内容简介

我国各大院校一般都把国内外通用的权威教科书作为本科生和研究生学习专业课程的参考教材，这些教材甚
至被很多考试（特别是硕士和博士入学考试）和培训项目作为指定参考书。为了帮助读者更好地学习专业课，我
们有针对性地编著了一套与国内外教材配套的复习资料，并提供配套的名师讲堂、电子书和题库。
《欧洲文化入门》
（王佐良主编，外语教学与研究出版社）一直被用作高等院校英语专业英美概况教材，被
许多院校指定为英语专业考研必读书和学术研究参考书。为了帮助读者更好地学习这套教材，我们精心编著了它
的配套辅导用书（均可免费试读，手机端及电脑端均可同步使用）：
1．王佐良《欧洲文化入门》笔记和课后习题详解
2．王佐良《欧洲文化入门》配套题库【课后习题＋章节题库（含名校考研真题）＋模拟试题】
3．王佐良《欧洲文化入门》课后习题详解
作为该教材的学习辅导书，全书完全遵循该教材的章目编排，共分 10 章，每章由两部分组成：第一部分为
复习笔记（中英文对照），总结本章的重点难点；第二部分是课后习题详解，提供了教材中每章习题的详细答案。
本书具有以下几个方面的特点：
1．梳理章节脉络，浓缩内容精华。每章的复习笔记以该教材为主并结合其他教材对本章的重难点知识进行
了整理，并参考了国内名校名师讲授该教材的课堂笔记，因此，本书的内容几乎浓缩了经典教材的知识精华。
2．中英双语对照，凸显难点要点。本书章节笔记采用了中英文对照的形式，强化对重要难点知识的理解和
运用。
3．解析课后习题，提供详尽答案。本书对王佐良主编的《欧洲文化入门》每章的课后思考题均进行了详细
的分析和解答，并对相关重要知识点进行了延伸和归纳。
圣才学习网（www.100xuexi.com）为公司旗下的主营业务网站，主要销售公司的10万种电子书（视频、题库、
直播）；同时通过电子书平台，任何人都可以免费制作自有版权的富媒体电子书。
圣才电子书 APP 下载：www.100xuexi.com/app

联系电话：400-900-8858（8:30-00:30）

咨询 QQ：4009008858（8:30-00:30）

圣才电子书编辑部
 目 录

第1章 希腊罗马文化 .................................................................................................................................... 4

1.1 复习笔记 .......................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 课后习题详解 ................................................................................................................................... 7
第 2 章 圣经和基督教 .................................................................................................................................. 10
2.1 复习笔记 ........................................................................................................................................ 10
2.2 课后习题详解 ................................................................................................................................. 10
第 3 章 中世纪时代...................................................................................................................................... 13
3.1 复习笔记 ........................................................................................................................................ 13
3.2 课后习题详解 ................................................................................................................................. 16
第 4 章 文艺复兴和宗教改革........................................................................................................................ 18
4.1 复习笔记 ........................................................................................................................................ 18
4.2 课后习题详解 ................................................................................................................................. 24
第5章 第十七世纪...................................................................................................................................... 27
5.1 复习笔记 ........................................................................................................................................ 27
5.2 课后习题详解 ................................................................................................................................. 32
第 6 章 启蒙运动时期 .................................................................................................................................. 35
6.1 复习笔记 ........................................................................................................................................ 35
6.2 课后习题详解 ................................................................................................................................. 39
第 7 章 浪漫主义 ......................................................................................................................................... 42
7.1 复习笔记 ........................................................................................................................................ 42
第 8 章 马克思主义和达尔文主义................................................................................................................. 50
8.1 复习笔记 ........................................................................................................................................ 50
第 9 章 现实主义 ......................................................................................................................................... 52
9.1 复习笔记 ........................................................................................................................................ 52
9.2 课后习题详解 ................................................................................................................................. 58
第 10 章 现代主义和其他趋势 ...................................................................................................................... 61
10.1 复习笔记....................................................................................................................................... 61
10.2 课后习题详解................................................................................................................................ 69
 第1章 希腊罗马文化

1.1 复习笔记

I. The historical background

II. Political Structure and Social Life
III. Homer
IV. Lyric Poetry
V. Drama
VI. History
1. Herodotus
2. Thucydides
VII. Philosophy and Science
1. Pythagoras
2. Heracleitus
3. Democritus
4. Socrates
5. Plato
6. Aristotle
7. Contending Schools of Thought
8. Science
VIII. Art, Architecture, Sculpture and Pottery
1. Art
2. Architecture
3. Sculpture
4. Pottery
IX. The impact of Greek Literature

I. The historical background（历史背景）

(1) A war was fought between Greece and Troy, ending in the destruction of Troy
(2) Greek culture reached a high point of development in the 5th century B.C. They defeat the invasion of Persia and it
result in the establishment of democracy and the flourishing of science, philosophy, literature, art and historical
writing in Athens. The century closed with civil war between Athens and Sparta.
(3) In the second half of the 4th century B.C., all Greece was brought under the rule of Alexander, King of Macedon.
(4) In 146 B.C. the Romans conquered Greece.
（1）希腊和特洛伊之间爆发了战争，战争以特洛伊的失败而告终。
（2）希腊文化达到了历史发展的最高点。击退波斯的入侵后，雅典建立了民主政治。雅典和斯巴达之间的战争
结束了这一辉煌时期。
（3）公元前四世纪下半期，马其顿王国的亚历山大帝统治了希腊。
（4）公元前 146 年，罗马统治了希腊。

II. Political Structure and Social Life（政治结构和社会生活）

Athens was a democracy. While women, children, foreigners and slaves were excluded from it. They had no
rights. The Greeks loved sports. Once every four years, they had a big festival on Olympus Mount which included
contests of sports. Thus began the Olympic Games. Revived in 1896, the Games have become the world‟s foremost
amateur sports competition.
雅典是一个民主国家，然而只有国家的男性公民才享有民主，妇女、孩子、外国人以及奴隶是没有的。
雅典人热爱运动，每隔四年，他们都会在奥林匹斯山上举行运动活动。

III. Homer（诗人荷马）
★ancient Greeks considered Homer to be the author of their epics. His two epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, have
survived.
★the Iliad deals with the alliance of the states of the southern mainland of Greece, led by Agamemnon in their war
against the city of Troy. The heroes are Hector on the Trojan side and Achilles and Odysseus on the Greek. In the final
battle, Hector was killed by Achilles and Troy was sacked and burned by the Greeks.
★the Odyssey deals with the return of Odysseus after the Trojan war to his home island of Ithaca. It describes many
adventures he ran into on his long sea voyage and how finally he was reunited with his faithful wife Penelope.
★希腊人把荷马当作是他们的史诗诗人。他的两部史诗作品，“伊利亚特”和“奥德赛”留存了下来。
★“伊利亚特”讲述的是由阿伽门农领导的希腊南部城邦联盟对抗特洛伊的事。故事中的英雄分别是特洛伊的黑
客多和希腊的阿喀琉斯和奥德修斯。在最后的战斗中，赫克多被阿喀琉斯和特洛伊杀死了，特洛伊被洗劫一空
并被烧掉。
★“奥德赛”讲述了特洛伊战争后奥德赛回家乡伊萨卡岛的事。它描述了在漫长的海上航行中奥德赛所遇到的一
些冒险，以及他最后是如何与他那忠贞的妻子佩内洛普团聚的事情。

IV. Lyric Poetry（抒情诗）

Homer‟s epics were not the only form of poetry the Greeks had written. There were other forms, such as lyrics.
Of the many lyric poets of the time, two are still admired by readers today: Sappho and Pindar.
古希腊人除了写史诗，还写抒情诗。这个时期的重要抒情诗人包括 Sappho and Pindar.

V. Drama（戏剧）
Early in their remote past, the Greeks started to perform plays including comedy at religious festivals. Out of
these origins a powerful drama developed in the 5th century B.C.
Three important drama writers:
a. Aeschylus (525—456 B.C.)
b. Sophocles (496—406 B.C.)
c. Euripides (484—406 B.C.)
早在遥远的过去，希腊人就开始在宗教节日时演戏，包括喜剧。以此为由，公元前五世纪出现了一种重
要的戏剧。

VI. History（历史作品）
1. Herodotus (484—430 B.C.) （赫罗多斯）
He is often called “Father of History”, wrote about the wars between Greeks and Persians.
他被称为“历史之父”，写的主要是希腊和波斯之间的战争。

2. Thucydides (about 460—404 B.C.) （修斯底德）

Younger than Herodotus, he is more accurate as an historian. He told about the war between Athens and Sparta
and between Athens and Syracuse, a Greek state on the island of Sicily. Macaulay, himself an eminent historian, called
Thucydides “the greatest historian that ever lived.”
他被著名的历史学家 Macaulay 称为最伟大的历史学家。

VII. Philosophy and Science（哲学和科学）

1. Pythagoras (about 580—500 B.C.) （毕达哥拉斯）
Founder of scientific mathematics. To him and his school we owe the abstract conceptions underlying
mathematics— point, line, magnitude, surface, body—and the first theory of proportion.
数学学科的奠基人。他和他的学派创立了基础数学的抽象概念——点，线，面，体积，和比例的第一原理。

2. Heracleitus (about 540—480 B.C.) （赫拉克利特）

To him, “all is flux, nothing is stationary.”
把物质的一切起源归于火
3. Democritus (about 460—370 B.C.) （德谟克利特）
Speculated about the atomic structure of matter. Indeed, he was one of the earliest exponents of the atomic theory
推测事物的原子结构，他是原子理论的最早倡导者。

4. Socrates（苏格拉底）
Dialectical method 辩证法

5. Plato（柏拉图）
His Dialogues are important not only as philosophical writing but also as imaginative literature. Of the Dialogues
he wrote, 27 have survived, including: The Apology (Socrates‟ defence of himself at the trial), Symposium (dealing
with beauty and love), and the Republic (about the ideal state ruled by a philosopher but barring poets).
Plato‟s philosophy is called Idealism.
柏拉图的对话最为出名。有名的对话包括:《道歉》 、《研讨会》和《共和国》。
柏拉图的哲学被称为理想主义。

6. Aristotle（亚里士多德）
He wrote epoch-malting works, which dominated European thought for more than a thousand years

7. Contending Schools of Thought（百家争鸣）

Later on, in the 4th century B.C., four schools of philosophers often argued with each other. They were the
Cynics, the Sceptics, the Epicureans and the Stoics.
后来，在公元前四世纪，西方哲学四派经常互相争论。这四派分别是犬儒主义学派、疑论学派、伊壁鸠鲁
学派、斯多亚学派。

8. Science（科学）
★Eclid is even now well-known for his Elements, a textbook of geometry, perhaps the most successful textbook ever
written, because it was in use in English schools until the early years of the20th century.
★Archimedes (287—212 B.C.) did important work not only in geometry, but also in arithmetic, mechanics, and
hydrostatics.
★He discovered that when a body is immersed in water its loss of weight is equal to the weight of the water displaced.
★欧几里得因为他的几何教科书《元素》而出名。
★阿基米德（公元前 287-212）的贡献不仅在几何方面，而且在数学，力学，和流体静力学方面都有成就。

VIII. Art, Architecture, Sculpture and Pottery（艺术，建筑，雕塑和陶器）

1. Art（艺术）
Greek art is a visual proof of Greek civilization.希腊艺术是其文明的见证。

2. Architecture（建筑）
Greek architecture can be grouped into three styles: the Doric style which is also called the masculine style; the
Ionic style which is also called the feminine style; and a later style that is called the Corinthian style.
古希腊建筑可以划分为三种风格：多里克风格，也被称为男性风格；二为爱奥尼亚风格，也被称为女性风
格；科林斯式风格。

3. Sculpture（雕塑）
i. Discus Thrower 铁饼
ii. Venus de Milo 米洛的维纳斯
iii. Laocoon group about 125 B.C.公元前 125 年的群像

4. Pottery（陶器）
There were Black-figure paintings (700—600 B.C.) and Redfigure paintings (—50 B.C.).
 The Black-figure paintings are paintings on pottery that have red background and black figure. The Red-figure
paintings are paintings on pottery that have black background and pink figure.
黑色的人物画（700-600B.C.）和红色的人物画（公元前 50 年）。
黑人物画是指画在陶瓷上的有红色的背景和黑色的人的画。红色的人物画是指有黑色的背景和粉红色的人
物的图画。

IX. The impact of Greek Literature（希腊文化的影响）

The rediscovery of Greek culture played a vital part in the Renaissance in Italy and other European countries.
1. spirit of innovation 创新精神
2. supreme achievement in nearly all fields of human endeavor 各个方面的成就
3. lasting effect of its philosophical ideas and literary images 哲学思想和文学形象的持久影响

1.2 课后习题详解

Greek Culture
Questions for Revision:
1. What are the major elements in European culture?
Key: There are two main elements—the Greco-Roman element and the Judeo-Christian element.

2. What were the main features of ancient Greek society?

Key: In Greek society, only adult male citizen had real power and the citizenship was a set of rights which a man
inherited from his father. The economy of Athens rested on an immense amount of slave labor. Slaves worked for their
masters. The exploitation was a serious social problem. The Greeks loved sports. They often took part in the contests
of sports in Olympus Mount, thus Olympic Games came into being.

3. What did Homer do? Why is he important in the history of European literature?
Key: He depicted the great Greek men who lived in the period 1200-1100B.C. and wars happening at that time. As an
author of epics, he employed fine literary language to describe wars and men, even though they were dull. He stood in
the peak of Greek literature and exerted a great influence on his followers.

4. Who were the outstanding dramatists of ancient Greece? What important plays did each of them write?
Key: Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides were three outstanding dramatists of ancient Greece.
Aeschylus: Prometheus Bound, Persians, Agamemnon.
Sophocles: Oedipus the King, Electra, Antigone.
Euripides: Andromache, Medea, Trojan Women.

5. Were there historians then? Who were they? What did each of them write about?
Key: Yes, there are. They were Herodotus and Thucydides. Herodotus wrote about the wars between Greeks and
Persians. Thucydides wrote about the war between Athens and Sparta and between Athens and Syracuse.

6. Would you say that philosophy was highly developed then? Who were the major philosophers?
Key: No, I wouldn‟t. Because those philosophical ideas were only idealism or simple materialism or metaphysics.
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle were the major philosophers at that time.

7. Did Socrates write any book? How then do we know about him? What distinguished his philosophy?
Key: No, he didn‟t. We know Socrates chiefly through what Plato recorded of him in the famous Dialogues written by
Plato. He considered that philosophy rested with the dissect of oneself and virtue was high worth of life. His method
of argument, by questions and answers, was known as the dialectical method.

8. Tell some of Plato‟s ideas. Why do people call him an idealist?

 Key: (1) Men have knowledge because of the existence of certain general “ideas”, like beauty, truth, and goodness.
(2) We should not look at the things which are not seen: for the things which are not seen eternal. Because he
emphasized the importance of “ideas” and believed that “thought” had created the world, people call him an idealist.

9. In what important ways was Aristotle different from Plato? What are some of Aristotle‟s works that are still influential
today?
Key: (1) Aristotle emphasized direct observation of nature and insisted that theory should follow fact. This is different
from Plato‟s reliance on subjective thinking.
(2) He thought that “idea” and matter together made concrete individual realities in which he diff ered from Plato
who held that ideas had higher reality than the political world. His significant works includes: Ethics, Politics and
Rhetoric.

10. Who were some of the other philosophers active in that period? Does the word “Epicurean” in its modern sens e
convey the true meaning of the philosophy of the ancient Epicureans? What were their views on pleasure?
Key: (1) They were Heracleitue, Democritus, Diogenes, Pyrrhon, Epicurus and Zeno.
(2) No, it doesn‟t. The ancient Epicureans believed pleasure to be the highest worth of life, but by pleasure they
meant, not sensual enjoyment but that attained by the practice of virtue. But this idea was misled by modern people,
in their sense, the word “Epicurean” has come to mean indulgence in luxurious living.

11. Say something about Greek sculpture, pottery and architecture. What was the most famous Greek temple? Is it still
there?
Key: (1) Along with the formation of Greek civilization, Greek sculpture, pottery and architecture got many great
achievements. Greeks put into works of art the things they admired and worshiped, the scientific rules they
discovered. Greek art evolved from the archaic period to the classical period which marked its maturity.
(2) The most famous temple was the Acropolis at Athens.
(3) Yes, it is still there.

12. Give some examples to show the enormous influence of Greek culture on English literature.
Key: (1) A Freudian term “Oedipus Complex” of 19th century originating from a Greek tragedy in which king
Oedipus unknowingly killed his father and married his mother.
(2) In the early part of the 19th century, in England alone, three young Romantic poets expressed their
admiration of Greek culture in works which have themselves become classics: Byron‟s Isle of Greece, Shelley‟s
Hellas and Prometheus Unbound and Keats‟s Ode on a Grecian Urn.
(3) In the 20th century, there are Homeric parallels in the Irishman James Joyce‟s modernist masterpiece
Ulysses.

Roman Culture
1. What did the Romans have in common with the Greeks? And what was the chief difference between them?
Key: (1) The Romans had a lot in common with the Greeks. Both peoples had traditions rooted in the idea of the
citizen-assembly, hostile to monarchy and to servility. Their religions were alike enough for most of their deities to be
readily identified—Greek Zeus with Roman Jupiter, Greek Aphrodite with Roman Venus, and so on—and their myths
to be fused. Their languages worked in similar ways and were ultimately related, both being members of the
Indo-European language family which stretches from Bangladesh to Iceland.
(2) There was one big difference. The Romans built up a vast empire. The Greeks didn‟t, excepted for the brief
moment of Alexander‟s conquests, which soon disintegrated.

2. Explain Pax Romana.

Key: In the year 27 B.C., Octavius took supreme power as emperor with the title of Augustus. Two centuries later, the
Roman Empire reached its greatest extent in the North and East. The emperors mainly relied on a strong army—the
famous Roman Legions and an influential bureaucracy to exert their rules. Thus the Romans enjoyed a long period of
 peace lasting 200 years. This remarkable phenomenon in the history is known as Pax Romana.

3. What contribution did the Romans make to the rule of law?

Key: In Roman‟s earliest stage, only a number of patricians knew the customary legal procedure when the rules were
put into writing in the middle of the third century B.C. It marked a victory for the plebeians. There was further
development of law under the emperors until it was codified, eventually to become the core of modern civil and
commercial law in many Western countries.

