and “Measurement”

respectively, Geometry could be as well defined as measurement of earth. Geometry

have been part of our lives; such example is that Greeks used Geometry in constructing

buildings and in artworks based on golden rations approximately 1.618.

By the 3rd century BC, Euclid of Alexandria, a Greek mathematician, geometry

was put into an axiomatic form which is stating definitions and propositions in a way

such that each new term can be formally eliminated by the priory introduced terms

requires primitive notions (axioms) to avoid infinite regress (Michael Potter, 2004). For

this reason, Euclid was often referred to as “Father of Geometry”

From the pure Geometry branched out other forms of geometry such as

Euclidean Geometry, Analytic, Projective, Differential, Topology, Non- Euclidean and

even spiritual Geometry.

Euclidean Geometry houses a variety of topics, one of which is the polygons

which is part of the elementary geometry. Polygons can be classified as convex and

concave. Convex which every diagonal is inside the polygon and vice-versa with

1
concave. Convex Polygons could be further classified into Regular convex or Irregular

convex in which all sides are equal for regular convex.

Lattice system is a class of lattices with the same set of lattice point groups,

which are subgroups of the arithmetic crystal classes. Given a grid of equal-distanced

points, any mentioned kind of polygon could be constructed by connecting any points

along the grid as polygon is defined as 2-dimensional shapes. They are made of

straight lines, and the shape is "closed" (all the lines connect). This are one of the

categories of lattice systems.

The area of the polygon could be simply computed by dividing the complex

shape into simple ones and adding all of their areas. However, by 1899, Georg Pick

designed a technique in determining the area of a polygon in a lattice system. Given

a simple polygon constructed on a grid of equal-distanced points. The area of this

polygon in terms of the number i of lattice points in the interior located in the polygon

and the number b of lattice points on the boundary placed on the polygon's perimeter is

the variables used in determining the area.

However, given an entirely new lattice system, such as the 2D Bravais Lattice

systems where the distinct lattice types which when repeated can fill the whole space,

and in which the lattices have different properties in each of the five 2D Bravais Lattice

System, Pick’s formula couldn’t be applied to all of the 2D Bravais Lattice Systems

except for the Primitive Square Lattice System

2
 |𝑎| ≠ |𝑏|𝜃 ≠ 90° |𝑎| ≠ |𝑏|𝜃 = 90° |𝑎| = |𝑏|𝜃 = 120° |𝑎| = |𝑏|𝜃 = 90°
|𝑐| = |𝑑| 𝜑 ≠ 90
Oblique (Monoclinic) (2) Primitive
(3) Centered Rectangular Hexagonal Primitive Square

Figure 1: 2D Bravais Lattice Systems

This kind of extension have captivated the interest of the researchers and as

such wanted to pursue the extension and potentially add a new knowledge to the field of

mathematics most specifically in the field of geometry. Thus, the investigation aims to

see whether the Pick’s theorem which involves a polygon in a grid can be further

applied in the 2D Bravais Lattice Systems. Furthermore, this study will determine the

pattern proving the pick’s theorem inductively.

B. Significance of the Study

Finding the area of a polygon is not that easy, especially if a polygon is in a

quasi-isometry form. The development of an algorithm or way to finding the area of a

given polygon via the lattice system can help many people or some to solve problems

regarding polygons quickly.

3
 The following will benefit from this study:

1. Mathematicians-

Uncovering new strategy and concepts help mathematicians solve things easily and

to develop new ways on how to solve a problem, regarding the area of the polygons,

mathematicians will benefit greatly in this concept because this concept can be a base

of a greater concept which can lead to a much greater concept made by those

mathematicians.

2. Scientists-

The fields of science always have tremendous work and calculations not to mention

some dire concepts and solutions scientists themselves have developed. Now this

concept will benefit scientists because it can help them about certain studies regarding

polygons and how to get its area.

3. Students-

Being a student is never an easy task one sometimes needs to be a mathematician

and a scientist at the same time, concepts like this can help students build their MIP so

that they can pass it to their beloved teacher not to mention the knowledge they can

learn by knowing this concept and other concepts. Lastly area of a polygon in a quasi-

isometry can be hard to solve but thanks to this concept it can now be easy.

