Second-order Systems

Definition -- the transfer function contains terms in s2 (and often, but not necessarily, s as
well!) but none in s3 or above.

What would it be in terms of the differential equation?

To see what the problems might be, let us determine how systems having the following
transfer functions will respond to a unit step input.

1. 10/(s2 + 5s + 4) 2. 10/(s2 + 2s + 4) 3. 10/(s2 + 4s + 4)

System 1

The transform of the unit step is 1/s, so the transform of the output will be:

10
----------------
s(s2 + 5s + 4)

We have, unfortunately, no direct conversion for this one in the tables. We will need to use
Partial Fractions. Fortunately, we note that (s2 + 5s + 4) will factorise as
(s + 1)(s + 4). So we have:

A B C
----- + ------ + --
s+1 s+4 s

We put it all over its common denominator as usual:

As(s + 4) + Bs(s + 1) + C(s2 + 5s + 4)

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
s(s + 1)(s + 4)

The numerator of the fraction turns out to be:

s2(A + B + C) + s(4A + B + 5C) + (4C)

and it all has to equal the 10 (+ 0s + 0s2) we started out with.

So 4C = 10, and C = 2.5.

The s2 terms then give us A + B + 2.5 = 0, whilst the s terms give us 4A + B + 12.5 = 0. If we
subtract the first equation from the second, we obtain:

3A + 10 = 0, so A = -10/3 = -3.333.

Putting this back into A + B + 2.5 = 0, we obtain:

-3.333 + B + 2.5 = 0, giving B = 0.833.

The Laplace Transform of the output is therefore:

2.5/s - 3.333/(s + 1) + 0.833/(s + 4)

and the time response becomes:

2.5 - 3.333e-t + 0.833e-4t.

We will sketch the graph in the lecture but it is particularly noteworthy that the response does
not overshoot the steady-state value.

System 2

On the face of it, this one looks like a repeat performance - but there are actually important
differences!

The output transform is 10/[s(s2 + 2s + 4)]. Unfortunately, s2 + 2s + 4 does not factorise ... we
will have to adopt another approach. The tables do give us the following guidance:

w/[(s + a)2 + w2] = e-at sin(wt)

(s + a)/[(s + a)2 + w2] = e-atcos(wt)

so we will have to resort to partial fractions again.

The form we will try for is:

A Bs + C A(s2 + 2s + 4) + s(Bs + C)
-- + ------------- = ---------------------------------------
s s2 + 2s + 4 s(s2 + 2s + 4)

We examine the numerator as usual.

10 = 4A + s(2A + C) +s2(A + B)

So ... 4A = 10, A = 2.5; 2A + C = 0, C = -5; A + B = 0, B = -2.5.

The transfer function is therefore:

2.5 2.5s + 5
---- -- ------------
s s2 + 2s + 4

We now need to sort out a and w in the expression s2 + 2s + 4.

We need to produce the 2s from the (s + a)2, so it must be (s + 1)2, and the expression is
now (s + 1)2 + 3, or (s + 1)2 + (3)2. We therefore have a = 1 and w = 3.

The transfer function now splits up as:

2.5 2.5(s + 1) 2.5

---- -- -------------- -- ---------------
s s2 + 2s + 4 s2 + 2s + 4

The first two invert straightforwardly (?) to 2.5 and -2.5 e -tcos[(3)t]; the final one is
complicated by the fact that w/[(s + a)2 + w2] inverts to e-at sin(wt). This means that the final
fraction inverts to -(2.5/3)e-t sin[(3)t].

The output is therefore 2.5 - 2.5 e-tcos[(3)t] - (2.5/3)e-t sin[(3)t].

System 3

Now the output will be

1 10 10 10
--  --------------- = ---------------- = -----------
s (s2 + 4s + 4) s(s2 + 4s + 4) s(s + 2)2

Again we need the deadly Partial Fractions.

A B C
-- + ------ + ---------
s s+2 (s + 2)2

A(s + 2)2 + Bs(s + 2) + Cs

= --------------------------------------------------------------------
s(s + 2)2

The only term without any s is 4A, which must therefore be 10 ...
so A = 2.5 (again!).

Terms in s: 4A + 2B + C = 0
Terms in s2: A + B = 0, so A = -B, giving B = -2.5.

Using the A and B values in the “s” equation, 10 - 5 + C = 0, so C = -5.

From the tables, 2.5/s gives 2.5 and -2.5/(s + 2) gives -2.5e -2t.
5/(s + 2)2 gives 5te-2t, so the output will be 2.5(1 - e-2t - 2te-2t).

So it is all looking very complicated ... but ...

The Standard Form

Kn2
-------------------------------------
s2 + 2ns + n2

In this transfer function K is the Static Gain, n is the Undamped Natural Frequency, and  is
the Damping Ratio.

n governs the speed of the response. The following step-responses illustrate this point.

Step Response Step Response

2 2

1.5 1.5
Amplitude
Amplitude

1 1

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (sec.) Time (sec.)