4. Who were the important prose writers in ancient Rome? What does “Ciceronian” mean? Did Cicero write that kind of
rhetorical prose all the time?
Key: (1) Marcus Tullius Cicero and Julius Caesar were two important prose writers.
(2) Ciceronian means Cicero‟s eloquent oratorical manner of writing, which has had an enormous influence on
the development of European prose.
(3) No, he didn‟t. Because Cicero appears as a different man with a different style, far less rhetorical, but
colloquial and intimate.

5. Give an example of the terse style of Julius Caesar‟s prose.

Key: An example: I came, I saw, I conquered (models of succinct Latin).

6. Who was Lucretius? What did he do?

Key: (1) Lucretius was a poet of ancient Rome.
(2) He wrote the philosophical poem On the Nature of Thing to expound the ideas of Epicurus the Greek atomist.

7. What is the book for which Virgil has been famous throughout the centuries? In what w ays in the book linked with the
Greek past?
Key: (1) The book was Aeneid.
(2) The story was about Aeneas, one of the princes of Troy, who escaped from that burning city when it fell to
the Greeks, to carry on the Trojan cause in a new place, Rome. He didn‟t go alone, but carrying his father on his
shoulders and leading his little son by the hand, a family group of three generations moved together. Thus in this way
the book is linked with the Greek past.

8. Why do we say Aeneas is a truly tragic hero?

Key: Because Aeneas had to betray the great passion of his life, his love for Dido, queen of Carthage, so that he could
fulfill his historic mission.

9. What is the chief Roman achievement in architecture? Give some examples.

Key: (1) The Romans were great engineers. They covered their world from one end to the other with roads, bridges,
aqueducts, theatres and arenas.
(2) Some examples:
A. The Pantheon: the greatest the best preserved Roman temple built in 27B.C.
B. Pont du Gard: it is an exceptionally well-preserved aqueduct that spans a wide valley in southern France.

10. Why are the wall-paintings of the ancient Romans still significant to us today?
Key: Roman painting was strongly influenced by the art of Greece. And it also had peculiarities of its own.
Unfortunately much of the painting no longer exists. There are, however, some wall-paintings from Pompeii and
other towns near Naples. These wall-paintings include still lives, landscape paintings and figure paintings. Among
them were Lady Musician and Young Girl, the Maiden Gathering Flowers and the Landscape.
 第2章 圣经和基督教

2.1 复习笔记

I. The Bible
II. Christianity
III. The Spread of Christianity
IV. The New Testament

I. The Bible（圣经）
The Bible is a collection of religious writing s comprising two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament.
The former is about God and the Laws of God; the latter, the doctrine of Jesus Christ.
圣经包括两部分：旧约和新约。前者是关于上帝和上帝的法律；后者是关于耶稣的教义的。

II. Christianity（基督教）
Christianity based itself on two forceful beliefs which separate it from all other religions. One is that Jesus Christ
is the Son of God, and that God sent him to earth to live as humans live, suffer as humans suffer, and die to redeem
mankind. The other is that God gave his only begotten son, so that whosoever believes in him should not perish, but
have everlasting life. This Redeemer, Jesus, was at once divine and truly human. Thus, at the heart of Christianity is
the life of Jesus: How he lived and died to redeem the whole human race.
基督教的信仰有两个方面，这也是它与其他宗教的不同点。一个是：耶稣基督是神的儿子，上帝派他到
地球作为人类生活，遭受人类的痛苦，最终拯救人类。二是上帝将他的独生子赐给人们，叫一切信他的不至
灭亡，反得永生。救世主耶稣既是人又是神。因此，基督教的核心就是耶稣的生活：他如何生活和死亡以拯
救全人类。

III. The Spread of Christianity（基督教的传播）

In 392 A.D., Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of the empire and outlawed all other
religions.
公元 392 年，皇帝狄奥多西将基督教定为国教，并宣布其他的宗教为不合法的。

IV. The New Testament（新约）

With the establishment of the church organization, the Christians began to consider what writings to include in
the Christian scriptures, or the New Testament. As Jesus had left no written records, his disciples in the first century
wrote down in Greek about his life and teaching. Towards the end of the fourth century four accounts were accepted
as part of the New Testament, which tells the beginning of Christianity. Then come: the Acts of the Apostles, a
history of the early Christian movement; the Epistles, or letters to the church groups around the Mediterranean; and
lastly the book of Revelation a visionary account of the final triumph of God‟s purpose.
随着教堂组织的建立，基督徒开始策划圣经的内容。由于耶稣没有留下任何的书面记录，他的学生就用
希腊语记录下了他的生活及教学。他们讲述了他的出生，死亡以及复活。4 世纪末，4 个版本被收录进了新约，
讲述的是基督教的开始。后来又陆续加进了：使徒行传，讲述早期基督运动的历史；书信，给地中海一带的
教会的信；最后的启示录，讲述上帝目的的最终实现。

2.2 课后习题详解

Questions for Revision:

1. What was the Hebrew‟s major contribution to world civilization?
Key: The history of the Hebrews was handed down orally from one generation to another in the form of folktales and
stories, which were recorded later in the Old Testament, which still later became the first part of the Christian Bible.
Thus the Hebrews made one of the greatest contributions to the world civilization.
2. Why do we say Judaism and Christianity are closely related?
Key: Judaism and Christianity are closely related:
(1) It was the Jewish tradition which gave birth to Christianity;
(2) Both originated in Palestine—the hub of migration and trade route, which led to exchange ideas over wide.

3. When did the great exodus take place?

Key: Around 1300 B.C., Moses, the famous Hebrew leader, went to see the pharaoh of Egypt, telling him that Yahweh
wanted the pharaoh to end Hebrew slavery and let the Hebrew leave Egypt. With this began the Exodus, which lasted
forty years.

4. Who was Moses? What did he do for the Hebrews?

Key: Moses was a famous Hebrew leader. Around 1300 B.C., Moses led the Hebrews to leave Egypt for the Promised
Land. This was called the Exodus which lasted forty years. When the wandering Hebrews left the desert and entered
the mountainous Sinai, Moses climbed to the top of the mountain to receive form god message, which came to be
known as the Ten Commandments. He died shortly before the Hebrews arrived at their homeland.

5. What are the Ten Commandments about?

Key: The Ten Commandment are a set of rules Moses commands all Israel to obey in the name of God:
(1) Yahweh is the only God all Israel should worship;
(2) Do not carve and serve any idol to worship;
(3) Do not take the name of God in vain;
(4) Keep the Sabbath day and labor in the other six days;
(5) Honor and respect one‟s parents;
(6) Do not kill;
(7) Do not commit adultery;
(8) Do not steal;
(9) Do not bear false witness against people;
(10) Do not desire one‟s neighbor‟s wife, nor his house, nor his field, nor his servants, nor his livestock, nor
anything else.

6. What writings make up the New Testament?

Key: The New Testament consists of 14 books. The four accounts which were believed to have been written by
Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, four of Jesus‟ early followers, are the first part of the New Testament and tell of the
birth, teaching, death and Resurrection of Jesus. Then come: the Ac ts of the Apostles, a history of the early Christian
movement: the Epistles, or letters to the church groups around the Mediterranean; and lastly the book of Revelation, a
visionary account of the final triumph of God‟s purpose.

7. How did the relations between Christians and the Roman government change?
Key: The early Christian was subject to persecutions by the Roman government. Jesus Christ was crucified by the
Roman government. After Jesus died, his disciplines St. Peter and St. Paul suffered martyrdom under the Roman
Emperor Nero about 65 A.D. Nero even burned Christians in his garden in 64 A.D. For 240 years after the martyrdoms
of Peter and Paul, persecutions of Christians continued. The chief persecutions were under Nero, Domitian, Trajan,
Valerian and Diocletian. Despite these persecutions, Christians continued to spread steadily over the Mediterranean
region. It began to draw men and women from all classes and the attitude of the Roman government toward
Christianity began to change. By 305 Diocletian gave up his effort to destroy the young religion. When Constantine I
won the throne from his rivals, he believed that God had helped him, and in 313 he issued the Edict of Milan which
granted religious freedom to all and made Christianity legal. Under Constantine Christianity made great contribution
of the empire. The emperors who followed Constantine I continued pro-Christian policies. In 392 A.D., Emperor
Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of the empire and outlawed all other religions. Now Christianity had
changed from an object of oppression to a weapon in the hands of the ruling class to crush their opponents.
8. How did Christian monks help Western civilization survive?
Key: The Christian monks helped western civilization survive in many ways:
(1) The Christian monks spread Christianity to the Mediterranean region and some of them even suffered
martyrdom;
(2) Some monks translated the Old Testament into Greek and St. Jerome translated the whole Bible into Latin.
Later some such as John Wycliffe and William Tyndale translated the Bible into the vernacular;
(3) In the Middle Ages, people in Western Europe were mainly divided into three classes: clergy, lords and
peasants. Of these three classes, the only literate section was the clergy. The Christian monks did a lot to help preserve
and transmit a large part of the traditional heritage of the western culture. They not only translated the Bible into Latin
or the Vernacular but also copied or translated the ancient works into the vernacular, such as the monks in these
monasteries set up by Charlemagne and Alfred the Great.

9. Why do we say the Bible has shaped Western culture more decisively than anything else ever written?
Key: Judeo-Christian tradition constitutes one of the two major components of European culture. The Bible which is
virtually related to every phase of human life greatly influences people‟s daily life, especially in the Middle Ages
when almost everyone was a Christian; The Bible has great impact upon western literature. For a long period of time,
the Latin Bible was accepted as the authority and Latin was official language of the Roman Catholic Church, so most
Europe literature at that time was in Latin. Bes ides it is generally accepted that the English Bible and Shakespeare are
two great reservoirs of Modern English. Furthermore, the use of Biblical themes has been a literary tradition. In fact
few great English and American writers of the 17th, 18th, 19th and 20th century can be read and appreciated with
satisfaction without a sufficient knowledge of the Bible; The study of the Christian teaching especially the Bible has
become an important branch of knowledge—scholasticism which has been prevalent for centuries; The Bible has also
influenced western philosophies and science. Thus the Bible has shaped western culture more decisively than anything
else ever written.
 第3章 中世纪时代

3.1 复习笔记

I. General Introduction
II. Manor and Church
1. Feudalism
2. The Church
3. The Crusades
III. Learning and Science
1. Charlemagne and Carolingian Renaissance
2. Alfred the Great and Wessex Centre of Learning
3. St. Thomas Aquinas and Scholasticism
4. Roger Bacon and Experimental Science
IV. Literature
1. National Epics
2. Dante Alighieri and The Divine Comedy
3. Geoffrey Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales
V. Art and Architecture
1. Romanesque
2. Gothic

I. General Introduction（总的介绍）
★In European history, the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is
called the Middle Ages.
★Between the fifth and eleventh centuries, western Europe was the scene of frequent wars and invasions. The political
unity had given way to widespread destruction and confusion. Hunger and disease killed many lives; towns and
villages fell into ruin and great areas of land lay waste.
★欧洲历史上，西罗马帝国垮台后的千年被称为中世纪时期。
★公园 5 世纪至公元 11 世纪，西欧充斥着战争和侵略。没有了政治上的统一，许多人因为饥饿和疾病而死亡。

II. Manor and Church（庄园和教堂）

1. Feudalism（封建主义）
Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding — a system of holding land in exchange for military
service.
欧洲的封建制度主要是土地持有制。

1.Growth of Feudalism（封建制度的兴起）
★Owners of small farms sought protection from large land-owners, by giving them land and services. In return the large
landowners promised to protect the landless peasants and their families.
★feudalism was a system of government—a form of local and decentralized government.
a. The manor
The centre of medieval life under feudalism was the manor. Manors were founded on the fiefs of the lords.
b. knighthood and Code of Chivalry
★Almost all nobles were knights in the Medieval days. But no one was born a knight—knighthood had to be earned.
★As a knight, he was pledged to protect the weak, to fight for the church, to be loyal to his lord and to respect women of
noble birth. These rules were known as code of chivalry, from which the western idea of good manners developed.
★农场主通过向大型的土地持有者给予土地和服务而寻求保护。作为回报，大型的土地持有者允诺保护无地的农
民和他们的家庭。
★封建制度是一种局部的和分散的政府制度。
 a．庄园
封建主义下中世纪生活的中心是庄园。庄园建立在领主的封底上。
b．骑士身份和骑士精神
★中世纪时代几乎所有的贵族都是骑士。但骑士不是天生的，骑士的头衔需要自己去争取。
★作为一个骑士，他要发誓去保护弱者，为教堂而战，忠诚于领主，尊重出身高贵的妇女。这些规定被称为骑士
精神。

2.The Church（教会）
After 1054, the Church was divided into the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.
1054 年后，教会分为了两派: 罗马天主教会和东正教。

3.The Crusades（十字军东征）
In 1071 Palestine fell to the armies of the Turkish Moslems who unlike the Arabs attacked the Christain pilgrims,
killing many of them and sold many others as slaves. News of this kind roused great indignation among Christians in
western Europe. The result was a series of holy wars called crusades which went on about 200 years. All the soldiers
going to Palestine wore a red cross on the tunics as a symbol of obedience to God.
1071 年，巴勒斯坦被土耳其穆斯林的军队占领了，跟阿拉伯人不一样，他们袭击克里斯坦朝圣者。这些
消息传到了西欧的教徒那，引起了很大的愤怒。其结果是持续了大约 200 年的十字军东征。去往巴勒斯坦的战
士都会在穿的长袍挂个红色的十字架。

III. Learning and Science（学习和科学）

1.Charlemagne and Carolingian Renaissance（查理曼大帝和加洛林文艺复兴）
★Charlemagne (742—814), who temporarily restored order in western and central Europe, was perhaps the most
important figure of the early medieval period. He kept order throughout his realm, and he encouraged interest in the
Christian religion and ancient learning. He wanted to rule as the emperors of Rome had done in ancient times and
eventually was crowned “Emperor of the Romans” by the Pope in 800.
★The result of Charlemagne‟s efforts is usually called the “Carolingian Renaissance”.
★查理曼大帝（742——814），他暂时恢复了欧洲西部和中部的顺序，可能是中世纪早期最重要的人物。他鼓励
人们信奉基督教和学习古代知识。在公元 800 年，他最终被教皇加冕为“罗马人的皇帝”。
★查理曼大帝努力的成果通常被称为加洛林文艺复兴。

2. Alfred the Great and Wessex Centre of Learning（艾尔弗雷德大帝和威塞克斯的学习中心）

Alfred the Great (849—899), ruler of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex, contributed greatly to the medieval
European culture. He worried about the disappearance of learning and made Wessex the Anglo-Saxon cultural centre
by introducing teachers and scholars, founding new monasteries, and promoting translations into the vernacular from
Latin works. He also inspired the compilation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles.
伟大的艾尔弗雷德（849—899），威塞克斯的盎格鲁-撒克逊王国的统治者，对欧洲中世纪文化贡献很大。
他担心知识的消失，通过引入教师和学者，成立新的寺院，促进拉丁作品的翻译，他将威塞克斯变成了的盎格
鲁-撒克逊文化中心。

3. St. Thomas Aquinas and Scholasticism（圣汤姆斯阿奎那和经院哲学）

His Summa Theologiae forms an enormous system and sums up all the knowledge of medieval theology. It
defends feudal theocracy by arguing that the feudal hierarchy of society is “God‟s rule”, the power of feudal rulers
originates from “God‟s will”, and the Pope is “Christ‟s Plenipotentiary” above the secular rulers.
他的神学大全形成了一个庞大的系统，并总结了中世纪神学的所有知识。它维护封建神权政治，主张社会
的封建等级制度是“上帝的法则”，封建统治者的权力来源于“上帝的旨意”，和教皇是“基督的全权代表”。

4. Roger Bacon and Experimental Science（罗杰培恩和实验科学）

Roger Bacon (about 1220—1292), a monk, was one of the earliest advocates of scientific research. He called for
careful observation and experimentation. His main work was the Opus Majus, and encyclopedia of the sciences of his
 time.
罗杰培根（1220—1292），一个和尚，是科学研究的最早倡导者之一。他呼吁仔细的观察和实验。他的主
要作品有《大著作》与当时的《科学百科全书》。

IV. Literature（文学）
1. National Epics（民族史诗）
“National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages — that is, the languages of various national
states that came into being in the Middle Ages.
(1) Beowulf (700—750 A.D.)
Beowulf is an Anglo-Saxon epic, in alliterative verse, originating from the collective efforts of oral literature. The
story is set in Denmark or Sweden and tells how the hero, Beowulf, defeats the monster Grendel and Grendel‟s mother,
a sea monster, but eventually receives his own death in fighting with a fire dragon.
(2) Song of Roland (about the 12th century A.D.)
Song of Roland (La Chanson de Roland) is the most well- known of a group of French epics known as La
Chanson de Gestes. Song of Roland tells how Roland, one of Charlemagne‟s warriors, fights in Spain and dies
defending a pass in the Pyrenees.
“民族史诗”指的是用白话语言写成的史诗——形成于中世纪的各民族国家的语言。
（1）贝奥武甫
“贝奥武夫”是盎格鲁-撒克逊史诗，头韵诗，来源于口头文学。故事发生在丹麦和瑞典，讲述英雄贝奥
武夫，打败海妖格伦德尔及其母亲，最终与火龙战斗而亡。
（2）罗兰之歌
“罗兰之歌”（罗兰之歌）是法国的史诗 La chanson de Gestes 里最著名的一首。罗兰之歌讲述了罗兰，查
理曼的一位勇士，在西班牙战斗，为了防御一过道而战死在比利牛斯山脉。

2. Dante Alighieri and The Divine Comedy（但丁和神曲）

Dante Alighieri (1265—1321)，His masterpiece, The Divine Comedy, is one of the landmarks of world literature，
expresses humanistic ideas which foreshadowed the spirit of Renaissance. Dante wrote his masterpiece in Italian
rather than in Latin
但丁（1265—1321），他的杰作， 《神曲》 ，是世界文学的一个里程碑，表达了人文主义的思想。但丁用的
是意大利语而不是拉丁语。

3. Geoffrey Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales（乔叟和坎特伯雷故事集）

The Canterbury Tales contains twenty-four tales told by a group of pilgrims on their journey to Canterbury.
Chaucer is to be regarded as the first short story teller and the first modern poet in English literature. Chaucer writes in
dialect used by Londoners.
坎特伯雷故事集包含二十四个故事，这些故事是由一群去往坎特伯雷的朝圣者在行程中所讲。乔叟被认为
是英国文学史上的第一个短故事讲述者和第一个现代诗人。乔叟用的是伦敦人的方言写的这个故事集。

V. Art and Architecture（艺术和建筑）

1. Romanesque（罗马式）
“Romanesque”, which means “in the Roman manner”. Romanesque art is predominantly religious.
“罗马式的”意为“用罗马的方式”。罗马式艺术普遍都是宗教式的。

2. Gothic（哥特式）
The Gothic style started in France and quickly spread through all parts of western Europe. It flourished and lasted
from the mid-12th to the end of 15th century and, in some areas, into the 16th. More churches were built in this
manner than in any other style in history.
哥特风格起源于法国，很快传遍整个西欧。开始于 12 世纪中期，结束与 15 世纪末期，在一些地区甚至到
了十六世纪。历史上很多的教堂都是以这种方式建造的。
 3.2 课后习题详解

Questions for revision:

1. What happened in Western Europe after the decline of the Roman Empire?
Key: After the Roman Empire lost its predominance, a great many Germanic Kingdoms began to grow into the nations
know as England, France, Italy, and Germany in its place. These nations of Western Europe were in the scene of
frequent wars and invasions. The political unity had given way to widespread destruction and confusion. Hunger and
disease killed many lives and village fell into ruin and great areas of land lay waste. There was no central government
to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was the Christian church. Christianity was almost
the all and the one of Medieval lives in western Europe and took lead in politics, law, art, and learning for hundreds
years.