4
 C. Reviews of Related Literature

Auguste Bravais

Auguste Bravais is a French physicist. He studied and

was able to complete his classical education at the Collège

Stanislas, Paris, that allowed him to receive his doctorate

from Lyon in 1837. Due to his interest in exploring the world, it

prompted him to join the Navy. In 1841, he began to teach astronomy at the Faculté des

Science. In 1844 he was elected to the Académie Royal des Science s, Belles-Lettres

et Arts de Lyon. In 1845 he was appointed professor of physics at the École

Polytechnique, Paris, and in 1854 was admitted to the geography and navigation

section of the Académie des Sciences, Paris.

Bravais is widely known for his work in crystallography, the formulation of Bravais

Law, and the conception of Bravais Lattices.

Bravais Lattice

In geometry, Bravais Lattice is defined as an infinite (finite if edges are

considered) of discrete points generated by a set of discrete translation operations

described in three-dimensional space by:

𝑅=𝑛 𝑎 + 𝑛 𝑎 + 𝑛 𝑎

where 𝑛 are any integers and 𝑎 are known as the primitive vectors which lie in

different directions (not necessarily mutually perpendicular) and span the lattice. This

5
discrete set of vectors must be closed under vector addition and subtraction. For any

choice of position vector R, the lattice looks exactly the same.

In two-dimensional space, there are only 5 Bravais lattice systems. These systems are:

Primitive Square, Primitive Rectangular, Centered Rectangular, Hexagonal, and

Oblique (Monoclinic) lattice systems.

These Bravais Lattice systems are also grouped into different crystal families as shown

in the table below

Table 1: 5 Bravais Lattice Systems grouped according to their Crystal Family.

Point group 5 Bravais Lattices

Crystal
(Schönflies
family Primitive Centered
notation)

Monoclinic C2 Oblique

Centered
Orthorhombic D2 Rectangular
rectangular

Hexagonal D6 Hexagonal

Tetragonal D4 Square

6
 The unit cells are specified according to the relative lengths of the cell edges (𝑎

and 𝑏) and the angle between them (θ). The area of the unit cell can be calculated by

evaluating the norm ||a × b||, where a and b are the lattice vectors.

George Alexander Pick

Georg Pick was born into a Jewish family. His mother was

Josefa Schleisinger and his father was Adolf Josef Pick, the head

of a private institute. Georg was educated at home by his father

up to the age of eleven when he entered the fourth class of the

Leopoldstaedter Communal Gymnasium. He sat his school

leaving examinations in 1875 which qualified him for university entrance.

His mathematical work was extremely broad and his 67 papers range across

many topics such as linear algebra, invariant theory, integral calculus, potential theory,

functional analysis, and geometry. However more than half of his papers were on

functions of a complex variable, differential equations, and differential geometry. Terms

such as 'Pick matrices', 'Pick-Nevanlinna interpolation', and the 'Schwarz-Pick lemma'

are sometimes used today. He is best remembered, however, for Pick's theorem which

appeared in his eight-page paper of 1899 Geometrisches zur Zahlenlehre Ⓣ published

in Prague in Sitzungber. Lotos, Naturwissen Zeitschrift.

7
Pick’s Theorem

Pick's Theorem is a useful method for determining

the area of any polygon whose vertices are points

on a lattice, a regularly spaced array of points.

Figure 3: Polygons in a lattice system

Although the area of each figure can be calculated using other methods (e.g.,

partitioning it into smaller pieces or using a surrounding rectangle), Pick's theorem

provides a relatively simple alternative. To understand this formula, two definitions are

needed:

Boundary Point (B): a lattice point on the polygon (including vertices)

Interior Point (I): a lattice point in the polygon’s interior region

Pick's Theorem uses these definitions to state the area of a polygon whose vertices are

lattice points:

8
Polygon

Polygon is a closed-plane figure made up of at least 3 co-planar line segments.

The term polygon comes from Greek roots meaning “many angles”

Table 2: Comparison of Polygon and Non-Polygon Figures

Not Polygons Polygons

9
Types of Polygons:

A polygon could be regular or irregular: if and only if it has equal sides and equal

angles could be declared a regular, otherwise it is an irregular polygon.

A polygon could also be concave or convex; a convex polygon has no angles

pointing inwards. More precisely, no internal angle can be more than 180°. If any

internal angle is greater than 180° then the polygon is concave.