Both these graphs look the same except for the time scale -- the left-hand one has n = 10
rad/s, whilst the right-hand one has n = 3 rad/s.

 governs the amount of overshoot and the ‘sluggishness’ of the response. A "standard" step-
response graph for second-order systems is given at the end with the responses (from the
top downwards) show damping ratios  of 0.1 to 1 in steps of 0.1. K is 1 and n is 1 rad/s in
each case, though we can use this "generic" graph to deal with any second-order system.

The Standard Step-Response Graphs

These are plotted for a system having K = 1 and n =1 rad/s. In order to use them to find the
step-response of a second-order system having other values of K and n, it is easy (when we
know how) to extract the information.
 Adjusting for our actual K and step height .. just multiply the value of the response by K times
the step height.
Adjusting for our actual n... on the standard graph, the ‘time’ axis is actually nt, so if we
divide the nt by n, we will obtain the actual time values.
We will do an example .. K = 2, n = 3 rad/s,  = 0.75. (This should give the same answers as
the one above).
To obtain the time scale, we divide all the t values by 3.
To obtain the scale of voltage, we multiply all the output values by K ( = 2).

Examples
1. Sketch the step-responses of the following second-order systems:

288/(s2 + 12s + 144); 32/(s2 + 4.8s + 16);

8/(s2 + 4s + 4); 8/(s2 + s + 4)

2. If we apply Unity Negative Feedback around the following systems, what will their Static
Gain, Damping Ratio and Undamped Natural Frequency be ?

8/(s2 + 4s + 4); 8/(s2 + 8s).

3. If we applied Unity Negative Feedback round the system 5K/(s 2 + 10s), what value of K
would give a damping ratio of 1 ? What would the undamped natural frequency then be ?

4. If a meter movement is to settle in response to a unit step input (i.e. get within 2 % of its
steady value and stay within that band) as fast as possible and we are only allowed to alter
the damping (i.e. we can only change , not n), what value of  should we use ? In terms of
nt, how long will the movement take to settle ? What would the answers be if “settling”
involved getting and staying within (a) 1 %, (b) 3 % ?

1.8

Top graph has zeta 0.1, increasing in steps of 0.1

1.6

1.4

1.2
Unit Step Response

0.8

0.6

0.4
Bottom graph has zeta = 1

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Normalised time, wnt
 Solutions to the Problems

1. In each case, we need to work out K, n and  by comparison with the standard form of
the transfer function
Kn2
-------------------------------------
s2 + 2ns + n2
For the first one, n = 144, so n = 12 rad/s. Kn2 = 288, so K = 288/144 = 2.
2

2n = 12, so  = 0.5.

Using the standard graphs, the steady-state response is 2 units not 1 because K = 2, so we
must multiply all the 'y' values by 2.
As n = 12 rad/s, one unit of nt on the 'time' axis = 1/n = 1/12 second.

For 32/(s2 + 4.8s + 16), n = 4 rad/s,  = 0.6 and K = 2.

For 8/(s2 + 4s + 4), n = 2 rad/s,  = 1.0 and K = 2.
For 8/(s2 + s + 4),  = 2 rad/s,  = 0.25 and K = 2.

The graphs follow.

288/(s2 + 12s + 144) 32/(s2 + 4.8s + 16)

Step Response Step Response
From: U(1) From: U(1)
2.5 2.5

2
2

1.5
1.5
Amplitude

Amplitude
To: Y(1)

To: Y(1)

1
1

0.5

0.5

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
Time (sec.) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Time (sec.)

8/(s2 + 4s + 4) 8/(s2 + s + 4)
Step Response
From: U(1)
2

Step Response
From: U(1)
1.8
3

8/(s2 + 4s + 4)
1.6

2.5
1.4

1.2
2
Amplitude

To: Y(1)

1
Amplitude

To: Y(1)

1.5
0.8

0.6
1

0.4

0.2 0.5

0
0 1.4 2.8 4.2 5.6 7
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (sec.)
Time (sec.)
2. This is a case of "G/(1 + GH)" and the standard transfer function again.

For 8/(s2 + 4s + 4), the CLTF by G/(1 + GH) is

[8/(s2 + 4s + 4)]/[1 + 8/(s2 + 4s + 4)] = 8/(s2 + 4s + 12)
so Static Gain K = 8/12 = 0.667; n = 12 = 3.46 rad/s;  = 4/(2 x 3.46) = 0.577.

For 8/(s2 + 8s), the CLTF is [8/(s2 + 8s)]/[1 + 8/(s2 + 8s)] = 8/(s2 + 8s + 8)
so Static Gain K = 8/8 = 1, n = 8 = 2.83 rad/s,  = 8/(2 x 2.83) = 1.414.

3. The CLTF is [5K/(s2 + 10s)]/[1 + 5K/(s2 + 10s)] = 5K/ (s2 + 10s + 5K).
If  = 1, 2n = 10 and n2 = 5K, so n = 5 rad/s and 5K = 25, giving K = 5.

4. The "secret" here is that, if settling is regarded as getting within x% of the steady-state
value and staying within x% of it, it is possible to achieve that aim faster by allowing an
overshoot of x% rather than by eliminating overshoot.

Using the standard graphs, 1% means a damping ratio of about 0.85, 2% means about 0.79
and 3% means about 0.74. The settling times (values of nt) are respectively about 4.5, 3.9
and 3.6.