2. What were the cultural characteristics of the period from 500 to 1007?
Key: Above all, the cultural characters of this period were the heritage and achievement of Roman culture and the
emergence of Hebrew and Gothic culture.

3. Who was Charles Martel?

Key: Charles Martel was a Frankish ruler who gave his soldiers estates known as fiefs as a reward for their services in
732.

4. What was the relationship between lord and vassal?

Key: Lords granted parts of their lands known as fiefs to vassals. In return, the vassals promised to fight for the lords.

5. Into what three groups were people divided under feudalism?

Key: Under feudalism, people of their Western Europe were mainly divided into three classes: clergy, lords, and
peasants.

6. What was the difference between a serf and a free man?

Key: A serf had no land and no freedom. He was bond to the land where he had been born. A free man was a peasant
who usually was a worker who made the ploughs, shod the horses, and made harnesses for oxen and horses.

7. What is the importance of the using of vernacular languages in Medieval literature?

Key: In the Middle Ages, some “national epics” were written in vernacular language—the language of various
national states that came into being at that period, and some monks advocated translating the Bible in vernacular.
Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European
literature from Latin culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics.

8. In what ways did Gothic art differ from Romanesque art?

Key: (1) Although Gothic was an outgrowth of the Romanesque, it was given directions by a different aesthetic and
philosophical spirit and reflected a much more ordered feudal society with full confidence.
(2) Romanesque architecture is characterized by massiveness, solidity, and monumentality with an overall
blocky appearance. Sculpture and painting, primary in churches, developed a wonderful unity with architecture. Bot h
arts often are imbued with symbolism and allegory. They are not based on natural forms but use deliberate distortions
for expressive impact.
(3) Gothic cathedrals soared high, their windows, arched and towers reaching heavenward, flinging their passion
against the sky. They were decorated with beautiful stained glass windows and sculptures more lifelike than any since
ancient Rome.

9. What was the merit which Charlemagne and Alfred the Great share?
Key: Both Charlemagne and Alfred the Great contributed greatly to the European culture. Both of them encouraged
learning by setting up monastery schools. The scholars in Alfred the Great‟s monasteries translated the Latin works
into the vernacular. Thus both helped preserve the ancient classics and culture.
 第4章 文艺复兴和宗教改革

4.1 复习笔记

I. General Introduction
II. Renaissance in Italy
1. Historical Background
2. The Rise of Humanism
3. New literature
4. Renaissance Art
5. Decline of the Italian Renaissance
III. Reformation and Counter-Reformation
1. Pre-Luther Religious Reformers
2. Martin Luther (1483—1546) and His Doctrines
3. John Calvin (1509—1564) and Calvinism
4. Reformation in England
5. Counter-Reformation
6. Protestantism and the Rise of Capitalism
IV. Renaissance in Other Countries
1. Renaissance in France
2. Renaissance in Spain
3. Renaissance in the North
4. Renaissance in England
V. Science and Technology during the Renaissance
1. Geographical Discoveries
2. Astronomy
3. Political Science and Historiography

I. General Introduction（总的介绍）
Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century.
The word “Renaissance” means revival, specifically in this period of history, revival of interest in ancient Greek
and Roman culture. Renaissance, therefore, in essence, was a historic al period in which the European humanist
thinkers and scholars made attempts to get rid of conservatism in feudalist Europe and introduce new ideas that
expressed the interests of the rising bourgeoisie, to lift the restrictions in all areas placed by the Roman church
authorities. Renaissance started in Florence and Venice with the flowering of paintings, sculpture and architecture.
From Italy the movement went to embrace the rest of Europe.
文艺复兴是指从第十四世纪至第十七世纪中间这一段时间。
单词“文艺复兴”意味着复苏，指对古希腊和罗马文化兴趣的恢复。文艺复兴本质上是指，在某个历史时
期，欧洲人文主义思想家和学者试图摆脱封建保守主义，引进表达新兴资产阶级的利益的思想，解除限制罗马
教会当局的限制。文艺复兴始于佛罗伦萨和威尼斯绘画，雕塑和建筑，从意大利蔓延到整个欧洲。

II. Renaissance in Italy（意大利的文艺复兴）

1. Historical Background（历史背景）
Because of its geographical position, foreign trade developed early in Italy. This brought Italy into contact with
other cultures and gave rise to urban economy and helped Italy to accumulate wealth which was an essential factor for
the flowering of art and literature.
由于其优越的地理位置，意大利的对外贸易发展较早。这使得意大利与其他文化相，提升了城市经济，帮
助意大利积累了财富，这是文学艺术繁荣的重要因素。

2. The Rise of Humanism（人文主义的兴起）

 As wealth grew in Italy, there grew an increasing interest in other pursuits. Intellectuals who used to help training
priests and spreading doctrines of Christian faith became closely tied up with the rising bourgeoisie. They provided the
new moneyed class with a new philosophy and culture in harmony with their needs and aspiration.At the heart of the
Renaissance philosophy was the assertion of the greatness of man.
随着财富的增长，人们开始追求其他的东西。从前培养牧师和传播基督教教义的知识分子与新兴的资产阶
级产生了紧密的联系。他们给新富阶层提供了一个与他们的需求和愿望相和谐的哲学和文化。文艺复兴时期，
哲学的中心是对人的伟大性的肯定。

3. New literature（新文学）
(1) Boccaccio was an Italian author and poet, a friend and correspondent of Petrarch, an important Renaissance
humanist.
“Decameron” collection of prose tales in Italian. It is the greatest achievement of prose fiction in the Middle Ages.
(2) Petrarch was the representative poet, father of modern poetry.
“Canzoniers” Sonnet
（1）薄伽丘，意大利作家和诗人，作品《十日谈》。用意大利语写的散文故事集。这是散文小说在中世纪最大
的成就。
（2）彼得拉克是一位代表性的诗人，现代诗歌之父。代表作品十四行诗“Canzoniers”。

4. Renaissance Art（文艺复兴时期的艺术）
(1) Renaissance Art（文艺复兴时期的艺术）
A radical break with medieval methods of representing the visible world occurred in Italy during the second half
of the 13th century. It was not until the second decade of the 15th century that there was a decided break with the
medieval pictorial tradition.
13 世纪下半期，表现可视物体的方法发生了根本性的变化。到 15 世纪下半期，中世纪的田园风格不再
被采用了。

(2) The Characteristics of Renaissance Art（文艺复兴时期艺术的特点）

①Art broke away from the domination of the church.
②Themes of paintings changed to an appreciation of all aspects of nature and man.
③The artists studied the ruins of Roman and Greek temples and put many of the principles of ancient civilization
into their works. They began to be supported by individual collectors.
④Artists introduced in their works scientific theories of anatomy and perspective.
①艺术远离了教会的统治。
②绘画主题转变为对人与自然的各个方面的鉴赏。
③艺术家对罗马和希腊寺庙的遗址进行研究，把许多古文明的原则加进他们的作品。他们开始受到私人收藏
家的支持。
④艺术家们在他们的作品中科学的介绍了解剖和视角。

(3) Early Renaissance Artists（早期文艺复兴时期的艺术）

①Giotto
The forerunner of the Renaissance. He was a close friend of Dante and was said to have determined the course
of painting in Europe. He led the way of restoring dignity to human figures. Major works
a. Flight into Egypt: a painting based on the story in the Bible with Maria riding on a donkey ready to face the
hardship ahead. She looked firm and resolute while her husband Joseph looked hesitant and sorrowful.
b. Betrayal of Judas: a conventional painting treated in the typical Renaissance way with the hero Jesus looking
dignified and Juda the traitor looking vicious.
②Giorgione (Giorgio de Castelfranco, about 1477—1510)
If the classical painters of central Italy had achieved the new complete harmony within their pictures by means
of perfect design and balanced arrangement, the Venetian painters made happy use of colour schemes to unify his
pictures. And it was in this sphere that Giorgione achieved the most revolutionary results and influenced his
 contemporaries, notably Titian. His paintings are few, but his influence was great. Major Works:
a. Tempesta, it may be a scene from some classical writer or an imitator of the classics. The landscape is beautiful and
the atmosphere is calm and pastoral.
b. Sleeping Venus, a picture of ideal female beauty.
①乔托
文艺复兴的先驱,但丁好朋友，据说他决定了欧洲绘画的方向。主要作品
《飞行到埃及》：这幅画源于圣经里面的一个故事─玛丽骑在一头驴上准备面对即将到来的困难。她看起来
a．
坚定而坚决，而她的丈夫却犹豫不决，表情痛苦。
b．《犹大的背叛》：一幅传统的文艺复兴风格的绘画。耶稣看起来庄严神圣，叛徒犹大则很邪恶。
②乔尔乔涅
如果说文艺复兴中期的意大利画家通过完美的设计，协调的安排，与他们的绘画达成了新的协调一致。
正是在这一领域内，乔涅取得了最革命性的成果，影响了他同时代的人。他的画很少，但他的影响是巨大的。
a．《迅雷》
，它的场景可能来源于一些经典作家的作品或对经典作品的模仿。风景是美丽的，气氛是平静的，
田园的。
b．《沉睡的维纳斯》，展示理想的女性美的绘画。

(4) High Renaissance Artists（高潮时期的文艺复兴）

①Leonardo da Vinci (1452—1519)，a painter, a sculptor, an architect, a musician, an engineer, and a scientist. Last
Supper; Mona Lisa.
②Michelangelo Buonarroti, Italian sculptor, painter, architect and poet. David; Dying Slave.
③Raphael (Raffaello Sancio, 1483—1520), Madonna (Virgin Mary).
④Titian (about 1488—1576), The Venus of Urbino; Sacred and Profane Love; Madonna of the Pesaro Family; Man
with the Glove.
①列奥纳多·达芬奇（1452-1519），画家，雕刻家，建筑师，音乐家，工程师，和科学家。 《最后的晚餐》， 《蒙
娜丽莎》。
②开朗基罗，意大利雕塑家，画家，建筑师和诗人。
《戴维》，
《垂死的奴隶》。
③拉斐尔三世（1483-1520），圣母玛丽。
④提香（约 1488-1576），《乌尔比诺的金星》
、《亵渎神圣的爱》、《比萨罗家族的圣母》
、《戴手套的人》
。

5. Decline of the Italian Renaissance（意大利文艺复兴的衰落）

★The feuds (不合) of families，the conflicts of classes and the rivalry (竞争)
★City-states kept the economic structure of Italy in the traditional local order.
★In world trade Italy had lost its supremacy because of the discovery of America in 1492 and the rounding of the Cape
of Good Hope in 1488, the opening of an all-water route to India which provided a cheaper means of transport.
★家庭的不合，阶级冲突和对抗（竞争）。
★经济停滞不前。
★1492 年，美洲大陆被发现了，1488 年，绕过好望角的路线被找到了，通往印度的水上路线开通了，这为殖民
者们提供了更为便宜的运输方式意大利在世界贸易中失去霸权（优势） ，所有这些原因造成了意大利在世界贸
易中失去了他的优势地位。

Ⅲ. Reformation and Counter-Reformation（宗教改革和反宗教改革）

The Reformation was a 16th century religious movement as well as a socio-political movement. It began as
Martin Luther posted on the door of the castle church at the University of Wittenberg his 95 thesis. This movement
which swept over the whole of Europe was aimed at opposing the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church
and replacing it with the absolute authority of the Bible. The reformists engaged themselves in translating the Bible
into their mother tongues.
宗教改革是十六世纪的宗教运动以及社会政治运动。开始于马丁路德贴在维滕贝格大学城堡的教堂的门
上的 95 篇论文。这场运动席卷了整个欧洲，目的是反对罗马天主教的绝对权力，取而代之的是圣经的绝对权
威。改革派（改革者）自己把圣经翻译成自己的母语。
1. Pre-Luther Religious Reformers（支持路德的宗教改革者）
(1) John Wycliffe, chief forerunner of the reformat ion, took up the translation of the Bible into English for the first
time in 1382.
(2) Jan Hus Czech—Religious leader
（1）约翰威克里夫，改革的先行者，1382 年第一次将圣经翻译成英语。
（2）捷克胡斯——宗教领袖

2. Martin Luther (1483—1546) and His Doctrines（马丁路德（1483-1546）和他的学说）

Martin Luther was the German leader of the protestant Reformation. His doctrine marked the first break in the
unity of the Catholic Church.
Martin Luther, with his translation of the New Testament and later, the whole Bile into the vernacular made the
Bible accessible to every man, to the average church goer.
马丁·路德是德国新教改革的领导者。他的学说标志着天主教的统一第一次被打破。
马丁·路德将新约圣经以及后来将全部的圣经翻译成白话文，使得每个人都能读懂圣经。

3. John Calvin (1509—1564) and Calvinism（约翰加尔文（1509—1564）和加尔文主义）

John Calvin Institutes of the Christian Religion one of the most influential theological works.
Calvinism was established by Calvin in the period of Renaissance. Presbyterian government. Only those specially
elected by God can be saved. This belief serves so well to help the rising bourgeoisie on its path。
约翰加尔文的《基督教教义》是最有影响力的神学著作。
加尔文主义是文艺复兴时期由加尔文建立的。

4. Reformation in England（英格兰的宗教改革）
★The national religion established after reformation in England was called The Church of England or The Anglican
Church.
★It was under the reign (统治) of Henry VIII that reformation was successful in England.
★The English Bible was adopted (采纳) in England after Reformation.
★改革后，英国建立了国教。
★在亨利 VIII 统治下，英格兰宗教改革取得了成功。
★改革成功后，英格兰采用了英文圣经。

5. Counter-Reformation（反宗教改革）
Counter-Reformation: By late 1520 the Roman Catholic Church had lost its control over the church in Germany. The
Roman Catholic Church did not stay idle (坐以待毙). They mustered (召集) their forces, the dedicated (专用的)
Catholic groups, to examine the Church institutions and introduce reforms and improvements (改良), to bring back its
vitality (活力). This recovery of power is often called by historians the Counter-Reformation.
★Council of Trent
The sessions of the Council reaffirmed that the Church had the sole right to interpret the Bile.
★Ignatius and the Jesuits
Ignatius and his followers called themselves the Jesuits members of the Society of Jesus. The Jesuits went
through strict (严格的) spiritual training (精神训练) and organized (有组织的) their own colleges to train selected
youth who would be centre of their influence in the next generation.
1520 年末，罗马天主教教会已经失去了对于德国教会的控制。罗马天主教教会没有坐以待毙，他们召集
力量，检查教会机构，引进教会改革和改良，以恢复其活力。这种力量的恢复被历史学家称为反改革。
★特伦托会议
会议认定教会对圣经有唯一的解释权
★伊格内修斯和耶稣会
伊格内修斯和他的追随者称自己为耶稣会会士，即耶稣会的成员。耶稣会士要经历严格精神训练，组织自
己的院校培养下一代有影响历青年人。
6. Protestantism and the Rise of Capitalism（新教和资本主义的兴起）
★Reformation movement broke the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church. Protestantism which began as a
religious movement against the orthodox church of Rome had profound impact on religious life in Europe.
★Europe was to take a new course of development, a scientific revolution was to be under way and, capitalism was to
set in with its dynamic economic principles.
★改革运动打破了罗马天主教会的绝对权威。反对罗马的东正教的新教宗教运动对欧洲的宗教生活产生了深刻的
影响。
★欧洲即将采取新的发展道路，科学革命将要发生，资本主义将要兴起。

IV. Renaissance in Other Countries（其他国家的文艺复兴）

1. Renaissance in France（法国的文艺复兴）
(1) Renaissance Writers in France 法国的文艺复兴作家
Rabelais: Cargantua and Pantagruel 拉伯雷：巨人传
Ronsard Pleiade: Sonnets Pour Helene
七星诗社代表人 Ronsard Pleiade，他的 Sonnets Pour Helene 是法国第一个近代抒情诗人。
Montaigne: Essays 蒙田：散文集

2. Renaissance in Spain（西班牙的文艺复兴）
(1) Literature
Miguel de Cervantes: Don Quixote, who is recognized as the father of the modern European novel and has had great
impact on world literature.
(2) Art
El Greco: one of the outstanding artists of the counter-reformation, was a Spanish painter.
The Burial of Count Orgaz
（1）文学
米格尔·塞万提斯，公认的现代欧洲小说之父，对世界文学产生了很大的影响。代表作《堂吉诃德》。
（2）艺术
格列柯：反宗教改革运动的杰出的艺术家，西班牙画家。
《伯爵的葬礼》

3. Renaissance in the North（欧洲北部文艺复兴）

(1) Renaissance in the Netherlands
Erasmus was a great Dutch scholar and humanist.
(2) Renaissance in Flanders
Pieter Bruegel was a Flemish painter of landscape and scenes of rural life.
(3) Renaissance in Germany
Albrecht Durer, the leader of the Renaissance in Germany.
The Four Horsemen of Apocalpse; Knight, Death and the Devil
Hans Holbein, the last great German master of the 16th century.
（1）荷兰文艺复兴
Erasmus 是一个伟大的荷兰学者，荷兰人文主义者。
（2）佛兰德斯的文艺复兴
勃鲁盖尔，弗兰德斯地貌和乡村生活场景的画家。
（3）德国的文艺复兴
阿尔布雷特·丢勒，德国文艺复兴的领袖。
汉斯荷尔拜因，十六世纪最后一个伟大的德国大师。

4. Renaissance in England（英国的文艺复兴）
(1) Historical Background
★The war of Roses and Its weak and unimportant position in world trade.
★It was to produce some towering figures (顶级人物) in the English. William Shakespeare， Edmund Spenser， Sir
Thomas More.
★The Reign of Elizabeth I was a period of political and religious stability (稳定) on the one hand and economic
prosperity (繁荣) on the other.
★England began to embark (从事) on the road to colonization and foreign control that was to take it onto its heyday of
capitalist development.