Lattice

Lattices have many significant applications in pure mathematics, particularly in

connection to Lie algebras, number theory and group theory. They also arise in applied

mathematics in connection with coding theory, in cryptography because of conjectured

computational hardness of several lattice problems, and are used in various ways in the

physical sciences. For instance, in materials science and solid-state physics, a lattice is

a synonym for the "frame work" of a crystalline structure, a 3-dimensional array of

regularly spaced points coinciding in special cases with the atom or molecule positions

in a crystal. More generally, lattice models are studied in physics, often by the

techniques of computational physics.

10
 Chapter II

Statement of the Problem

A. Objectives

This study is aimed at formulating, and testing conjectures with regards to the

application of Pick’s Theorem on 2D Bravais Lattice System, and at determining the

patterns existing between the Area of a polygon drawn with vertices at the lattice points,

and the Boundary Points and Interior Points of the polygon.

Specifically, it sought to:

 Determine if the Pick’s theorem is applicable on an entirely different lattice

system, specifically the 2D Bravais Lattice Systems.

 Determine if there exists a relationship between the Area of a polygon and its

Boundary and Interior Points.

 Develop a general rule/formula relating the Area of a polygon and its Boundary

and Interior Points.

B. Scope and Limitation

The study revolves around only on the areas of polygons formed in a 2D Bravais

Lattice Systems specifically Primitive rectangular, Centered rectangular, hexagonal and

monoclinic lattice systems. The researchers consider only polygons with vertices set at

the lattice points in the system.

11
 Chapter III

CONJECTURES

Sample data were generated and gathered by trying on some polygons with

different number of boundary points, and solving for their areas. Patterns on their areas

were observed thoroughly to come up with the following conjectures.

A. Primitive Orthorhombic Lattice System

The primitive rectangular (orthorhombic) lattice system is defined such that the

distance between the points horizontally should not be equal to the distance between

the points vertically. In figure:

(ref:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2d-bravais.svg)

Given a polygon with 3 boundary points (with no interior point) (Polygon 1), 4

boundary points (Polygon 2) and so on.

12
 Let 𝑎 = 1 unit and 𝑏= 2 units

The researchers computed the area using coordinate geometry. The results are shown

as follows:

Polygon Boundary points Area

1 3 1

2 4 2

3 5 3

4 6 4

5 7 5

6 8 6

7 9 7

8 10 8

9 11 9

10 12 10

Let a = 1 unit and b= 3 units.

The results are shown as follows:

Polygon Boundary points Area

1 3 3/2

2 4 3

3 5 9/2

13
 4 6 6

5 7 15/2

6 8 9

7 9 21/2

8 10 12

9 11 27/2

10 12 15

Conjecture 1.1

In the rectangular (orthorhombic) lattice system, an increase in the number

𝒂𝒃
of the boundary points increases the area by units.
𝟐

Using a triangle with 3 boundary points, it was drawn different times such that it

doesn’t have an interior point (Polygon 1), it has 1 interior point (Polygon 2) and so on.

Let a = 1 unit and b= 2 units

The results were shown as follows:

Polygon Interior points Area

1 0 1

2 1 3

3 2 5

14
 4 3 7

5 4 9

6 5 11

7 6 13

8 7 15

9 8 17

10 9 19

Let a = 1 unit and b= 3 units.

The results are shown as follows:

Polygon Interior points Area

1 0 3/2

2 1 9/2

3 2 15/2

4 3 21/2

5 4 27/2

6 5 33/2

7 6 39/2

8 7 45/2

9 8 51/2

10 9 57/2

15
Conjecture 1.2

In the rectangular (orthorhombic) lattice system, an increase in the number

of the interior points increases the area by 𝒂𝒃 units.

The increase in area using both the results from conjecture 1.1 and 1.2 was

added to make a hypothesized formula:

𝑩
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝒂𝒃( + 𝑰)
𝟐

Where 𝒂 and 𝒃 are the lengths of the distance of the points, while B is the

number of boundary points and I is the number of Interior points

B. Centered Orthorhombic Lattice System

The centered rectangular (orthorhombic) lattice system is defined such that the

distance between the points horizontally should not be equal to the distance between

the points vertically such that the points were also drawn alternately. In figure:

(ref:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2d-bravais.svg)

16
Using the same method of computing the area through coordinate geometry,

Let a = 1 unit and b = 2 units.

