Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1. METROLOGICAL CONCEPTS
The results of Mr. A are 5good, 5 bad. Was this Accurate? Precise? Reliable?
Mr. B produces a tight group – but all bad. This man is more precise, but not as
accurate as Mr A.
Mr. C produces a group similar to Mr. A. But all are good. Even though he is not
as precise as B, he is as precise as A and he is not accurate than A or B
Mr. D produces his tight group, all good. He is more precise than Mr. C.
Mr. E places tight group in the centre. Mr. E more Precise, Accurate and
Reliable.
Precision : It is the degree which determines how well
identically performed measurements agree with each
other. It is the repeatability of the measuring process.
Precision is concerned with the process or a set of
measurements. It tells us that how well the various
measurements performed by same instrument on the same
component agree with each other.
Accuracy is frequently called “the quality of conformity”
Accuracy is the agreement of the result of a measurement
with the true value of the measured quantity. The
accuracy of an instrument is its ability to give correct
results.
Reliability is the probability that the results will be as
predicted.
2. ABBE’S PRINCIPLE
Errors due to misalignment:
Abbe’s principle of alignment should be followed in measurements to
avoid cosine errors, sine errors, etc. According to Abbe’s principle,
“the axis or line of measurement of the measured part should
coincide with the line of measuring scale or the axis of measurement
of the measuring instrument”.
The degree to which an instrument conforms to Abbe’s law is the
most important measure of its inherent accuracy
3. NEED for High Precision measurements
Engineering manufacturing would be impossible if component
parts could not be produced to close dimensional tolerances.
It is essential that accuracy required should be built into the
machine tools, jigs & fixtures, press tools which produce them.
Precision measurement is concerned with the precise
determination of linear, angular and non linear functions of the
machine surfaces of the tools and devices used to produce
engineering components.
Precise measurements are required for two reasons:
- To test fundamental physical theories of matter and the
universe
-To provide the basis for the application of these tested physical
theories to practical life, through advanced technology.
Improved measurement accuracy leads to improved efficiency
in manufacturing high technology products.
The two types of measurement methods
The Interchange method - With this method both ends of the measured
length are observed at the same time E.g. use of the caliper instruments.
The caliper observes both ends of the part (B in Fig.6-10) and then
compares the separation to both ends of the standard simultaneously. It
is the basis of all transverse-comparators, whether they are mechanical,
optical, pneumatic or electronic.
The Displacement method – The displacement method uses a
longitudinal movement which is common to both the part and the
standard as the means for relating one to the other. It differs from
interchange method in this only one end of the measured length is
observed at one time.
Both the part and the standard are lined upto and index mark. They are
then moved together to see if another set of their reference points line up
with the same index mark.
This method is used usually for positioning in machine tools and
measuring machines like tool maker’s microscope, Profile projector.
Vernier caliper is an Eg.. for both methods.
4. PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH PRECISION
MEASUREMENTS
Introduction
Screw threads are used to transmit power and motion and also used
to fasten two components with the help of nuts, bolts and studs, There
is a large variety of screw threads varying n their form, by included
angle, head angle, helix angle etc. The screw threads are mainly
classified into 1) External thread 2) Internal thread
MEASUREMENT OF VARIOUS ELEMENTS OF SCREW
THREADS
To find out the accuracy of a screw thread, it will be necessary to
measure the following:
1. Major diameter. 2. Minor diameter. 3. Effective or Pitch diameter.
4. Pitch 5. Thread angle and form
Measurement of Effective diameter (Bench Micrometer or Floating
Carriage micrometer)
Bench micrometer:
For getting the greater accuracy, the bench micrometer is used for measuring the
major diameter. In this process, the variation is measured.
From the above fig 3.7, the fiducial indicator is used to ensure all the measurements
are made at the same pressure.
The instrument has a micrometer head with a vernier scale to read the accuracy of
0.002mm. Calibrated setting cylinder having the same diameter as the major diameter
of the thread to be measured is used as a setting standard. After setting the standard,
the setting cylinder is held between the anvils and the reading is taken.
Then the cylinder is replaced by the threaded work piece and the new reading is taken.
The major diameter of screw thread = S± (R2-R1)
Where, S = Diameter of the setting cylinder
R2= Micrometer Reading on screw thread
R1 = Micrometer reading on setting cylinder
Selective assembly
Sometimes it is found that it is not economical to manufacture parts
to the required high degree of accuracy for their correct functioning.