(2) Thomas More , a great humanist “Utopia”

(3) William Shakespeare
tragedy→ Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth
comedy→ As You Like It, Twelfth Night, A midsummer Night‟s Dream, The Merchant of Venice
the characters of tragedies:
① astonishing variety in presentment
② dramatic movement
③ in characterization
（1）历史背景
★玫瑰战争及英国在世界贸易中劣势的地理位置
★英国产生了一些顶级人物。威廉·莎士比亚，埃德蒙·斯宾塞，托马斯·莫尔爵士。
★伊丽莎白一世的统治是一个经济繁荣政治和宗教稳定的时期。
★英格兰开始踏上殖民扩张的道路，把英格兰推到了到资本主义发展的鼎盛时期。
（2）托马斯·莫尔，一个伟大的人道主义者，代表作，《乌托邦》。
（3）威廉·莎士比亚
悲剧→《哈姆雷特》
、《奥赛罗》
、《李尔王》
、《麦克白》。
喜剧→《皆大欢喜》
、《第十二夜》
、《仲夏夜之梦》
、《威尼斯商人》
悲剧上的特点：
①表现上的多样性
②戏剧性的动作
③人物的个性化

V. Science and Technology during the Renaissance（文艺复兴时期的科技）

1.Geographical Discoveries（地理发现）
(1) Christopher Columbus, a Genoese-born navigator and discoverer of the New World.
(2) Bartholomeu Dias, a Portuguese navigator, the Cape of Good Hope.
(3) Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese navigator, the route to India round the Cape of Good Hope.
(4) Amerigo Vespucci, Italian navigator in whose honor America was named.
（1）克里斯托弗哥伦布，热那亚航海家和新世界的发现者。
（2）巴托罗缪迪亚斯，葡萄牙航海家，发现了好望角。
（3）达伽马，葡萄牙航海家，通往印度的路线。
（4）韦斯普奇，意大利航海家。

2. Astronomy（天文学）
Nicolaus Copernicus was a Polish astronomer who put forward revolutionary ideas in astronomy at that time. He
believed that the earth and other planets orbit about the sun and that earth is not at the centre of the universe, father of
modern astronomy.
哥白尼是一个波兰天文学家，他提出了天文学中的革命思想。他认为，地球和其他行星绕着太阳转，地球
不是宇宙的中心。现代天文学的之父。
Centric 日心说
De Revolutionibus Orbium 天体运行论

3. Political Science and Historiography（政治学和历史学）

 Dante 但丁
The equality of the divine (神) power and the secular power. (Satan) 神权与世俗权力的平等（撒旦）
Niccolo Machiavelli 马基雅维利
Father of political science 政治学之父
Prince《诸侯论》
Discourses《演讲篇》

4.2 课后习题详解

Questions for Revision:

1. What made Italy the birthplace of the Renaissance?
Key: Because of its geographical position, foreign trade developed early in Italy. This brought Italy into contact with
other cultures and gave rise to urban economy and helped Italy accumulate wealth which was an essential factor for
the flowering of art and literature.
For two centuries beginning from the late 15th century, Florence was the golden city which gave birth to a whole
generation of poets, scholars, artists and sculptors. There was in Florence a revival of interest in classical learning and
rising of humanist ideas. And to spread the new ideas, libraries and academies were founded. In the 15th century
printing was invented and helped to spread humanist ideas.

2. What are the main elements of humanism? How are these elements reflected in art and literature during the Italian
Renaissance?
Key: Humanist is the essence of Renaissance. Humanists in renaissance believed that human beings had rights to
pursue wealth and pleasure and they admires the beauty of human body. This belief ran counter to the medieval
ascetical idea of poverty and stoicism, and shifted man‟s interest from Christianity to humanity, from religion to
philosophy, from heaven to earth, from the beauty of God to the beauty of human in all its joy, senses and feeling.
The philosophy of humanism is reflected in the art and literature during the Italian Renaissance in the literature
works of Boccaccio and Petrarch and in the art of Giotto, Brunelleschi, Donatello, Giorgione, da Vinci, Michelangelo,
Raphael, and Titian, etc. In their works they did not stress death and other world but call on man to live and work for
the present.

3. Why do we look upon Petrarch as the father of modern poetry?

Key: Petrarch was a prominent figure of his time, a great figure in Italian literature and one of the great humanists
during the Renaissance. He has written numerous lyrics, sonnets and canzonets. Petrarch rejected medieval country
conventions and sang for true love and earthly happiness in his sonnets. Later sonnets became a very important literary
form of poetry in Europe and a lot of poets, such as Shakespeare, Spencer, and Mrs. Browning, were indebted to him.
Thus we look upon him as the father of modern poetry.

4. How did Italian Renaissance .art and architecture break away from medieval tradition?
Key: The Italian Renaissance art and architecture radically broke away from the medieval methods of representing the
visible world. Compared with the latter, the former has the following distinct features:
(1) Art broke away from the domination of church and artist who used to be craftsmen commissioned by the
church became a separate strata doing noble and creative works;
(2) Themes of painting and architecture changed from purely celestial realm focusing on the stories of the Bible,
of God and Mary to an appreciation of all aspects of nature and man;
(3) The artists studied the ruins of Roman and Greek temples and put many of the principles of ancient
civilization into their works;
(4) Artists introduced in their works scientific theories of anatomy and perspective.

5. In what way was Da Vinci important during the Renaissance?

Key: Leonardo da Vinci was a man of many talents, a Renaissance man in the true sense of the word. He was a painter,
 a sculptor, an architect, a musician, an engineer, and a scientist all in one. As an artist, he was very important. He has
left to the world famous works such as Last Supper and Mona Lisa. Then his excellent use of contrast between light
and darkness showed him as an excellent painter. Most important of all, da Vinci had profound understanding of art. In
his 5000 notebooks, he put down his observations of life and his sketch drawing. In his painting he stressed the
expression of emotional states. His understandings of art exerted great influence upon painters of his own generation
and generations to follow. He was also very important in the science of medicine. During his life he dissected more
than thirty corpses and was a great anatomist in Italy. He placed art in the service of anatomy as a science based on
extensive research.

6. What are the doctrines of Martin Luther? What was the significance of the Reformation in European civilization?
Key: In Reformation began in 1517, Martin Luther put forth the following doctrines:
(1) He rejected the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church and replaced it with absolute of the Bible.
People can communicate with God directly instead of through the church;
(2) He opposed the purchase of indulgences and called for institutional reform of the church;
(3) advocated translating the whole Bible into vernaculars and made the Bible accessible to every man;
(4) He preached love and ideals of equality, and he was a fighter for democracy and nationalism, a humanist who
helped to build a competent educational system in Germany. The Reformation was significant in the European
civilization. Before Reformation, Europe was essentially feudal and medieval. In all aspects of politics, economy and
spirit, it was under the absolute rule of the Roman Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire. But after the
Reformation things were different. In educational and cultural matters, the monopoly of the church was broken. In
religion, Protestantism brought different forms of Christianity to challenge the absolute rule of the Roman Catholic
Church. In language, the dominant position of Latin had to give way to the national languages as a result of various
translations of Bible into vernacular. In spirit, absolute obedience became out-mode and the spirit of quest, debate, was
ushered in by the reformists. In word, after the reformation Europe was to take a new c ourse of development, a
scientific revolution was to be under way and capitalism was to set in with its dynamic economic principles.

7. What was Counter-Reformation? Who were the Jesuits? Are they still active now?
Key: The counter the Reformation and to bring back its vitality, the Roman Catholic Church mustered their forces to
examine the Church institutions and introduce reforms and improvements. In time, the Roman Catholic Church did
re-establish itself as a dynamic force in European affairs. This recovery of power is often called by historians the
Counter-Reformation. The seed-bed for this Catholic reformation was Spain with the Spanish monarchy establishing
the inquisition to carry out cruel suppression of heresy and unorthodoxy. Ignatius, a Spaniard who devoted his life to
defending the Roman Catholic Church, and his followers called them the Jesuits members of the Society of Jesus.
Today the Society of Jesus is still active with a membership of 31,000, having institutions in various parts of the
world.

8. What did French Renaissance writers propose in their writings?

Key: (1) The French Renaissance writer Rabelais expressed his ideas in Gargantua and Pantagruel that the only rule of
the house was “Do As Thou Wilt”—to follow our natural instinct;
(2) Ronsard held that man of letters should write in a style that was clear and free from useless rhetoric;
(3) The Essais of Montaigne records his views on life, death and his skepticism towards knowledge, in simple,
straightforward style, his famous motto is “What do I know?”

9. Why did England come later than other countries during the Renaissance? In what way was English Renaissance
different from that of other countries? Who were the major figures and what were their contributions?
Key: Because of the War of Roses within the country and its weak and unimportant position in world trade,
Renaissance came later in England than other European countries. Compared with the Renaissance in other countries,
the Renaissance in England has the following features:
(1) It came later; but when it did come, it was to produce some towering figures in English literature and the
world literature;
 (2) The Renaissance in England found its finest expression in drama, crowned by Shakespeare;
(3) The Renaissance in England enjoyed a period of political and religious stability under the reign of Elizabeth
I.
The major figures of this period were William Shakespeare, Edmund Spencer, Sir Thomas more, Francis Bacon,
and etc. Shakespeare has contributed to the world a legacy of literature heritage by turning out so many outstanding
plays and poems. He was one of the two reservoirs of modern English language. Thomas More has written Utopia and
depicted in this work an ideal non-Christian state where everybody lives a simple life and shares the goods in common.
He contributed to the western tradition of envisioning an ideal state. Spencer has influenced many English poets.

10. What were some of the scientific advances during the Renaissance?
Key: During the Renaissance, many sciences have made great progress.
Firstly, it was an age of geographical discoveries: Columbus has discovered the New World in 1492; Dias
discovered the Cape of Good Hope in 1487; da Gama discovered the route to India round the Cape of Good Hope in
1497; Amerigo discovered and explored the mouth of the Amazon and accepted South America as a new continent.
Secondly, Copernicus believed that the earth and other planets orbit about the sun and that earth is not at the
center of the universe. Here began the modern astronomy.
Thirdly, both da Vinci and Vesalius were good at anatomy. Vesalius wrote Fabrica and was regarded as the
founder of modern medicine.
Fourthly, printing was invented in Italy.
Finally, Dante, Machiavelli, and Vosari have contributed a great deal to political science and historiography.
 第5章 第十七世纪

5.1 复习笔记

I. General Introduction
II. Science
1. From Copernicus to Kepler
2. Galileo Galilei
3. Sir Isaac Newton
4. Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz
5. Invention of New Instruments
III. Philosophy, Politics and Literature in England
1. Francis Bacon (1561—1626)
2. Thomas Hobbes (1588—1679)
3. John Locke (1632—1704)
4. John Milton and the English Revolution
IV. Descartes: French Classicism
1. RenéDescartes (1596—1650)
2. French Classicism
V. Art
1. Baroque Art
2. Dutch Protestant Art
3. Art and Architecture in France

I. General Introduction（总的介绍）
★In the 17th century Europe advanced from the Middle Ages to the modern times.
★This advance began in science, in astronomy, physics, and pure mathematics, owing to the work of Galileo, Kepler,
Newton and Descartes.
★The outlook of educated men was transformed.
★the new science and philosophy gave a great push to the political struggle wages by the newly emerged class, the
bourgeoisie, and other classes.
★十七世纪时期，欧洲从中世纪过度到了现代。
★由于伽利略，开普勒，牛顿和笛卡尔的成就，这一进展开始于科学，天文学，物理，和纯数学
★受过教育的人的世界观发生了变化。
★新科学和哲学进一步推动了新兴阶级，资产阶级，和其他阶级的政治斗争。

II. Science（科学）
1. From Copernicus to Kepler（从哥白尼到开普勒）
★Nicolaus Copernicus was the immediate forerunner of modern science.
★Work: The Revolution of the Heavenly Orbs He put forward the theory that the sun, not the earth, is the centre of the
universe. However his heliocentric theory was put forward only as a hypothesis.
★哥白尼尼古拉是现代科学的直接先驱。
★表作：天体运行论革命。他提出太阳，而不是地球，是宇宙的中心。但是他的日心理论只是一个假设。

2. Galileo Galilei (1564—1642) （伽利略）

★Galileo was the first to apply the telescope to the study of the skies.
★He published his discoveries in the book Sidereus Nuncius (the Starry Messenger)
★What he saw in the sky with the help of the telescope proved that Ptolemy‟s geocentric system simply would not work
and that Copernicus‟s powerful hypothesis had been right. Galileo was the first to establish the law of the falling
bodies.
★伽利略是第一个用望远镜研究天空的人。
★他在他的《天体信息》一书中说明了自己的发现．
★他用望远镜看到的证明了托勒密的地心系统是错误的，哥白尼的强大的假设是正确的。伽利略是第一个建立陨
落物体定律的人

3. Sir Isaac Newton (1642—1727) （艾萨克牛顿爵士）

①In mathematics, Newton invented calculus.
②In optics, he discovered that white light is composed of all the colors of the spectrum.
③In Physics, he discovered the law of the universal gravitation.
④Newton‟s discoveries were summarized in his great book Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica
(Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.
①在数学领域，牛顿发明了微积分
②在光学领域，他发现白光是由光谱中所有颜色组合而成的。
③在物理学上，他发现了万有引力定律。

4. Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646—1716) （莱布尼茨）

(1) Leibniz was a German philosopher, scientist, mathematician, historian and diplomat. He opposed the Cartesian
account of matter. He believed that the world was made of simple, active, unconcerned and unextended substances,
each from its point of view reflecting the whole universe, and all coordinated in pre-established harmony.
(2) He and Newton invented independently the Differential and integral calculus.
(3) His major works:
Hypothesis Physical Nova (New Physical Hypothesis) (1671)
Discourse on Metaphysics (1686)
New System of Nature (1695)
New Essays Concerning Human Understanding (1704)
（1）莱布尼茨是德国哲学家，数学家，科学家，历史学家和外交家。他反对笛卡尔关于物质的描述。他认为世
界是由简单的，运动的物体组成的。
（2）他和牛顿发明了微分和积分。
（3）他的主要作品：
《新的物理假设》
《论形而上学》
《论大自然体系》
《论人类的理解力》

5. Invention of New Instruments（新仪器的发明）

The microscope was invented in 1590. The telescope was invented in 1608 by a Dutchman. Galileo invented the
thermometer (温度计) and one of his pupils made the barometer (气压计). The pendulum clock (摆钟) appeared in
1656.
显微镜的发明是在 1590。望远镜是在 1608 被一个荷兰人发明的。伽利略发明了温度计，他的一个学生发
明了气压计。摆钟出现在 1656。

III. Philosophy, Politics and Literature in England（英国的哲学，文学和政治）

1. Francis Bacon (1561--1626) （弗兰西斯培根）
①Fancies Bacon was an English philosopher, essayist and statesman.
②Major works: The Advancement of Learning, The New Atlantis. The Novum Organism (New Method) and Essays 18.
③The whole basis of his philosophy was practical: to give mankind mastery over the forces of nature by means of
scientific discoveries and scientific inventions.
He held that philosophy should be kept separate from theology, not intimately be blended with it as in Scholasticism.
①培根是英国哲学家，作家和政治家。
②主要作品：《论学习的循序渐进》，《新亚特兰蒂斯》，《新方法》和 18 篇散文集
③他的哲学基础是实用性：通过科学发现和科学发明给人类征服自然的力量。
他认为哲学应独立于神学。

2. Thomas Hobbes (1588--1679) （托马斯霍布斯）

Author of Leviathan, one of the most celebrated political treatises in European literature.
①Hobbes‟s Materialist Views
Hobbes argued that our knowledge comes from experience.
②The Natural State of War
Hobbes believed that man is selfish by nature
③The Laws of Nature
According to Hobbes, the fundamental law of nature is the general rule of reason that every man ought to
Endeavour for peace.
④The Theory of the Social Contract
Hobbes maintained that in order to get men out of the miserable condition of war, keep then in awe, and tie them by
fear of punishment to the performance of their agreements, and observation of the laws of nature, it is necessary that
there should be a common power or government backed by force and able to punish.
他的《论政治》是欧洲文学中最著名的政治论文一。
①霍布斯的唯物主义的观点
霍布斯认为我们的知识来自于经验。
②自然战争状态
霍布斯认为人的本性是自私的
③自然界的规律
霍布斯认为，自然界的基本定律是每个人都应该努力维护和平
④社会契约论
霍布斯认为，人类要走出战争，让人敬畏，履行协议，遵守自然法则，有武力支持的共同权力或政府作出惩
罚是必须的。