The areas of polygons with increasing boundary points were tabulated as follows:

Polygon Boundary points Area

1 3 ½

2 4 1

3 5 3/2

4 6 2

5 7 5/2

6 8 3

7 9 7/2

8 10 4

9 11 9/2

10 12 5

Let a = 1 unit and b= 4 units.

The results are shown as follows:

Polygon Boundary points Area

1 3 1

2 4 2

17
 3 5 3

4 6 4

5 7 5

6 8 6

7 9 7

8 10 8

9 11 9

10 12 10

Conjecture 2.1

In the Centered rectangular (orthorhombic) lattice system, an increase in

𝒂𝒃
the number of the boundary points increases the area by units.
𝟒

The polygons with 3 boundary points and increasing interior points were also

tabulated as follows:

Let a = 1 unit and b = 2 units

Polygon Interior points Area

1 0 1/2

2 1 3/2

3 2 5/2

4 3 7/2

18
 5 4 9/2

6 5 11/2

7 6 13/2

8 7 15/2

9 8 17/2

10 9 19/2

Let a = 1 unit and b= 4 units.

The results are shown as follows:

Polygon Interior points Area

1 0 1

2 1 3

3 2 5

4 3 7

5 4 9

6 5 11

7 6 13

8 7 15

9 8 17

10 9 19

19
Conjecture 2.2

In the Centered rectangular (orthorhombic) lattice system, an increase in

𝒂𝒃
the number of the interior points increases the area by units.
𝟐

The results of the change of area when increased by 1 boundary points or 1

interior point have led the researcher to the hypothetical formula of:

𝑩 𝑰
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝒂𝒃( + )
𝟒 𝟐

C. Hexagonal lattice system

The hexagonal lattice system is defined such that the 3 adjacent points forms

and equilateral triangle, where all sides are equal and the angle is equal to 60 degrees.

In figure:

(ref:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2d-bravais.svg)

Polygons on the hexagonal lattice system with increasing number of boundary

points and their effect on the area were tabulated using the area of an equilateral

triangle,

Where a = b = 1 unit

20
The results were tabulated as follows:

Polygon Boundary points Area

1 3 √3
4

2 4 √3
2

3 5 3√3
4

4 6 √3
1

5 7 5√3
4

6 8 3√3
2

7 9 7√3
4

8 10 2√3
1

9 11 9√3
4

10 12 5√3
2

Let a = b= 2 units.

The results are shown as follows:

21
 Polygon Boundary points Area

1 3 √3
1

2 4 2√3
1

3 5 3√3
1

4 6 4√3
1

5 7 5√3
1

6 8 6√3
1

7 9 7√3
1

8 10 8√3
1

9 11 9√3
1

10 12 10√3
1

Conjecture 3.1

In the hexagonal lattice system, an increase in the number of the boundary

𝒂𝟐 √𝟑
points increases the area by units.
𝟒

22
 The same premise was also used and the interior points were tabulated as

follows:

Let a = b = 1 unit

Polygon Interior points Area

1 0 √3
4

2 1 3√3
4

3 2 5√3
4

4 3 7√3
4

5 4 9√3
4

6 5 11√3
4

7 6 13√3
4

8 7 15√3
4

9 8 17√3
4

10 9 19√3
4

23
 Let a = b= 2 units.

The results are shown as follows:

Polygon Interior points Area

1 0 √3
1

2 1 3√3
1

3 2 5√3
1

4 3 7√3
1

5 4 9√3
1

6 5 11√3
1

7 6 13√3
1

8 7 15√3
1

9 8 17√3
1

10 9 19√3
1

Conjecture 3.2

24
 In the hexagonal lattice system, an increase in the number of the interior

𝒂𝟐 √𝟑
points increases the area by unit.
𝟒

From the first 2 conjecture, the researchers were able to formulate the hypothesis

formula of:

𝑩 𝑰
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝒂𝟐 √𝟑( − )
𝟒 𝟐

D. Monoclinic lattice system

The oblique (monoclinic) lattice system is defined such that the distance between

the points horizontally should not be equal to the distance between the points vertically

and that the angle should not be a right angle. In figure:

(ref:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2d-bravais.svg)

Using the same method of computing the area through coordinate geometry,

Let a = 1 unit and b = 2 units.