Instead they are made in an economic manner, measured to required
accuracy and graded, or sorted into groups. This each group contains
parts of the same size to within close limits. They are then assembled
with mating parts which are similarly graded.
Ex: Ball-bearing manufacture.
Both types of ring and the balls are graded automatically and when
assembled following conditions allowed:
a) Large balls are assembled into small inner and larger outer rings,
b) Medium balls are assembled into medium inner and outer rings,
c) Small balls are assembled into large inner and small outer rings.
Usually a selective assembly system is used where the assembly is
replaced as a unit rather than replacing parts.
Ex: replacement of whole bearing if one ball cracks instead of one.
COMPARATORS
Comparators are one form of linear measurement device which is quick
and more convenient for checking large number of identical
dimensions. Comparators normally will not show the actual dimensions
of the work piece. They will be shown only the deviation in size, i.e.
during the measurement;
Advantages:
It is usually robust, compact and easy to handle.
There is no external supply such as electricity,
air required.
It has very simple mechanism and is cheaper when
compared to other types.
Disadvantages:
Any slackness will reduce accuracy.
It has more moving parts and hence friction is more
and accuracy is less.
The range of the instrument is limited since pointer
is moving over a fixed scale.
Electronic comparator
In electronic comparator, transducer induction or the principle of
application of frequency modulation is followed.
Construction details:
(i) Transducer: It converts the movement of the plunger into an
electrical signal and is connected with oscillator.
(ii) Oscillator: The oscillator which receives electrical signal from
the transducer and raises the amplitude of frequency wave by adding
carrier frequency called as modulation.
(iii) Amplifier: An amplifier is connected in between oscillator and
demodulator The signal coming out of the oscillator is amplified into
the required level
(iv)Demodulator: Demodulator is nothing but a device which cuts of
external carrier wave frequency. i.e. It converts the modulated wave
into original wave as electrical signal.
(v) Meter: This is nothing but a display device from which the output
can be obtained as a linear measurement.
Principle of operation:
The work to be measured is placed under the plunger of the electronic
comparator. Both work and Comparator are made to rest on the surface
plate. The linear movement of the plunger is converted into electrica1
signal by a suitable transducer. Then it is sent to an oscillator to
modulate the electrical signal by adding carrier frequency of wave.
After that the amplified signal is sent to demodulator in which the
carrier waves are cut off. Finally, the demodulated signal is passed to
the meter to convert the probe tip movement into linear measurement
as an output signal.
Advantages of Electrical and Electronic comparator:
(I) It has less number of moving parts.
(ii) Magnification obtained is very high.
(iii) Two or more magnifications are provided in
the same instrument to use various ranges.
(iv) The pointer is made very light so that it is
more sensitive to vibration.
(v) The instrument is very compact.
Disadvantages of Electrical and Electronic comparator:
(i) External agency is required to meter for actuation.
(ii) Variation of voltage or frequency may affect the accuracy of output.
Optical comparator
In this type of comparator, a small plunger displacement is amplified by both mechanical and optical
system. The amplification is first done by a pivoted lever and then by simple optical system.
Construction details:
The optical comparator consists of the following parts such as
(i) Pivoted lever
(ii) Objective lens
(iii) Scale
(iv) Plunger
(v) Table and Base, and
(vi) Mirror
Working principle:
During the measurement, the vertical displacement of the plunger is magnified by the ratio of
the lever arm. The lever tilts the mirror about its hinge to again magnify. The light rays from
the lamp are condensed by a condensing less. Then the condensed light falls on the objective
lens. Here, the light rays are converted into parallel beams. Again the parallel beams of light
ray fall on the mirror.
The mirror reflects the light rays on a screen. This type of comparator can also be used for
inspecting small parts like screw threads gear teeth, saw teeth, cutting tools, needles, cam
profiles etc.
For example, the difference ‘x’ between two dimensions may be used to actuate a lever to
displace by ‘y’. Same displacement causes a ray o light, which was initially at zero angle to
get displaced by 2θ because, the mirror is deflected by ‘θ’ (See Fig.2.75). This magnified
reading is a measure of the displacement x. Here also, the scale is calibrated by gauge blocks.