3. John Locke (1632—1704) （约翰洛克）

(1) Locke‟s Materialist Views
His materialist views are expressed in one of his chief works Essay Concerning Human Understanding. His basic
theory is that all our ideas are ultimately derived from sensation or from reflection, that these two make up
experience and that all our knowledge springs from experience.
(2) Locke‟s Political Philosophy
①In 1690, Locke published his two Treatises of Civil Government.
②Locke flatly rejected the theory of divine right of kings. He ridiculed the theory of transmission of royal authority.
③Locke put forward the idea of the state of nature: “All men are naturally free and equal in the state of nature.” For
Locke, Natural Law, therefore, means a universally obligatory moral law promulgated by the human reason,
whereas for Hobbes it means the law of power, force and fraud. Locke firmly believed in natural rights. The
natural right is the right of private property.
④The Social Contract
He emphas ized that the social contract must be understood as involving the individual‟s consent to submit to the
will of the majority and that the will of the majority must prevail.He also believed that the ruler of government is
one partner of the social contract.
（1）洛克的唯物主义观点
他在他的主要作品《论人类的理解力》中表达了自己的唯物主义观点。其基本原理是我们所有的想法最终
来自感觉或反射，这两个要素组成经验。我们所有的知识来自经验。
（2）洛克的政治哲学
①1690，他发表了《国内政府契约论》。
②他公开反对君权神授．他批判王位世制。
 ③洛克提出了自然属性的概念：“所有的人在本质上是平等的，自由的。”对于洛克来说，自然法则即意
味着广泛的强制性的道德法律。洛克坚信天赋人权。自然权利也即私有财产权。
④社会契约
他强调社会契约必须被理解,个人意志服从大多数人的意志。

4. John Milton and the English Revolution（约翰密尔顿和英国革命）

①The English Revolution took place in the middle of the 17th century.
②By the end of the 16th century, Calvinism had spread to England. As a result, the Puritan Movement was started in
England.
③In English Literature, John Milton ranks with Shakespeare and Chaucer. Three master epic poems: Paradise Lost,
Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes.
①英国革命发生于十七世纪中页。
②十六世纪末，加尔文主义已经蔓延到了英格兰。
③约翰弥尔顿的三大史诗：《失乐园》、《复乐园》、《力士参孙》。

IV. Descartes: French Classicism（笛卡尔：法国古典主义）

1. RenéDescartes (1596—1650) （笛卡尔）
It is generally believed that modern philosophy begins with France Bacon in England and with Rene Descartes in France.
Works: Rules for the Direction of the Mind, Discourse on Method, Meditations Concerning First Philosophy and
Objections and Replies
(1) The Method of Cartesian Doubt
He believed that the overthrow of the present opinion and the break-up with the past philosophy, Scholasticism
included, are necessary condition of establishing something first and lasting in the science.
(2) Descartes‟ Theory of Knowledge
Descartes employed methodic doubt with a view to discovering whether there was any indubitable truth.
(3) Innate Ideas
(4) Descartes‟ Dualism
一般认为，现代哲学在英国始于培根在法国则是笛卡尔。
作品：《心灵的方向准则》、
《方法论》
（1）笛卡尔怀疑方法
他认为，建立心得的和持久的科学的必要条件是抛弃现有的观点，推翻经院哲学在内。
（2）笛卡儿的认知论
笛卡尔运用怀疑法来探讨是否有任何不容置疑的真理。
（3）天赋观念
（4）笛卡尔的二元论

2. French Classicism（法国古典主义）
France in the 17th century, unlike England in many ways, had just emerged as a nation state. The king was powerful.
The trend towards nationalism and absolutism had been growing since the beginning of the century. In order to weaken
the power of the nobility and strengthen his own power, the king made some concessions by encouraging the
development of the middle class. On the other hand, the French bourgeoisie was comparatively weak, and they needed,
for the time being, the help of the monarchy. This situation inevitably affected the development of the French philosophy
and literature.
①Pierre Corneille (1606-1684)
Corneille was the first great French neoclassical dramatist.
His masterpiece was a tragic-comedy, Le Cid.
②Jean Racine 拉辛(1637-1699)
Racine was the greatest tragic dramatist of the French neoclassical theatre. In his tragedies, he merged the Greek sense
of fate with the religious emphasis on original sin.
His representative tragedies: Andromaque, Phaedra
③Moliere
Moliere, whose real name was Jean Baptiste Poqueline, was the best representative dramatist of French classical
comedies.
Works: Tartuffe, Le Misanthrope, L’Avare
十七世纪的法国已经成为了一个国家，与英国在许多方面是不同的。国王很强大。17 世纪初，民族主义和
专制主义的趋势已经越来越强烈。为了削弱贵族的权力和加强自己的权力，国王做出了一些让步，鼓励中产阶级
的发展。另一方面，法国资产阶级相对来说处于弱势地位，他们所需要君主制的帮助。这种形式不可避免地影响
到了法国哲学与文学的发展。
①彼埃尔高乃依
高乃依是第一个伟大的法国新古典主义剧作家。他的代表作是一个悲剧性的喜剧 《熙德》。
②拉辛拉辛（1637-1699）
拉辛是法国新古典主义戏剧的最伟大的悲剧作家。在他的悲剧中，他将希腊的命运与宗教中强调原罪结合在一
起。
他的代表性的悲剧：《昂朵玛格》、《菲德拉》
③莫里哀
莫里哀，原名巴普蒂斯特 poqueline，是法国古典主义喜剧中最具有代表性的剧作家。
作品：《伪君子》、《愤世嫉俗》、《吝啬鬼》

V. Art（艺术）
1.Baroque Art（巴洛克艺术）
It was characterized by dramatic intensity and sentimental appeal with a lot of emphasis on light and color.
(1) Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598—1680)
Italian sculptor and architect
Major works: David, The Ecstasy of St. Theresa
(2) Michelangelo Caravaggio (1573—1610)
The first painter to spotlight his scenes like a stage director, contrasting brilliant highlights with sharply outlined deep
shadow.
Major works: The Calling of St. Matthew
The Cardsharps
(3) Francesco Borromini
Borromini helped to bring the Roman style to its climax.
(4) Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640)
The greatest of painters of Flemish school, he was the man more than anyone else who helped to spread the Baroque
style to North Europe.
Work: Marie de Medici, Queen of France, Landing in Marseillies.
它的特点是强烈的情感,强调光线和颜色的重要性。
（1）乔凡尼洛伦佐贝尔尼
意大利雕塑家、建筑师
主要作品：《戴维》、《圣特丽萨的狂喜》
（2）米切朗基罗卡拉瓦乔
主要作品：《圣马赛的呼唤》、《纸牌游戏》
（3）弗朗西斯
波罗米尼使罗马风格达到了高潮。
（4）彼得保罗鲁本斯
作品：《法国王后》

2. Dutch Protestant Art（新教艺术）

Van Rijin Rembrandt (1606—1669) （伦勃朗）
Rembrandt was the principle Dutch Baroque painter and etcher. He was one of the greatest masters of European
art.
 Works: Blinding of Samson, The Polish Rider
伦勃朗是荷兰巴洛克风格的画家，欧洲艺术大师。
作品：《刺瞎参孙》、《波兰骑士》

3. Art and Architecture in France（在法国的艺术和建筑）

Palace of Versailles Garden Front, East Front of the Louvre are among the masterpieces of architecture.
In painting, the one that won international fame was Poussin. (1594—1655).
The new are represented a transformation of its elements into a swelling, emotional style that later generations
were to call “baroque”, to characterize the period roughly between 1600 and 1750, the Baroque Period.
凡尔赛宫花园前，卢浮宫东部战线是杰出的建筑著作之一。
在绘画中，获得了国际声誉的画家是普桑（1594—1655）。
新的艺术形式代表了新元素向正在膨胀的抒情风格方面的转变，后世称其为“巴洛克”，这一时期大致是
从 1600 年和 1750 年期间。

5.2 课后习题详解

Questions for Revision:

1. What were Galileo‟s contributions to modern science?
Key: Galileo is the greatest name in physics in the 17th century. He has made contributions to the world:
(1) He was the first to apply telescope to the study of the skies. He even made a telescope for himself and used it
to observe the stars;
(2) In 1609 he announced a series of astronomical discoveries which caught the attention of the whole of Europe.
With the help of telescope, e proved that Ptolemy‟s system would not work and that Copernicus‟s hypothesis had been
right;
(3) Galileo discovered the importance of acceleration in dynamics and the law of inertia;
(4) Galileo was the first to establish the law of falling bodies;
(5) He invented thermometer.

2. How did Kepler ‟s laws clarify and amend Copernican theory?

Key: Copernicus heliocentric theory was put forward only as a hypothesis. It was Kepler who supported him
scientifically. Kepler is best known for his discovery of the three laws of planetary motion, the three laws being called
Kepler‟s laws published in 1609 and 1619. They may be stated as follows:
(1) Each planet moves in an ellipse, not a perfect circle, with the sun at one focus;
(2) Each planet moves more rapidly when near the sun than farther from it;
(3) The distance of each planet from the sun bears a definite relation to the time period the planet took to
complete a revolution around the sun. This law was reduced to a mathematical formula: the square of the period of
revolution of a planet about the sun is proportional to the cube of the mean distance of the planet from the sun.
Kepler‟s laws supported, clarified and amended the Copernican system and turned the system from a general
description of the sun and the planets into a precise mathematical formula/ these three laws formed the basis of all
modern planetary astronomy and led to Newton‟s discovery of the laws of gravitation.

3. Why Newton is generally considered to be the greatest scientist that ever lived?
Key: Newton has made great contributions to history of science:
(1) As a mathematician, he invented calculus;
(2) In optics, he discovered that while light is composed of all the colors of the spectrum;
(3) Most important of all, he discovered the law of the universal gravitation. According to this law, everybody
attracts every other with a force directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them. To put it simply, the sun, the moon, the earth, the planets, and all other bodies in
the universe move in accordance with the same basic force which is called gravitation. The law of gravitation is
considered to be one of the most important discoveries in the history of science and had not been questioned until
 Einstein discovered the law of relativity;
(4) Newton‟s influence was not limited to the physical universe. His analytical method, the way he approached
natural laws by observation, experiment and calculation, began to be applied to human society, to all branches of
knowledge and thought. Thus he was generally considered to be the greatest scientist that ever lived.

4. Why do we say that Bacon was a founder of modern philosophy?

Key: Bacon was regarded as the founder of modern philosophy:
The whole basis of his philosophy was practical. He held the philosophy should be kept separate from theology
instead of being blended with it as the Scholasticism; Bacon maintained that it was crucial to supply mankind with a
scientific method of inquiry into nature. He rejected the traditional deductive method and founded modern inductive
method;
To exert any great advancement in science, bacon held that we must begin anew. The fresh start required the
mind to overcome all the preconceptions, all prejudices, all the assumption, to sweep away all the fallacies and false
beliefs, in a word, to break with the past, and to restore man to his lost mastery of the natural world.
This was what Bacon called the Great Instauration.

5. What were the major differences between Locke‟s concept of “social contract” and Hobbes‟s?
Key: (1) Hobbes‟s concept of “social contract” is as follows. To escape anarchy, men enter into a social contrast, by
which they submit to the sovereign. In return, men attain peace and security. In his theory, the powers of the sovereign
must be absolute, and it is only by the centralization of authority in one person that the evil can be avoided. And the
sovereign is not a party himself to the social contract. The subjects of the sovereign cannot either change the form of
the government or repudiate the authority of the sovereign. As to the form of government, Hobbes preferred monarchy.
(2) Locke tried to show the rational foundation of political society and government. He emphasized that the
social contract must be understood as involving the individual‟s consent to submit to the will of the majority and that
the will of the majority must prevail. For him, absolute monarchy was contrary to the original social contract and
dangerous to liberty. For him, the ruler of government is one partner of the social contract.
(3) Although both Hobbes and Locke used the term “social contract”, they differ fundamentally. First, Hobbes
argued that men enter into a social contract to escape the state of war, for, in his view, men are enemies and at war
with each other. Locke argued that men are equal and that individuals surrender their rights to one man, the sovereign
whose power is absolute. Locke argued that the individuals surrender their rights to the community as a whole.
According to him, by majority vote a representative is c hosen, but his power is not absolute. If he fails to implement
the people‟s will, the people have the right to overthrow him.

6. How did Locke justify rebellion against government?

Key: Locke believed that the ruler of government is one partner of the social contract. If the ruler substitutes his
arbitrary will for the laws and shows no regard for people‟s wills, in a word, if he violates the social contract, the
government is effectively dissolved. If the government is dissolved. Rebellion is justified. As to who is to judge when
circumstance render rebellion legitimate, Locke replied, “The people shall be the judge.”

7. What is the theme of John Milton‟s Paradise Lost?

Key: The theme of Milton‟s Paradise Lost is the fall of men: man‟s disobedience and the loss thereupon of the
Paradise, with its prime cause-Satan. In this epic poem, the evil, rebellious, courageous, heroic and tragic Satan is the
most successfully portrayed character and is different from the traditional image.

8. What is Descartes‟s method of Cartesian doubt? What is its significance?

Key: Descartes employed methodic doubt with a view to discovering whether there was an indubitable truth. And he
expressed this truth in this famous motto: “I doubt, therefore I think: I think, therefore I am.” This Cartesian doubt is
the most important point in his philosophy. According to Descartes, “I think therefore I am” makes mind more certain
than matter. He believed that is thinking is one that doubts, understands, conceives, affirms, denies, wills, imagines,
and feels. Doubting is thinking, thinking is the essence of mind. So he concluded that knowledge of things that we
 conceive very clearly and distinctly are true, and that knowledge of things must be by the mind. As to the senses, he
believed that they are not dependable.

9. Who was the most well-known writer in the 17th century French literature? Say something about one of his major
works.
Key: Corneille, Racine and Moliere were the most well-known writers in the 17th century French literature.
Corneille‟s masterpiece was Le Cid which shows the intense conflict between love and duty. One of the representative
tragedies of Racine is Phaedra which tells the story of the overwhelming passion of Phaedra for her stepson. The
theme of the play is the conflict of passion with reason. Tartuffe is one of Moliere‟s best known comedies. In this play,
he exposes religious hypocrisy.

10. What are some of the characteristics of Baroque art?

Key: Baroque art, flourished first in Italy, and then spread to Spain, Portugal, France in south Europe and to Flander
and the Netherland in the North. It was characterized by dramatic intensity and sentimental appeal with a lot of
emphasis on light and color. The representatives were Bernini, Michelangelo Caravaggio, Borr omini, Rubens,
Velazquez, Rembrandt, etc.
In architecture, it referred to architecture of the period with its proliferation of ornament. Later the term
“baroque” was applied to paintings and music. In music, the new art represented a transformation of its elements into
a swelling, emotional style.
 第6章 启蒙运动时期

6.1 复习笔记

I. General Introduction
1. Enlightenment
2. Historical Context
II. French Philosophy and Literature
1.Baron de la Brèle et de Montesquieu
2.Voltaire (pseudonym of Jean Francois Arouet
3.Jean-Jacques Rousseau
4. Denis Diderot
III. English Literature
1. Alexander Pope
2. Daniel Defoe
3. Jonathan Swift
4. Samuel Richardson
5. Henry Fielding
6. Samuel Johnson
IV. German Literature and Philosophy
1. Gotthold Ephraim Lessing
2. Wolfgang yon Goethe
3. Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller (1759—1805)
4. Immanuel Kant (1724—1804)
V. Art
1. Rococo Art
2. Typical Works and Major Artists
VI. Music
1. The Musical Enlightenment
2. The Classical Period

I. General Introduction（概要）
1. Enlightenment（启蒙运动）
The Enlightenment Movement was a progressive movement, which flourished in France and swept the whole
Western Europe at the time. It was a furtherance of the Renaissance from the 14th to the 17th century. Its purpose was
to enlighten the whole world with the light of modern philosophical and artistic ideas. The eighteenth century marked
the beginning of an intellectual movement in Europe known as the Enlightenment Movement.
启蒙运动是指欧洲近代资产阶级上升时期伴随资产阶级政治上的反封建斗争而展开的反对封建传统意识
形态的思想文化运动。这一思想文化运动表现在意识形态领域，就是用资产阶级的哲学、伦理、教育、文艺和
科学反对封建神学及其传统的封建文化。启蒙运动是一次进步的理性的运动。它兴起于法国并同时席卷整个西
欧。启蒙运动是 14 至 17 世纪文艺复兴运动的继续，其目的是用现代哲学和艺术的光芒来照亮整个世界。

2. Historical Context（历史背景）
1700-1750: peaceful 和平
After 1750, full of ideological, political, social and economic revolutions 思想，政治，社会和经济革命
1776: American revolution, then Declaration of Independence 美国革命，然后发表了独立宣言
1789: French Revolution, then Declaration of Rights of Man 法国革命，发表了人的权利宣言
1760-1840: English Industrial Revolution 英国工业革命
Result: growth of modern capitalism 现代资本主义的发展
II. French Philosophy and Literature（法国哲学与文学）
1. Baron de la Brèle et de Montesquieu (1689—1755) （查理·路易·孟德斯鸠）
The jurist, Political and social philosopher 法国启蒙思想家，社会学家
Persian Letter《波斯人信札》
The Spirit of the Law《论法的精神》

2. Voltaire (pseudonym of Jean Francois Arouet, 1694—1778)（伏尔泰）

French poet, Dramatist, Historian, philosopher 法国诗人，戏剧家，历史学家，哲学家
Letters Anglaise (letters philosophiques)《哲学书简》
Candide《老实人》

3. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712—1778) （卢梭）

The Origin of Human Inequality《论人类不平等的起源》
The New Heloise《新爱洛伊斯》
Emile, or On Education《爱弥儿》
The Social Contract《社会契约论》
The Confession《忏悔录》

4. Denis Diderot (1713—1784) （狄德罗）

French philosopher, and a man of letters 法国哲学家
Encyclopedia 主编《百科全书》
Philosophical Thoughts 《哲学断想》
Letters on the Blind《盲人书简》
Elements of Physiology 《自然解释断想》
Rameau’s Nephew《拉摩的侄儿》