The areas of polygons with increasing boundary points were tabulated as follows:

25
 Polygon Boundary points Area

1 3 sin 𝜃

2 4 2sin 𝜃

3 5 3sin 𝜃

4 6 4sin 𝜃

5 7 5sin 𝜃

6 8 6sin 𝜃

7 9 7sin 𝜃

8 10 8sin 𝜃

9 11 9sin 𝜃

10 12 10sin 𝜃

Let a = 1 unit and b= 4 units.

The results are tabulated as follows:

Polygon Boundary points Area

1 3 2sin 𝜃

2 4 4sin 𝜃

3 5 6sin 𝜃

4 6 8sin 𝜃

26
 5 7 10sin 𝜃

6 8 12sin 𝜃

7 9 14sin 𝜃

8 10 16sin 𝜃

9 11 18sin 𝜃

10 12 20sin 𝜃

Conjecture 4.1

In the Oblique (monoclinic) lattice system, an increase in the number of the

𝒂𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
boundary points increases the area by unit.
𝟐

Polygons with boundary point of 4 and varying interior points were then tabulated

as follows: Let a = 1 unit and b = 2 units

Polygon Interior points Area

1 0 2sin 𝜃

2 1 4sin 𝜃

3 2 6sin 𝜃

4 3 8sin 𝜃

5 4 10sin 𝜃

6 5 12sin 𝜃

7 6 14sin 𝜃

8 7 16sin 𝜃

27
 9 8 18sin 𝜃

10 9 20sin 𝜃

Let a = 1 unit and b= 5 units. The results are tabulated as follows:

Polygon Interior points Area

1 0 5sin 𝜃

2 1 10sin 𝜃

3 2 15sin 𝜃

4 3 20sin 𝜃

5 4 25sin 𝜃

6 5 30sin 𝜃

7 6 35sin 𝜃

8 7 40sin 𝜃

9 8 45sin 𝜃

10 9 50sin 𝜃

Conjecture 4.2

In the Oblique (monoclinic) lattice system, an increase in the number of the

interior points increases the area by 𝒂𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 unit.

Conjecture 4.1 and 4.2 led to the hypothetical formula of:

𝑩
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝒂𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 ( + 𝑰)
𝟐

28
 Chapter IV

VERIFYING CONJECTURES

A. Primitive Orthorhombic Lattice System

The hypothetical values using the hypothesized formula were then compared to

the computed area using coordinate geometry.

Let a= 1unit b= 2 units

Polygon Boundary Interior Computed Value Real Value

1 3(1/2) 0(1) 3/2 ½

2 4(1/2) 0(1) 2 1

3 5(1/2) 0(1) 5/2 3/2

4 6(1/2) 0(1) 3 2

5 7(1/2) 0(1) 7/2 5/2

6 8(1/2) 1(1) 4 3

7 9(1/2) 1(1) 9/2 7/2

8 10(1/2) 1(1) 5 4

9 11(1/2) 1(1) 11/2 9/2

10 12(1/2) 1(1) 6 5

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Conjecture 1

In the rectangular (orthorhombic) lattice system, assuming that the sum of

the boundary points multiplied by ½ and the interior points multiplied by 1, the

computed value will be one less than the real area.

B. Centered Rectangular Lattice System

The formula was then tested and compared to the area using coordinate

geometry.

Let a= 1unit b= 2 units

Polygon Boundary Interior Computed Value Real Value

1 3(1/4) 0(1/2) ¾ ¼

2 4(1/4) 0(1/2) 1 ½

3 5(1/4) 0(1/2) 5/4 ¾

4 6(1/4) 0(1/2) 3/2 1

5 7(1/4) 0(1/2) 7/4 5/4

6 8(1/4) 1(1/2) 5/2 2

7 9(1/4) 1(1/2) 11/4 9/4

8 10(1/4) 1(1/2) 3 2

9 11(1/4) 1(1/2) 13/4 11/4

10 12(1/4) 1(1/2) 7/2 3

30
Conjecture 2

In the Centered rectangular (orthorhombic) lattice system, assuming that

the sum of the boundary points and the interior points were added, the computed

value will be ½ unit less than the real area.

C. Hexagonal Lattice System

Using the hypothesis formula, the area would then be compared to the area computed

using the area of an equilateral triangle

Let a = b = 1 unit

Polygon Boundary Interior Computed Value Real Value

1 3(1/4) 0(1/2) 3√3/4 √3/4

2 4(1/4) 1(1/2) 3√3/2 √3/2

3 5(1/4) 2(1/2) 9√3/4 7√3/4

4 6(1/4) 3(1/2) 3√3 5√3/2

5 7(1/4) 4(1/2) 15√3/4 13√3/4

6 8(1/4) 5(1/2) 9√3/2 4√3

7 9(1/4) 6(1/2) 21√3/4 19√3/2

8 10(1/4) 7(1/2) 6√3 11√3/2

9 11(1/4) 8(1/2) 27√3/4 25√3/4

10 12(1/4) 9(1/2) 15√3/2 7√3

31
Conjecture 3

In the hexagonal lattice system, assuming that the boundary points and the

interior points are added, the computed value will be ½ less than the real area.

D. Oblique (Monoclinic) Lattice System

The researchers then tried the hypothetical formula against the real area computed

through coordinate geometry in which let the angle 𝜃 = 45

Let a= 1unit b=2 units

Polygon Boundary Interior Computed Value Real Value

1 3(1/2) 0(1) 3 1
√2 √2
2 2

2 4(1/2) 1(1) 3√2 2√2

3 5(1/2) 2(1) 9 7
√2 √2
2 2

4 6(1/2) 3(1) 6√2 5√2

5 7(1/2) 4(1) 15 13
√2 √2
2 2

6 8(1/2) 5(1) 9√2 8√2

7 9(1/2) 6(1) 21 19
√2 √2
2 2

8 10(1/2) 7(1) 12√2 11√2

9 11(1/2) 8(1) 27 25
√2 √2
2 2

10 12(1/2) 9(1) 15√2 14√2

32
Conjecture 4

In the Oblique (monoclinic) lattice system, assuming that boundary points

and the interior points were added, the computed value will be one less than the

real area.

In summary, the four formulae created from the mathematical induction are the

following:

For the Primitive Rectangular Lattice System:

𝑩
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝒂𝒃 +𝑰−𝟏
𝟐

For the Centered Rectangular Lattice System

𝑩 𝑰 𝟏
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝒂𝒃 + −
𝟒 𝟐 𝟐

For the Hexagonal Lattice System

𝑩 𝑰 𝟏
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝒂𝟐 √𝟑 + −
𝟒 𝟐 𝟐

For the Monoclinic Lattice System

𝑩
𝐴𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝒂𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 +𝑰−𝟏
𝟐

33
 Chapter V

JUSTIFICATION

By thorough analysis, the four formulae created from the induction are the

following:

For the Primitive Rectangular Lattice System:

𝑩
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝒂𝒃 +𝑰−𝟏
𝟐

For the Centered Rectangular Lattice System

𝑩 𝑰 𝟏
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝒂𝒃 + −
𝟒 𝟐 𝟐

For the Hexagonal Lattice System

𝑩 𝑰 𝟏
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝒂𝟐 √𝟑 + −
𝟒 𝟐 𝟐

For the Monoclinic Lattice System

𝑩
𝐴𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝒂𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 +𝑰−𝟏
𝟐

where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are the edges of a unit cell in a lattice system, and 𝜃 is the angle formed

by these edges.

34
To hold generality, the formulae generated were subjected to proof. The formulae were

proven correct by comparing the values of areas generated using the derived formula to

the area generated using determinant method, also known as shoelace method. In

Analytic Geometry, we know that the area of a polygon in a Cartesian plane with
𝑥 … 𝑥
vertices at (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) is given by 𝐴 = 𝑦 … 𝑦 where 𝑛 is the number of vertices.

Conjecture 1

𝟏
In the primitive rectangular (orthorhombic) lattice system, 𝒂𝒃 [B ( ) +
𝟐

I – 1], where B = boundary points and I = interior points.

Example 1: let a = 3 units and b = 4 units

The number of boundary points and interior points is 6 units and 2 units

respectively.