III. English Literature（英国文学）

1. Alexander Pope (1688—1744) （蒲柏）
Essay on Criticism《论批评》
The Rape of the Lock《鬈发遇劫记》
Dunciad 《群愚史诗》
Essay on Man 《论人》

2. Daniel Defoe (1660—1731)（丹尼尔笛福）

An English writer, now most famous for his novel Robinson Crusoe. Defoe is notable for being one of the earliest
proponents of the novel, as he helped to popularise the form in Britain, and, along with others such as Samuel
Richardson, is among the founders of the English novel. A prolific and versatile writer, he wrote more than 500 books,
pamphlets and journals on various topics (including politics, crime, religion, marriage, psychology and the supernatural).
He was also a pioneer of economic journalism
①The Journal of The Plague Year
②Moll Flanders
③Robinson Crusoe: It tells of how Robinson Crusoe, an English mariner, having shipwrecked on an island, managed to
survive and rescued a black man, whom he named Friday, from the cannibals. Later Robinson got hold of a ship and
sailed home. The book‟s “realistic” touch and ingenuity aroused great interest from the readers both in England and
abroad.
丹尼尔·笛福，英国作家，英国启蒙时期现实主义小说的奠基人，被誉为“小说之父”。其代表作《鲁滨逊
漂流记》闻名于世，鲁滨逊也成为与困难抗争的典型模范，因此他被视作英国小说的开创者之一。继《鲁滨孙漂
流记》后，又写了许多小说，比较有名的有：《辛格顿船长》、《杰克上校》、《罗克查娜》、《伦敦大疫记》、《一个
骑士的回忆录》等
①《大疫年记事》
②《摩尔弗兰德斯》
③《鲁滨逊漂流记》：它讲述的是一个英国水手鲁滨孙因为船只失事而漂流到了一个海岛上而设法生存下去并在
最后乘船回家的故事。在岛上，鲁滨孙从食人族那里救出了一个黑人，并给他取名为“星期五”。这本书的独
创性以及现实性的写法引起了英国和海外的读者们极大的兴趣。

3. Jonathan Swift (1667—1745) （乔纳森·斯威夫特）

Jonathan Swift, churchman, political writer and poet, is the foremost satirist in the English language and one of the
satiric masters of all time. His works transcend the limitations of time and place. Some of them are read nowadays in all
nations. But in some aspects, he has been a controversial figure. His writings have sometimes been attacked as
pessimistic and misanthropic.
①A Modest Proposal: In it he bitterly criticizes the British government by suggesting that the children be fattened and
eaten. This essay has been regarded by many as the most savage single piece of ironical satire ever written.
②Gulliver’s Travel: It is his best book, a social and political prose satire, in the form of a book of travels. It consists of
four voyages by Lemuel Gulliver, an honest, blunt English ship‟s captain, to Lilliput (a land of Pygmies), Brobdingnag
(a land of giants), the flying island of Laputa, and finally to the land of the Houyhnhnms, a race of supremely
intelligent horses, who are served by the Yahoos, reasonless and conscienceless beasts in the shape of men.
乔纳森，牧师，政治作家和诗人，是英语国家中最重要的一位讽刺作家和讽刺大师。他的作品超越了时间和
地点的限制。有一些书至今被所有国家的人所品读。但在某些方面，他一直是个有争议的人物。他的作品有时被
指责为悲观、厌世的。主要的作品包括：
①《一个小小的建议》：通过将孩子喂肥吃这个比喻，他尖锐地批判了英国政府。本文已被许多人视为最具讽刺
性的文章。
②《格列弗游记》：这是他最好的书，属于社会政治讽刺散文，书的形式为游记式。包括格列佛，一个诚实、直
率的英国船长，在四个国家的所见所闻所感所想。

4. Samuel Richardson (1689—1761) （塞缪尔·理查森）

Samuel Richardson, novelist, is often called the founder of the English domestic novel. Major works are:
Pamela, or virtue Rewarded
Clarissa
塞缪尔理查德森，小说家，常被称为英国国内小说的创始人。
《帕美拉》
《克拉丽莎》

5. Henry Fielding (1707--1754) （亨利·菲尔丁）

Henry Fielding, novelist, dramatist, and essayist, was called by Sir Walter Scott the “Father of the English novel”.
Although he was not the first English novelist, he was instrumental in the creation and development of the modern
novel—a new art form which is realistic, comic, unsentimental, showing contemporary life and manners. He was also
the first person to approach the genre with a fully worked-out theory of the novel.Major works are:The Life of Mr.
Jonathan Wild the Great,The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling
菲尔丁，小说家，剧作家，散文家，被沃尔特爵士称为“英国小说之父”。虽然他并不是第一个英国小说
家，他现代小说的创造和发展还是起了很大重要的——一种新的，现实的，滑稽的，展示当代生活方式的艺术
形。主要的作品有：《大伟人江奈生·魏尔德传》
、《汤姆·琼斯》

6. Samuel Johnson (1709—1784) （塞缪尔·约翰逊）

The editor of A Dictionary of the English Language (1747—1755), the first great English dictionary.
Dictionary of the English Language 《英语词典》的编纂者

IV. German Literature and Philosophy（德国文学和则血）

1. Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729—1781) （戈特霍尔德·埃夫莱姆·莱辛）
Lessing—a philosopher, dramatist, and critic—was the first German dramatist of lasting importance and the most
brilliant representative of the German Enlightenment. He stood on the threshold of the Storm and Stress movement,
 and his works reveal the two guiding principles of his own life—truth and reason.
莱辛是德国首位有着深远影响的剧作家，也是一位哲学家和评论家；同时，他还是德国启蒙运动最杰出的代表
人物。他站在了狂飙突进运动的最前沿，他的作品也体现了他一生中的两大原则：真理和理性。

2. Wolfgang yon Goethe (1749—1832) （歌德）

Goethe was the greatest of all German poets and the outstanding figure of world literature since the Renais sance. He
made important contributions to every branch of writing. His influence on literature is not only felt in Germany but also
throughout the world. His major works are:
①The Sorrows of Young Werther: it tells a sentimental story of love and suicide. It brought Goethe the international fame
and spread “Werther fever” throughout Europe and even into China through Guo Muoruo‟s translation.
②Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship
③Wilhelm Meister’s Travel
④Faust: It is a tragedy chiefly in verse. It utilizes a broad variety of styles to underscore its theme of total human
experience. In Faust, Goethe draws on an immence variety of cultural material—theological, mythological
philosophical, political, economic, scientific, aesthetic, musical, and literary. It is not .only his own masterpiece but the
greatest work of German literature.
歌德是文艺复兴后最伟大的德国诗人和世界文学的杰出人物。他对写作的每一个分支做出了重要贡献。他不
只影响了德国的文学，也影响了整个世界。主要的作品有：
①《少年维特之烦恼》：它讲述了一个爱与自杀的感情故事。它给歌德带来了国际声誉，把“维特热”传播到了
欧洲甚至通过郭沫若的翻译进入到了中国。
②《威廉·迈斯特的学习时代》
③《威廉·迈斯特的漫游时代》
④《浮士德》：它是用诗写成的悲剧。它利用各种各样的方式来强调它的全人类的经验主题。在浮士德中，歌德
借鉴了大量的文化材料─神学的，神话的，哲学的，政治的，经济的，科学的，艺术的，音乐和文学的。它不
是。这不只是他自己的杰作，更是德国文学史上最伟大的著作。

3. Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller (1759—1805) （席勒）

Schiller, the German dramatist, poet, historian and aesthetic theoretician, ranks as one of the greatest of German
literary figures. He was a founder of modern German literature. He and his contemporary Goethe are the chief
representatives of German classicism. Schiller was a prolific playwright.
席勒是德国 18 世纪著名诗人、剧作家、哲学家、历史学家和美学家，德国启蒙文学的代表人物之一。席
勒和歌德是德国古典主义的两大杰出人物。席勒还是一位多产的剧作家。
①The Robber (1781)《强盗》
②Cabal and Love (1784)《阴谋与爱情》
③Wallenstein (1798 and 1799)《华伦斯坦》
④Wilhelm Tell (1804)《威廉退尔》

4. Immanuel Kant (1724—1804) （康德）

Kant was the key figure of the German classical philosophy. He is sometimes called the “waterhead of modern
philosophy”. He proposed the well-known “nebular hypothesis” and offered an analysis of speculate and moral reason
and the faculty of human judgment. He exerted an immense influence on the intellectual movements of the19th and
20th centuries. Major works: General History of Nature and Theory of the Heavens (1755)
康德是德国古典哲学的关键人物。他有时被称为“当代哲学的源头”。他提出了著名的“星云假说”，分
析了思索和道德理性与人的判断能力。他对 19 世纪和二十世纪的文人运动产生了巨大的影响。主要作品：
《自
然发展史和天体理论》（1755）

V. Art（艺术）
1. Rococo Art（洛可可艺术）
It is an 18th-century style of architecture and furnishing characterized by elaborately playful decoration, and
regarded by stern classical purists as “effeminate” or tastelessly pretty. As applied to literature, the term is unhelpfully
 vague, but usually suggests a cheerful lightness and intimacy of tone, and an elegant playfulness: Pope‟s The Rape of
the lock (1712—14) and Stern‟s Trisram Shandy (1759—1767) have been cited as English examples
洛可可艺术（Rococo art）是法国十八世纪的艺术样式，发端于路易十四（1643—1715）时代晚期，流行
于路易十五（1715～1774）时代，风格纤巧、精美、浮华、繁琐，又称“路易十五式”。
代表作：Salon de la Princesse；Hotel de Soubise《市政厅》

2. Typical Works and Major Artists（主要作品和作家）

(1) Salon de la Princesse, Htel de Soubise（公主沙龙，苏比兹宅邸）
This is one of the finest examples of Rococo, a good example of the elegant town houses in Paris belonging to
the aristocratic society after they deserted the Royal Palace of Versailles and chose to live there. It was a world of
complete delight, a place where they could devote themselves completely to the pursuit of pleasure.
这是洛可可风格最好的例子，这些房子位于巴黎，属于贵族们，他们毁了凡尔赛宫后所住的地方。这是一
个喜悦的世界，在这里他们可以完全致力于追求快乐。

VI. Music（音乐）
1. The Musical Enlightenment（音乐启蒙）
①Johann Sebastian Bach (1685—1750)
Violin Concerto in E Major
Double Violin Concerto in D Minor
Mass in B minor
②George Friderick Handel (1685—1759)
Messiah
Israel in Egypt
Fireworks Music
Water Music
①约翰·塞巴斯蒂安·巴赫
E 大调小提琴协奏曲
D 小调小提琴协奏曲
B 小调弥撒曲
②韩（亨）德尔
《弥赛亚》
《以色列人在埃及》
《焰火音乐》
《水上音乐》

2. The Classical Period（古典时期）

Roughly between 1750 and 1820 大约从 1750 年到 1820 年
Leading composers: Bach, Mozart, Beethoven
主要的音乐作家：巴赫，莫扎特，贝多芬

6.2 课后习题详解

Questions for Revision:

1. When and where did the Enlightenment take place?
Key: The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement originating in France, which attracted widespread support
among the ruling and intellectual classes of Europe and North America in the second half of the 18th century.

2. Why is the Enlightenment also called “the Age of Reason”?

Key: The Enlightenment characterizes the efforts by certain European writers to use critical reason to free minds from
prejudice, unexamined authority and oppression by Church or State. Therefore it is called the Age of Reason.
3. What were Locke and Newton‟s influence on the Enlightenment?
Key: Locke and Newton were the two most important forerunners of the Enlightenment in the 17th century. Locke‟
materialist theory attributed the origin if ideas to sensations inscribed on the blank slate of mind. Newton‟s theory of
gravitation further demonstrated to the world that the universe was governed by laws that could be understood by
human mind. Their theories fostered the belief in natural law and universal order and established confidence in human
reason.

4. Who were the philosophers?

Key: The philosophers refer to these well-known French philosophers in the 18th century: Montesquieu, Voltaire and
Rousseau. They popularized and propagated new ideas for the general reading public and were the major force of the
Enlightenment.

5. Who wrote The Spirit of the Laws?

Key: Montesquieu wrote The Spirit of the laws.

6. What kind of book is Candide?

Key: Candide is the most famous of Voltaire‟s novel. It is a satire on the previous adventure novels of the age, an
attack upon the claims of unlimited optimism. It is the story of a naive and innocent young man who becomes
gradually disillusioned.

7. In which book did Montesquieu discuss the separation of powers?

Key: Both Montesquieu and Rousseau touched upon the separation of powers, Montesquieu in his The Spirit of the
Laws and Rousseau in his The Social Contract

8. What is Diderot famous for?

Key: Diderot is the best known as the editor of the Encyclopédie.

9. Was Pope a famous prose writer? Which movement of art and literature was he known to represent?
Key: Pope was not a famous prose writer but a great poet. He represented the rationalistic neoclassical movement in
literature and has often been called the spokesman in verse of the Age of Reason.

10. Who is the author of Gulliver‟s Travels? What is the story about?
Key: Jonathan Swift is the author of Gulliver‟s Travels. It is a social and political prose satire, in the form of a book
of travels. It tells the four voyages by Gulliver, an honest, blunt English ship‟s captain, to Lilliput (a land of Pygmies),
Brobdingnag (a land of giants), the flying island of Laputa, and finally to the land of the Houyhnhnms , a race of
supremely intelligent horses, who are served by the Yahoos, reasonless and conscienceless beasts in the shape of
men.

11. Which book(s) was Defoe chiefly known for?

Key: Defoe was chiefly known for his novel Robinson Crusoe.

12. What was Fielding‟s major contribution to English literature? Name one of his novels.
Key: Henry Fielding‟s major contribution to English literature was his creation and development of modern novel—a
new art from which is realistic, comic, unsentimental, showing contemporary life and manners. He was also the first
person to approach the genre with a fully worked-out theory of the novel.
The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling is one of his novels.

13. What is an epistolary novel?

Key: An epistolary novel is a novel in which the stories are told in a series of letters.
14. What is Dr. Johnson well known for?
Key: Dr. Johnson is well known for being the editor of A Dictionary of the English Language, the first great English
dictionary.

15. What were the two periodicals to which Addison and Steele contributed essays?
Key: The two periodicals to which Addison and Steele contributed essays were The Talter and The Spectator.

16. Which essay was Lessing‟s major contribution to aesthetic theory?

Key: Lessing‟s major contribution to aesthetic theory was his essay Laocoon.

17. Are Faust and The Sorrows of Young Werther novels? Who wrote them?
Key: Faust and The Sorrows of Young Werther were both written by Goethe. Faust is a tragedy chiefly in verse. The
Sorrows of Young Werther is an epistolary novel.

18. Which play by Schiller is widely known in China?

Key: Schiller‟s play Cabal and Love is widely known in China.

19. Who first proposed the nebula hypothesis?

Key: Kant was the first one to propose the nebular hypothesis.

20. Give the full titles of Kant‟s three most important critiques.
Key: Kant‟s three most important critiques are: Critique of Pure Reason, Critique of Practical Reason, and Critique of
Judgment.

21. What are the major characteristics of Rococo Art?

Key: Rococo art is characterizes by elaborate ornamentation imitating shell work and foliage and it has a curving and
elastic pattern. It was luxurious, sensual and delicate, characterizing the taste of a pleasure class. It was not a style in
fine arts, but a style in such minor arts as furniture, tapestries, clocks and ceiling chandeliers.

22. Who were the three best-known composers of the “Viennese School”? Do you know any of Mozart‟s works?
Key: The three best-known composers of the “Viennese School” are Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven.
 第7章 浪漫主义

7.1 复习笔记

I. General Introduction
1. Romanticism
2. Two Revolutions
II. Romanticism in Germany
1. Goethe (1749—1832) and Schiller (1759—1805)
2. Schlegel Brothers(the Jena School)
3. Heinrich Heine(1797—1856)
III. Romanticism in England
1. William Blake (1757—1827)
2. The Lakers—Wordsworth and Coleridge
3. George Gordon Byron(1788—1824)
4. Percy Bysshe Shelley(1792—1822)
5. John Keats(1795—1821)
6. Walter Scott(1771—1832)
IV. Romanticism in France
1. Chateaubriand(1768—1848)
2. Victor Hugo(1802—1885)
3. George Sand(1804—1876)
V. Romanticism in Italy
1. Alessandro Manzoni(1785—1873)
2. Giacomo Leopardi (1798—1837)
VI. Romanticism in Russia
Aleksander Pushkin (1799—1837)
VII. Romanticism in Poland
VIII. Art and Architecture
1. Paintings
2. Architecture
X. Music
1. The Early Romantics
2. The Later Romantics — Middle of 19th Century

I. General Introduction（概要）
1. Romanticism（浪漫主义）
Romanticism was a movement in literature, philosophy, music and art which developed in Europe in the late l8th
and early 19th centuries. Starting from the ideas of Rousseau in France and from the Storm and Stress movement in
Germany, it held that classicism since the l6th century, failed to express man‟s emotional nature and overlooked his
profound inner forces. Romanticism emphasized individual values and aspirations above those of society. As a
reaction to the industrial revolution, it looked to direct contact with nature for inspiration. It gave impetus to the
national liberation movement in 19th century Europe.
浪漫主义是一场文学、哲学、音乐和艺术的运动，兴起于 18 世纪末期和 19 世纪早期的。以法国卢梭思想
和德国狂飙突进运动为基础，浪漫主义者认为始于 16 世纪的古典主义无法表达人的情感，忽视了人类深刻的
内在力量。浪漫主义强调个人价值和愿望高于社会价值和愿景。受到工业革命的影响，它强调与大自然直接接
触以获得灵感。它推动了 19 世纪欧洲的民族解放运动。

2. Two Revolutions（两个革命）
The Enlightenment brought about two revolutions and they caused Romanticism to rise.
★Firs, the French revolution established bourgeois democracy with its slogans of liberty, equality and universal
brotherhood. Individualism prevailed. Writers and artists sought to express man‟s inner feelings freely.
★Second, the Industrial Revolution, made technological advances possible such as James Watt‟s invention of the steam
engine in l764, brought unforeseen changes to each individual and society as a whole. Man‟s thinking was
fundamentally affected.
启蒙运动带来了两场革命，它们造成了浪漫主义的崛起。
★首先，法国大革命建立了资产阶级民主，它的口号是自由，平等和博爱。个人主义盛行。作家和艺术家寻求自
由表达人的内心感受。
★第二，工业革命使技术进步成为可能，如 l764 的杰姆斯瓦特发明的蒸汽机，给个人和社会带来了无法预见的
改变。人的思维受到了根本性的影响。