Using the formula 𝑎𝑏 [B ( ) + I – 1],

35
 3(4) [6( ) + 2 – 1]

12[3+2-1]

12[4]

48 units

The computed area of the polygon is 48 units.

Using the shoelace method,

1 3 0 9 93
2 4 12 12 8 4

1
[(36 + 0 + 72 + 36) − (0 + 108 + 108 + 24)]
2

1
[96]
2

48 units

The area of the polygon is 48 units.

Example 2: let a = 4 units and b = 5 units

36
The number of boundary points and interior points is 5 units and 1 unit respectively.

Using the formula 𝑎𝑏 [B ( ) + I – 1],

4(5) [5( ) + 1 – 1]

20[5/2]

100/2

50 units

The computed area of the polygon is 50 units.

Using the shoelace method,

1 8 8 12 16 8
2 5 10 15 5 5

37
 1
[(80 + 120 + 60 + 80) − (40 + 120 + 240 + 40)]
2

1
[100]
2

50 units

The area of the polygon is 50 units.

Conjecture 2

𝟏
In the Centered rectangular (orthorhombic) lattice system, ab [B ( ) +
𝟒

I/2 – 1/2], where B = boundary points and I = interior points. Factoring ½ it can

𝒂𝒃 𝟏
also be express as [B ( ) + I – 1].
𝟐 𝟐

Example 2: let a = 3 units and b = 4 units

The number of boundary points and interior points, is 6 units and 1 unit respectively.

Using the formula [B ( ) + I – 1].

( )
[6( ) + 1 – 1]

38
 6[3]

18 units

The computed area of the polygon is 18 units.

Using the shoelace method,

1 3 0 9 93
2 4 12 12 8 4

1
[(36 + 0 + 72 + 36) − (0 + 108 + 108 + 24)]
2

1
[96]
2

48 units

The area of the polygon is 48 units.

Example 2: let a = 3 and b = 4

39
Using the formula [B ( ) + I – 1].

( )
[8( ) + 2 – 1]

6[5]

30 units

The computed area of the polygon is 18 units.

Using the shoelace method,

1 30 0 3 3
2 0 4 12 12 0

1
[(12 + 0 + 0 + 0) − (36 + 36)]
2

1
[60]
2

30 units

The area of the polygon is 30 units.

40
Conjecture 3

𝐚𝟐 √𝟑 𝟏
In the hexagonal lattice system [B ( ) + I – 1], where B = boundary points
𝟐 𝟐

and I = interior points.

Example 1: let a= 1 and b= 2

√
Using the formula [B ( ) + I – 1].

√
[5( ) + 1 – 1]

√
units

√
The computed area of the polygon is units. Using shoelace method, the area

generated through the derived formula is equal as shown above.

Example 2: let a= 2

41
 √
Using the formula [B ( ) + I – 1].

√
[8( ) + 1 – 1]

8√3 units

The computed area of the polygon is 8√3units. Using shoelace method, the area

generated through the derived formula is equal as shown above.

Conjecture 4

𝟏
In the Oblique (monoclinic) lattice system, ab𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉[B ( ) + I – 1], where
𝟐

B = boundary points and I = interior points.

Example 1: let a= 1 b= 2, and θ = 450

Using the formula absin θ[B ( ) + I – 1]

√2 1
2 [4( ) + 1 – 1]
2 2

2√2 units

The computed area of the polygon is 2√2units. Using shoelace method, the area

generated through the derived formula is equal as shown in previous conjectures.

42
Example 2: let a= 3 b= 4, and θ = 450

Using the formula absin θ[B ( ) + I – 1]

√2 1
12 [6( ) – 1]
2 2

12√2
[2]
2

12√2 units

The computed area of the polygon is 12√2units. Using shoelace method, the

area generated through the derived formula is equal as shown in previous conjectures.

43
 Chapter VI

SUMMARY

This study is aimed at formulating, and testing conjectures with regards to the

application of Pick’s Theorem on 2D Bravais Lattice System, and at determining the

patterns existing between the Area of a polygon drawn with vertices at the lattice points,

and the Boundary Points and Interior Points of the polygon.

Specifically, it sought to:

 Determine if the Pick’s theorem is applicable on an entirely different lattice

system (other than the primitive square lattice system), specifically the 2D

Bravais Lattice Systems.