II. Romanticism in Germany（德国的浪漫主义）

1. Goethe (1749—1832) and Schiller (1759—1805) （歌德和席勒）
German literature had a strong Romantic strain. The Storm and Stress movement prepared the way for European
Romanticism.
★Goethe‟s novel, The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774), played an enormous role in the spread of Romantic sentiment
among the young.
★Schiller started off as a Romantic. 《Robber》is his representative work.
德国文学强烈地受到了浪漫主义的影响。德国狂飙突进运动为欧洲浪漫主义开辟了道路。
★歌德的小说，少年维特的烦恼（1774），为浪漫主义情绪在年轻人中的传播起了很大作用。
★席勒一开始就是一个浪漫者。《强盗》是他的代表作。

2. Schlegel Brothers(the Jena School) （希勒革尔兄弟（耶拿学派））

①August W. von Schlegel (1767—1845)spelled out the theory of Romanticism from the grounds of philosophy. His
greatest achievement was in the field of translation. He translated, 17 plays by Shakespeare into the German language,
which remain the standard texts for the German theatre even today.
②Friedrich von Schlegel (1772—1829)was educated under the influence of enlightenment. For a while he supported
the revolutionary ideals of the French Revolution. He attempted to do away with the distinctions between different
modes of writings, blending poetry, criticism, oratory and philosophy into a whole.
①奥古斯特·希勒革尔在哲学的基础上研究出了浪漫主义理论。他最大的成就是在翻译方面。他把莎士比亚的
17 篇剧本翻译成了德国语言，即使在今天，这依然是德国戏剧的标准文本。
②弗里德里希的教育受到了启蒙运动的影响。有一段时间他曾支持法国大革命的革命思想。他试图去除不同写作
模式之间的差别，将诗歌，评论，演讲和哲学融合一体。

3. Heinrich Heine(1797—1856) （海因里希海涅）

His lyric poetry, best seen in the Book of Songs (1827), combined vivid natural imagery with a mixture of
sentiment and irony.
从诗经里可以看出，他的抒情诗结合了生动的自然意象与情感和反讽的混合物。

III. Romanticism in England（英国的浪漫主义）

1. William Blake (1757—1827) （威廉布莱克）
Blake wrote the most original kind of poetry in the simplest language in his two early collections : Songs of
Innocence (1789) and Songs of Experience (1794).
They show, in Blake‟s own words, “the two contrary states of the human soul”. While the Songs of Innocence are
mostly happy, the Songs of Experience are bitter and contain some of his most deeply felt lines.
布莱克在他早期的两本诗集中用最简单的语言写出了最具独创性的诗歌： 《天真之歌》 （1789）和《经验之
歌》（1794）。
它们表明，用布莱克自己的话说，“人类心灵的两种对立状态”。而《天真之歌》大多是快乐的，
《经验
之歌》是苦涩的，包含了一些他最深切的体验。
2. The Lakers—Wordsworth and Coleridge（湖畔诗人——华兹华斯和柯勒律治）
★They co-authored the book Lyrical Ballads.
★The preface to the second edition of Lyrical Ballads (1800), by Wordsworth and Coleridge was the manifesto of
literary romanticism.
★The two poets affirmed the importance of feeling and imagination to poetic creation and rejected conventional literary
forms and subjects.
★他们合著了《抒情歌谣集》 。
★由华兹华斯和柯勒律治合著的《抒情歌谣集》第二版的序言（1800）是浪漫主义文学的宣言。
★两位诗人肯定了情感和想象力对诗歌创作的重要性，拒绝传统文学形式和主题。

(1) William Wordsworth（威廉华兹华斯）

★In his early years, he was enthusiastic about the French revolution.
★In his later years, he became politically conservative and turned to Nature for spiritual consolation.
★He did not believe in book knowledge and put natural feeling above intellect.
★Quote: “Let Nature by your Teacher.”
★He maintained that the scenes and events of everyday life and the speech of ordinary people w ere the raw material of
poetry.
★He uses simple language style of everyday speech. Some people call it the conversational style.
★Major works:
“I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud”
“Composed Upon Westminster Bridge”
“My Heart Leaps Up”
“The Solitary Reaper”
“To the Cuckoo”
★在早年时候，他热衷于法国大革命。
★晚年时，他在政治上很保守，转向大自然寻求精神安慰。
★他不相信书本知识，认为自然感觉比知识重要。
★格言：“让自然成为老师”。
★他声称日常生活的场景和平常人的话语是诗歌的原材料。
★他用简单的日常用语语言风格。有些人把它叫做会话风格。
主要作品：
《我孤独地漫游，像一朵云》
《威斯敏斯特桥上》
《我心飞跃》
《孤独的收割者》
《布谷鸟》

(2) Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834)（塞缪尔泰勒柯勒律治）

①A chief poet in English Romanticism.
②Famous works:
“Lyrical Ballads” (in collaboration with Wordsworth)
“Rime of the Ancient Mariner”
“Kubla Khan”
①英国浪漫主义的主要诗人
②著名作品：
《抒情歌谣集》
《古舟子咏》
《忽必烈汗》

3. George Gordon Byron(1788—1824) （拜伦）

①Byron wrote many other works, but Don Juan (1819—1824), the long satirical epic, is generally considered his
masterpiece.
②In his own time, Byron‟s poetry exerted a powerful influence on writers all over Europe, because it expressed an
ardent love of liberty and a fierce hatred of tyranny.
①拜伦有很多的作品，但《唐璜》通常被认为是他的名作。
②在他的一生中，拜伦的诗歌对欧洲的作家产生了强烈的影响，因为他的诗歌表达了对自由的追求以及对专制的
仇恨。

4. Percy Bysshe Shelley(1792—1822) （雪莱）

★Shelley wrote enthusiastic poems noted for their lyricism and romanticism.
★He is noted for his radical liberal thought and rebellion against the restrictions of English politics and religion.
★Major works:
①“Hymn to Intellectual Beauty”—eulogy on Byron
②“The Revolt of Islam” (1818)
③“Adonais” (1821)—an elegy for John Keats
④Prometheus Unbound (1820)—a verse drama
⑤His fame comes especially from his lyrics, including the familiar short odes:
“To a Skylark” (1820)
“Ode to the West Wind” (1819)
“The Cloud” (1820)
★雪莱写的诗很具有激情，以其抒情性和浪漫主义而出名。
★他以其激进的自由思想和对反抗英国政治宗教的束缚而闻名。
★主要作品：
①智慧之美的赞歌—赞美拜伦
②伊斯兰的反叛
③阿多尼斯—约翰济慈的挽歌
④解放了的普罗米修斯（1820）─戏剧诗
⑤他的名声主要来自于他的抒情诗，包括常见的短赋：
《云雀》
《西风颂》
《云》

5. John Keats(1795—1821)（约翰济慈）
★Keats‟s poetry describes the beauty of the natural world and art as the vehicle for his poetic imagination.
★His skill with poetic imagery and sound reproduces sensuous experience for his reader.
★Keats‟s poetry evolves from this love of nature and art into a deep compassion for humanity.
★His letters reveal him wrestling with the problems of evil and suffering in the world.
★Major works:
①Famous odes:
Ode to a Nightingale（1820）
Ode to a Grecian Urn（1820）
Ode on Melancholy
To Autumn
②Famous sonnets:
On First Looking into Chapman‟s Homer
★济慈的诗描述自然世界和艺术之美，这是他诗意想象的车轮。
★他对于诗意象和声音的娴熟使得他的读者能够再次得到感官上的愉悦。
★济慈的诗歌从对自然和艺术的热爱转变为对人类的深深的同情。
★他的文字表明他与世界上的邪恶和苦难的斗争。
★主要作品：
①著名的颂歌：
《夜莺颂》
《希腊古瓮颂》
《忧郁颂》
《秋颂》
②著名的十四行诗：
《初读查普曼译荷马史诗》

6. Walter Scott(1771—1832) （史戈特）

①Scottish novelist and poet
②His death marked the end of Romanticism in Britain.
③His novels influenced many later writers, and he established a new form of novel: the historical novel.
④Major works:
Ivanhoe (1820)
①苏格兰小说家和诗人
②他的死标志着英国浪漫主义的结束。
③他的小说影响了许多后来的作家，他建立了一个新的小说形式：历史小说。
④主要作品：
《艾芬豪》

IV. Romanticism in France（法国的浪漫主义）

1. Chateaubriand(1768—1848)（夏多布里昂）
He wrote a book called the Genius of Christianity(1802)in which he praised the church for its achievements in
the field of art and learning. His true Romanticism came Out in his two novels, Atala (1801)and René(1802). The first
of them tells the love between an Indian and a French girl in America.
他写了一本书叫做基督教的天才（1802），在书中他赞扬了教堂在艺术和学习领域的成就。他真正的浪漫
主义体现在他的两部小说《安东尼》
（1801）
，《勒内》
（1802）中。第一个讲述的一个印度男孩和法国女孩之间
的爱情故事。

2. Victor Hugo(1802—1885) （维克多雨果）

①French poet, novelist, and playwright
②Major Works:
The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1831)
Les Misérables (1862)
L’homme Qui Rit (The Man Who Laughs) (1869)
③Les Miserables is packed with exciting incidents. It is also a sociological study of poverty and slum life. The core of
this long novel is the life story of a man called Jean Valjean. He stole a loaf of bread to feed his starving sister and her
family and was sentenced to a long term in prison for that. Finally released, he tried to lead a decent life and to help
others. Love of humanity is one of the themes of the book. Hugo makes it clear that a man cannot exist without love,
for if he tries, he becomes warped and less than a man. Jean Valjean grows as a person, becomes a good and honorable
man after he has found the love of a helpless little girl, Cosette, daughter of a Prostitute, whom he takes care of. By
contrast, the police inspector is inhuman, with his fanatical sense of duty.
①法国诗人，小说家，剧作家
②主要作品：
《巴黎圣母院》
《悲惨世界》
《笑面人》
③《悲惨世界》满是令人激动的事情。这是一个贫困和贫民窟生活的社会学研究。这部长篇小说的核心是一个叫
冉阿让一生的故事。他偷了一块面包给他饥饿的妹妹和她的家人，被判处长期监禁。出来后，他试图过上体面
的生活和帮助别人。人道主义的爱是本书的一个主题。雨果清楚地表明，一个人不能没有爱，没有爱，他会变
得扭曲和不再是人。冉阿让作为一个人，在他发现一个无助的小女孩的爱，他成了一个好的和高尚的男人。相
比之下，警务督察是不人道的，他们只有狂热的责任感。
3. George Sand(1804—1876) （乔治砂）
Her first novel Indiana came out in l832 under a male Pen name. Readers were immediately attracted to it by its
tremendous romantic passions as well as its autobiographical facts.
l832 年她以男性笔名出版了她的第一部小说印第安娜。读者立即被它那巨大的浪漫激情以及自传事实所吸
引住了。

V. Romanticism in Italy（意大利的文艺复兴）
1. Alessandro Manzoni(1785—1873) （曼佐尼）
The author of The Betrothed (I Promessi Sposi, 1827). This is an historical novel, a masterly, exuberant book
with a real clash of passions, voicing the patriotic feelings of the Italian peasants against their alien oppressors.
《未婚妻》的作者，这是一部历史小说，一个熟练的，有真正情绪冲突的书，道出了反对外国压迫者的意
大利农民的爱国情怀。

2. Giacomo Leopardi (1798—1837) （乔万尼·薄伽丘）

He was perhaps the greatest contribution Italy could make for European Romanticism.
他也许是为欧洲浪漫主义做出最大贡献的意大利人。

VI. Romanticism in Russia（俄国浪漫主义）

Aleksander Pushkin (1799—1837) （普希金）
★the greatest Russian and the founder of modern Russian literature.
★A forerunner of Russian realism.
★Pushkin pioneered the use of vernacular speech in his poems and plays.
★Because of his political views and influence on generations of Russian rebels, Pushkin was portrayed as an opponent
to bourgeois literature and culture and a predecessor of Soviet literature.
★Major works:
the drama Boris Godunov (1825)
the epic poem Eugene Onegin (1823-1831)
The Captain’s Daughter (1836)
“The Queen of Spades”
“The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish”
★Eugene Onegin took Pushkin 8 years to finish and is generally recognized as his masterpiece.
★最伟大的俄国和俄国现代文学的奠基人。
★俄罗斯现实主义的先驱。
★普希金在他的诗歌和戏剧中开创了白话语言的运用。
★由于他的政治观点和对俄罗斯反对派意见的影响，普希金被描绘成一个资产阶级文学与文化的敌对者和苏联文
学的先驱。
★主要作品：
《鲍里斯•戈都诺夫》
《叶甫盖尼•奥涅金》
《上尉的女儿》
《黑桃皇后》
《渔夫和鱼的故事》
★普希金花了 8 年时间才完成《叶甫盖尼•奥涅金》
，这通常被认为是他的代表作。

VII. Romanticism in Poland（波兰的浪漫主义）

①A short Romantic flowering took place in Poland around l 820‟s. The greatest writer that emerged was Adam
Mickiewicz.
②Mickiewicz was an eager translator of Byron and wrote, as the western Romantics did, lyrics, love poems and
historical tales. These works were collected into a volume called Ballads and Romances(1822), whose publication is
 usually taken as the beginning of Romanticism in Polish literature.
①19 世纪二十年代，波兰出现了一次短暂的浪漫主义。出现的最伟大的作家是亚当密茨凯维奇。
②密茨凯维奇是拜伦的热切翻译者，跟西方浪漫主义一样，他写抒情诗，爱情诗和历史故事。这些作品被收集到
一个称为民谣与传奇故事（1822）的书中，它的出版标志着波兰浪漫主义文学的开始。

VIII. Art and Architecture（艺术和建筑）

1. Paintings（绘画）
(1) Goya (1746—1828) （戈雅）
①Spanish court painter and etcher
②Best known for his portraits of royalty and nobility
③Major works:
The Parasol
The Execution of the Third of May
Family of Charles IV
Saturn Devouring his Children
①西班牙宫廷画家和蚀刻家
②最出名的是他的皇室和贵族肖像
③主要作品：
《梧桐》
《五月三日的执行》
《查尔斯四世一家》
《土星吞吃自己的孩子》

(2) David (1748—1825) （戴维）

①French Painter
②Major works:
The Death of Socrates
The Death of Marat
①法国画家
②主要作品：
《苏格拉底之死》
《马拉之死》

(3) Delacroix(1798—1863) （德拉克洛瓦）

①He represents the highest achievement of French painting.
②Major works:
The Massacre at Chios
Dante and Virgil
①他代表法国绘画的最高成就。
②主要作品：
《希阿岛的屠杀》
《但丁和维吉尔》

(4) Géricault(1791—1824) （热里科）

①French painter
②Major works:
Epsorn Derby
Raft of Madusa
①法国画家
②主要作品：
 《艾普森的赛马》
《梅杜莎之筏》

2. Architecture（建筑）
The Houses of Parliament in Landon 兰登的国会大厦
The Brandenburg Gate in Berlin 柏林的勃兰登堡门
Opera House in Paris 巴黎歌剧院

X. Music（音乐）
1. The Early Romantics（早期浪漫主义）
★Beethoven: German Composer
★Symphony No. 6 (Pastoral) marked the beginning of 19th century programme music
★Schubert: Austrian composer
★Chopin Polish: composer
★Schumann: German composer
★Mendelssohn: German composer
★贝多芬：德国作曲家
★6 号交响曲（牧区）标志着十九世纪标题音乐的开始
★舒伯特：奥地利作曲家
★萧邦：波兰作曲家
★舒曼：德国作曲家
★门德尔松：德国作曲家

2. The Later Romantics — Middle of 19th Century（后期浪漫主义─十九世纪中期）

Berlioz: French composer 法国作曲家柏辽兹
Liszt: Hungarian composer 匈牙利作曲家里斯特
Wagner: German composer 瓦格纳：德国作曲家
Brahms: German composer 勃拉姆斯：德国作曲家
Tchaikovsky: Russian composer 柴可夫斯基：俄国作曲家
 第8章 马克思主义和达尔文主义

8.1 复习笔记

I. The Rise of Marxism

1. General Introduction
2. Historical Background
3. The three Sources and Three Component Parts of Marxism
4. Marx and Literature
5. Summing-up
II. Darwinism
1. General Introduction
2. Darwin‟s works and theory
3. Effects of Darwinism

I. The Rise of Marxism（马克思主义的崛起）

1. General Introduction（简介）
(1) Born in the 19th century from European culture;
(2) Profoundly affected ideas about history, society, economics, ideology, culture and politics;
(3) Two founders: Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels
(4) Their writings are widely acknowledged both in the west and in the east by any educated person.
（1）产于十九世纪的欧洲文化；
（2）深刻地影响了历史，社会，经济，思想，文化和政治观；
（3）两位创始人：卡尔马克思和弗里德里希恩格斯
（4）无论是在西方和东方,他们的作品被任何受过教育的人所广泛认同。

2. Historical Background（历史背景）
(1) The industrial Revolution (业革命) resulted in the rapid development of modern capitalism as well as the growth of
the working class as a powerful independent political force.
(2) The first economic crisis and intensified class conflict.
(3) The working class movement developed to a higher level (destroy machines→ mass strikes, political demonstrations
& armed uprisings)
（1）工业革命导致了现代资本主义的迅速发展以及工人阶级作为一个强大的独立的政治力量的成长。
（2）第一次经济危机和愈演愈烈的阶级冲突。
（3）工人运动发展到一个更高的水平（破坏机器→大规模罢工，政治活动和武装起义）

3. The three Sources and Three Component Parts of Marxism（马克思主义的三个来源和三个组成部分）

①German Classic Philosophy 德国古典哲学
②English Classical Political Economy 英国古典政治经济学
③Utopian Socialism 空想社会主义

4. Marx and Literature（马克思和文学）

★He shows a passionate interest in literature and literature becomes a potent weapon in his early battles .
★He highly values realist literature.
★他对文学怀有浓厚的兴趣，文学成为他早期斗争的有力武器。
★他对现实主义文学评价很高。

5. Summing-up（总结）
Marx discovered the law of development of human history that mankind must first of all eat, drink, have shelter
and clothing before it can pursue politics, science, art, religion, etc.
 He discovered the special law of motion governing the present-day capitalist mode of production and the
bourgeois society. He discovered surplus value.
马克思发现了人类历史的发展规律，人们首先必须吃，喝，有住所和衣服，然后才能从事政治，科学，艺
术，宗教等活动。
他发现了现代资本主义生产方式和它所产生的资产阶级社会的特殊运动规律和剩余价值。