 Determine if there exists a relationship between the Area of a polygon and its

Boundary and Interior Points.

 Develop a general rule/formula relating the Area of a polygon and its Boundary

and Interior Points.

In summary, the researchers were able to seek answers to the problems stated and

conclude the following:

1. Pick’s Theorem of relating the area to the boundary and interior points of a

polygon is applicable on an entirely different lattice system other than the Primitive

Square Lattice System. Specifically, the theorem can be expounded on four other

lattice systems, namely: Primitive Rectangular, Centered Rectangular, Hexagonal,

and Oblique (Monoclinic).

44
2. By analyzing the number of boundary points and the number of interior points and

relating these to the area of the polygons (with vertices at the lattice points) drawn

in different lattice systems as stated in 1, the researchers were able to observe

patterns. So there exist a specific relationship between the Area of a polygon

drawn with vertices at the lattice points, and the Boundary and Interior Points of

the polygon. These relationship are generalized into rules/formulae stated in 3.

3. The researchers were able to derive formulae for all the other lattice systems.

a. For the Primitive Rectangular Lattice System:

𝑩
𝑨 = 𝒂𝒃 +𝑰−𝟏
𝟐

b. For the Centered Rectangular Lattice System

𝑩 𝑰 𝟏
𝑨 = 𝒂𝒃 + −
𝟒 𝟐 𝟐

c. For the Hexagonal Lattice System

𝑩 𝑰 𝟏
𝑨 = 𝒂𝟐 √𝟑 + −
𝟒 𝟐 𝟐

d. For the Monoclinic Lattice System

𝑩
𝐴 = 𝒂𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 +𝑰−𝟏
𝟐

where 𝐴 is the area of the polygon formed, 𝑎 and 𝑏 are the edges of a unit cell in a

lattice system, and 𝜃 is the angle formed by these edges.

45
 Chapter VII

POSSIBLE EXTENSIONS

Recommendations:

 Can Pick’s Theorem also be applied to the three-dimensional lattice system in

Bravais Lattice Systems?

 Will there be any pattern existing in terms of boundary points and interior points

with regards to area?

 What do you need to change if you applied it to the three-dimensional lattice

system in Bravais Lattice Systems?

Even though we discovered that the Pick’s Theorem is applicable to the two-

dimensional lattice system in Bravais Lattice Systems, there’s also a possibility to three-

dimensional lattice system if the relationship of the given number of boundary points

and interior points would show a recurring pattern that will lead to the construction of a

formula.

46
 Chapter VIII

REFERENCES

o Aroyo, Mois I.; Müller, Ulrich; Wondratschek, Hans (2006).

"Historical Introduction". International Tables for Crystallography.

o Bart Braden (1986). "The Surveyor's Area Formula" (PDF). The College

Mathematics Journal. 17 (4): 326–337.

o Boyer, C.B. (1991) [1989]. A History of Mathematics (Second edition,

revised by Uta C. Merzbach ed.). New York: Wiley.

o Cajori, Florian, A History of Mathematics, AMS,

o Cooke, Roger (2005), The History of Mathematics: New York: Wiley-

Interscience, 632 pages,

o Coxeter, H.S.M.; Regular Polytopes, Methuen and Co., 1948 (3rd Edition,

Dover, 1973).

o Cromwell, P.; Polyhedra, CUP hbk (1997), pbk. (1999).

o Dahlke, Karl. "Shoelace Formula". Retrieved 9 June 2008.

o Flack, Howard D. (2003). "Chiral and Achiral Crystal Structures". Helvetica

Chimica Acta. 86

o Franklin, J.; A. Daoud (2011). Proof in Mathematics: An Introduction.

Sydney: Kew Books. ISBN 978-0-646-54509-7. (Ch. 8.)

o Grünbaum, B.; Are your polyhedra the same as my polyhedra? Discrete

and comput. geom: the Goodman-Pollack festschrift, ed. Aronov et al.

Springer (2003)

o Hahn (2002), p. 804

47
o Hans Pretzsch, Forest Dynamics, Growth and Yield: From Measurement

to Model, Springer, 2009,

o Hayashi, Takao (2005), "Indian Mathematics", in Flood, Gavin, The

Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 616 pages,

pp. 360–375,

48
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