II. Darwinism（达尔文主义）
1. General Introduction（简介）
①discovered the law governing the evolution of man himself
②For many centuries before him, people in the west had led to believe each verse of the Bible as literally true that all
living things were created by God, but Darwin declared that every living thing on earth evolved from one or a few
common ancestors, which greatly shook the world.
The theory of evolution Contains four major arguments:
1. New species appear
2. Those new species have evolved from old species.
3. the evolution of species is the result of natural selection.
4. And the natural selection depends on variation and the maintenance of variation in spite of the tendency of natural
selection to eliminate unfit variants.
①发现了进化论
②在他之前的许多世纪，西方人都相信圣经上所说的都是正确的，即所有的生物都是由上帝创造的。但达尔文宣
称所有的生物都来源于一个或几个相同的祖先，这一说法大大震撼了世界。
进化理论包含四个主要观点：
1．新物种的出现
2．新物种从老物种进化而来。
3．物种的进化是自然选择的结果。
4．尽管自然选择的趋向是根除不适合的变体，但是自然选择取决于变异和变异的保持。

2. Darwin‟s works and theory（达尔文的著作和理论）

On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection
It follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and
sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected.
著作： 《物种起源》
轻微变异的个体能以任何方式使自身更能适应复杂的、有时变化的生活条件者将有较好的生存机会，这样
就被自然选择下来。

3. Effects of Darwinism（达尔文主义的影响）
Darwin‟s influence on the development of biology has been immeasurable. The immediate effect of the
publication of On the Origin of Species was to stimulate research in morphology, embryology, and paleontology to
find evidence to support or refute Darwin‟s views.
达尔文对生物发展的影响是不可估量的。 《物种起源》出版后的直接影响是激起了对形态学，胚胎学，古
生物学已发现证据来支持或反驳达尔文的观点。
 第9章 现实主义

9.1 复习笔记

I. General Introduction
1. What Is Realism?
2. The Historical Background
II. Realism in France
1. Stendhal (pen name of Marie Henri Beyle, 1783—1842)
2. Honoréde Balzac(1799—1850)
3. Gustave Flaubert(1821—1880)
4. Emile Zola(1840—1902)
5. Guy de Maupassant(1850—1893)
III. Realism in Russia
1. Nikolai Gogol(1809—1852)
2. Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev(1818—1883)
3. Fyodor Dostoyevsky(1821—1881)
4. Count Leo Tolstoy(1828—1910)
IV. Realism in Northern Europe
1. Henrik Ibsen(1828—1906)
2. August Strindberg(1849—1912)
V. Realism in England
1. Charles Dickens (1812—1870)
2.George Eliot(pen name of Mary Ann Evans, 1819—1880)
3. William Makepeace Thackeray(1811—1863)
4. Thomas Hardy(1840—1928)
5. George Bernard Shaw(1856—1950)
VI. Realism in the United States
1. Harriet Beecher Stowe(1811—1896)
2. Walt Whitman(1819—1892)
3. Mark Twain(pen name of Samuel Langhorne Clemens1)
4. Henry James(1843—1916)
VII. Art
1. Realism in Art
2. Impressionism in Art
3. Post-Impressionism

I. General Introduction（简介）
1. What Is Realism? （什么是现实主义？）
In art and literature the term realism is used to identify a literary movement in Europe and the united States in the
Last half of the 19th century and the early years of the 20th century. The realists wanted a truthful representation in
their works of contemporary life and manners.
文学艺术中的现实主义是指 19 世纪后半期和 20 世纪初期发生于美国和欧洲的文学运动。现实主义者想在
他们的作品中真实地展现当代的生活方式。

2. The Historical Background（历史背景）

★The realist movement was greatly influenced by the development of science in the 19th century.
★The 19th century is the century of greatest change in the history of Western civilization. The upheavals following the
French revolution broke up the old order of Europe. Almost all over Europe, the middle classes established their
effective rule, though monarchs often remained in more or less nominal power. Two large European countries,
 Germany and Italy, achieved their unification. The predominance of France was broken and Great Britain ruled the sea.
These major political events in their turn caused great social and economic changes.
★The Profound social dis location and urban poverty brought about the social and economic changes which created
severe problems to which the political and intellectual leaders of the l9th century reacted in a number of ways.
★现实主义运动深受 19 世纪科学发展的影响。
★19 世纪是西方文明史上伟大变革的世纪。法国革命后剧变打破了欧洲的旧秩序。，中产阶级几乎个欧洲建立了
有效的规则，虽然君主任保有或多或少的权利。两个大的欧洲国家，德国和意大利，实现了统一。法国的优势
被打破，英国统治了大海。这些重大政治事件又引起了社会和经济的巨大变化。
★社会错位和城市贫困所带来的社会和经济变化带来了严重的问题。

II. Realism in France（法国的现实主义）

1. Stendhal(pen name of Marie Henri Beyle, 1783—1842) （斯汤达（笔名玛丽-贝尔，1783—1842））
Works: Armance Le Rough et le Noir (The Red and the Black) 《红与黑》
la Chartreuse de Parme (The Charterhouse of Parma) 《巴马修道院》

2. Honoréde Balzac(1799—1850) （巴尔扎克）

★Balzac has been called „„the French Dickens”, as Dickens has been called “the English Balzac”.
★Works:
La Comedie Humaine (the Human Comedy)
Eugenie Grandet
Le Pere Goriot
La Cousine Bette
★巴尔扎克被称为“法国的狄更斯”，狄更斯被称为“英国巴尔扎克”。
★作品：
《人间喜剧》
《欧也妮·葛朗台》
《高老头》
《贝蒂表妹》

3. Gustave Flaubert(1821—1880) （福楼拜）

Flaubert is one of the great literary artists of the 19th century.
福楼拜是十九世纪伟大的文学艺术家之一。
Work: Madame Bovery《包法利夫人夫人》

4. Emile Zola(1840—1902) （埃米尔左拉）

Zola was the founder of the naturalist school.
左拉是自然主义流派的创始人。
Work: Les Rougen-Macquarts《罗根·马塔里》

5. Guy de Maupassant(1850—1893) （盖伊莫泊桑）

Work: The Necklace《项链》
The Piece of String《一条绳子》
The Umbrella《雨伞》

III. Realism in Russia（俄罗斯的现实主义）

1. Nikolai Gogol(1809—1852) （果戈理）
①Nikolai Gogol was the first master of fiction in Russia to leave romantic conventions and go to life for his subjects.
②Works: Dead Souls
①果戈理是俄罗斯小说第一人。他抛开浪漫准则，去生活中寻找题材。
②作品：
《死魂灵》
2. Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev(1818—1883) （伊凡屠格涅夫）
①Turgenev was the first Russian author to gain recognition in the West.
②Works: A Hunter’s Sketches
A Nest of Gentlefolk
Fathers and Son
①屠格涅夫是第一个在西方获得认可的俄罗斯作家。
②作品： 《猎人笔记》、《贵族之家》、《父与子》

3. Fyodor Dostoyevsky(1821—1881) （陀思妥耶夫斯基）

Works: The House of Death《死屋手记》
Crime and Punishment《罪与罚》
The Brother Karamazov《卡拉马佐夫兄弟》

4. Count Leo Tolstoy(1828—1910) （伯爵托尔斯泰）

With Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy made the Russian realistic novel a literary genre that ranks in importance with
classical Greek tragedy and Elizabethan drama.
托尔斯泰与妥也夫斯基将俄罗斯现实主义小说转变成了一种与古希腊悲剧和伊丽莎白戏剧齐名的文学体
裁。

IV. Realism in Northern Europe（欧洲北部的现实主义）

1. Henrik Ibsen(1828—1906) （亨利克易卜生）
Works: A Doll’s House《玩偶之家》
Ghosts《群鬼》
An Enemy of the People《人民公敌》
The Wild Duck and Hedda Gabler《野鸭和海达高布乐》

2. August Strindberg(1849—1912) （斯特林堡）

Works: Master Olaf《奥洛夫老师》
The Son of a Servant《女仆的儿子》

V. Realism in England（英国的现实主义）
The period of realism in English literature corresponds roughly to the latter half of the reign of Queen Victoria
(1837—1900). This is the period when England was at the peak of its power, rapidly growing into a strong,
industrialized nation. In spite of its stable government and greatly increased population, the country Suffered severe
economic depression. A revolt began against the complacency and optimism that had characterized the early days of
the Victorian rule.
英国文学的现实主义时期大致相当于维多利亚女王统治后期（1837—l900）。这一期英国正处于鼎盛时期，
尽管人口激增，经济萧条，它却迅速成长为了一个强大的工业化国家。维多利亚统治早期的特点是对自满和乐
观的厌恶。

1. Charles Dickens (1812—1870) （查尔斯狄更斯）

★At the age of 25, he leapt to fame and prosperity, when he captured the public and dumbfounded the critics with
Pickwick Papers. After writing the historical novel, A Tale of Two Cities, he devoted himself to the novel of social
conditions, an indictment of the society of his time. He wrote Oliver Twist, A Christmas Carol, Hard Times and Bleak
House, all with a reforming purpose. Among them Bleak House has the most intricate, complicated plot, while Hard
Times gives an intensely focused picture of an English industrial town in the heyday of capitalist expansion.
★His best book David Copperfield: a kind of autobiographical romance, in which his power over our everyday emotion
is unrivalled. Within one page he can make the reader burst with laughter and soon wet the book with honest tears. But
whatever he wrote he has some basis on his own experience. In his youth he had been familiar with the most humble
 surroundings and the most poverty—stricken districts. As a novelist of genius, he has created a whole world of beings
animated with the movement of life, with unforgettable scenes full of good humour, tender emotions and
loving-kindness.
★Works: Pickwick Papers
A Tale of Two Cities
Oliver Twist
Hard Times
Bleak House
David Copperfield
★在 25 岁的时候，他发表了匹克威克外传，抓住了大众视线，使评论家们目瞪口呆，这使得他一举成名并变得
富有。写完历史小说双城计以后，作为对当时的社会的一种控诉，他开始投入到反映社会生活条件的小说的写
作中去。以改革为目的，他写了《雾都孤儿》，《圣诞颂歌》，
《艰难时世》和《荒凉山庄》。其中，《荒凉山庄》
的情节最为复杂，而《艰难时世》着重描述了资本主义扩张的鼎盛时期的一个英国工业城。
★他最好的书《大卫科波菲尔》：一种自传式的浪漫，在此书中，他对我们日常情感的把握是无与伦比的。在同
一页中，他可以让读者大笑，一会儿后，也能让读者流下真诚的泪水。但是无论他写的是什么，他都有自己的
经验依据。年轻时，他就对最卑微的环境和最贫困的地区有所了解。作为一个天才的小说家，他用充满幽默的
令人难忘的场景，温柔的情感和爱心创造了一个生命运动的人类世界。
★作品：
《匹克威克外传》
《双城记》
《雾都孤儿》
《艰难时事》
《荒凉山庄》
《大卫科波菲尔》

2.George Eliot(pen name of Mary Ann Evans, 1819—1880) （乔治·爱略特）

★George Eliot‟s masterpiece Middlemarch is regarded by some critics as the finest English novel of the l9th century. It
is a complex story of provincial Victorian society that points to the excessive sacrifices that marriage can demand and
the dangers of self—deception and over—idealism. Her skill in portraying a whole community in this book invites
comparison with Balzac, and her picture of village life has been compared to that in Flaubert’s Madame Bovary.
★Works: Middlemarch
The Mill on the Floss
★乔治爱略特的杰作《米德镇的春天》被一些评论家认为是 19 世纪最优秀的英语小说。这是一个关于维多利亚
时期乡下社会的复杂故事。矛头直接指向婚姻造成的过度牺牲，自我欺骗和过度理想化的危害。在本书中，她
描述整个社区的能力可以与．巴尔扎克相比，书中乡村生活的画面可以与《包法利夫人》相比。
★作品：
《米德尔马契》
《弗洛斯河上的磨坊》

3. William Makepeace Thackeray(1811—1863) （威廉·梅克比斯·萨克雷）

★Work: Vanity Fair
★Vanity Fair: a social satire that features, in Becky Sharp, one of the most vividly drawn heroines in English fiction.
Instead of writing about the lower classes and social abuses. Thackeray satirized romantic sentimentality and the
snobbishness and futility of upper—class life.
★作品：《名利场》
★《名利场》
：这是一本社会讽刺小说，本书着重描绘了英语小说中描述最为生动的女主人翁之一。萨克雷讽刺
了浪漫情感和上层阶级生活的势利和徒劳无功，没有写下层阶级和社会弊端。

4. Thomas Hardy(1840—1928) （托马斯哈代）

★The background of his novels was always more or less the same: the moors, the hills, the narrow provincial life.
Everywhere in his novels human beings appear to be crushed by a superior force, a pitiless fate, and the indifference of
his fellow creatures. They are not masters of their fates, always at the mercy of their own passions. Suffering is the
 rule of society. No matter how man may struggle, no matter what noble aspirations he may have, he will ultimately be
overcome.
★Works:
Far from the Madding Crowd
The Return of the Native
The Mayer of Casterbridge
Tess of the D’Urbervilles
Jude the Obscure
★他小说的背景总是或多或少相同：沼泽，小山，狭窄的乡村生活。在他的小说世界中，人似乎总是被一个强大
的力量，无情的命运，和同胞的冷漠所摧毁。他们不是自己命运的主人，总是受自己的激情支配。痛苦的是社
会的规则。不管如何努力，不管他的愿望是多么的高尚他，他最终都将被克服。
★作品：
《远离尘嚣》
《还乡》
《卡斯特桥市长》
《德伯家的苔丝》
《无名的裘德》

5. George Bernard Shaw(1856—1950) （萧伯纳）

★Shaw won the Nobel Prize in l925. He was a member of the Fabian society whose aim was to make a transition from
capitalism to socialism without violence.
★Works:
Heartbreak House
St. Joan
The Apple Cart
Major Barbara
Pygmalion
★萧伯纳在 l925 年赢得了诺贝尔奖。他是费边社的成员之一，他的目的是在不使用暴力的情况下，事社会从资
本主义过度到社会主义。
★作品：
《伤心之家》
《圣女贞德》
《苹果车》
《巴巴拉少校》
《卖花女》

VI. Realism in the United States（美国的现实主义）

★After the Civil War the dominance of New England as the centre of cultural life of the United States began to give way
to New York. The old generation was on the whole genteel and academic. Their subject was very limited, their
language was stale and old—fashioned. Now the English used in the States began to take on its own features. The new
generation rejected the idealized character, sought to describe a wide range of American experience and to write about
the social and economic conditions confronting the American people.
★内战以后，作为美国文化生活中心的新英格兰的优势开始让位于纽约。老一代的人总体上是文雅的，学术的。
他们的课题非常有限，语言陈旧而过时。现在，美国的英语开始有了自己的特征。新一代的人拒绝理想中的人
物，试图描述一个大范围的美国经验和写美国人民面对的社会经济条件。

1. Harriet Beecher Stowe(1811—1896) （比切·斯托夫人）

Work: Uncle Tom’s Cabin
作品：《汤姆叔叔的小屋》
2. Walt Whitman(1819—1892) （怀特曼）
★Considered by many to be the greatest of all American poets, Whitman celebrated the freedom and dignity of the
individual and sang the praises of democracy and the brotherhood of man.
★Works:
Leaves of Grass
When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloomd
★他被许多人认为是美国最伟大的诗人，怀特曼歌颂个人的自由与尊严和赞扬民主与人类的兄弟情谊。
★作品：
《草叶集》
《当丁香花最后在庭院开放的时候》

3. Mark Twain(pen name of Samuel Langhorne Clemens) （马克·吐温）

★Twain is justly called “the Lincoln of American literature”. His novel The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, a
masterpiece of humour, characterization and realism, has been considered the first modern American novel. As Ernest
Hemingway put it, “All modern literature comes from one book by Mark Twain, called Huckleberry Finn...”
★Works：
The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Caravras Country
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
The Gilded Age
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer
The Prince and the Pauper
★吐温被称为试“美国文学的林肯”。他的小说杰作《哈克贝利费恩历险记》，是一部充满幽默，人物刻画和现实
主义的佳品，被认为是第一部现代美国小说。正如厄内斯特海明威所说，“所有的现代文学都来源于一本马克
吐温的书，叫哈克贝利费恩„„”
★作品：
《卡拉维拉斯郡著名的跳蛙》
《哈克贝利费恩历险记》
《镀金时代》
《汤姆索菲亚历险记》
《王子与穷人》

4. Henry James(1843—1916) （亨利·詹姆斯）

★Noted for his great psychological subtlety and devotion to the art of fiction, he has exerted considerable influence on
later novelists. He was hailed as “the Master beyond all masters”
★Works:
The Portrait of Lady
The Passionate Pilgrim and Other Stories
Daisy Miller
The Golden Bowl
★以其心思细腻和小说艺术的热爱而出名，他对后世作家产生了很大的影响。他被誉为“大师中的大师”
★作品：
《贵妇画像》
《热情的朝圣者和其他的故事》
《黛西米勒》
《金碗》

VII. Art（艺术）
1. Realism in Art（现实主义艺术）
①Gustave Courbet (1819—1877)
works: The Stonebreakers
 Burial at Ornans
②Jean. Francois Millet (1814—1875)
His works generally depict one or two peasant figures quietly engaged in earthly or domestic toil.
Works: The Sower, Gleaners
①古斯塔夫库尔贝（1819—1877）
作品：《采石工》、《奥尔南的葬礼》
②让·弗朗索瓦·米勒（1814—1875）
他的作品通常描绘的是一两个农民形象，静悄悄地在家里或地里劳动的情形。
作品：《播种》、《拾穗》

2. Impressionism in Art（印象派艺术）
Impressionism was a form of artistic expression in the l9th century. It was most pervasive in painting, but it was
also found in literature and art. Impressionism in painting, which began in the mid-19th century Paris, was a school or
movement only in a very general sense. It took it as subject matter whenever it found it, usually in the more public
aspects of the middle class pleasures and distractions that became fashionable in the reign of the French Louis
Napoleon. The artists frequented the scenes they portrayed: seaside resorts, forests and rivers, sidewalk cafes,
racetracks, and the theatre and ballet. Freed from such authority of traditional themes as biblical, historical, or
allegorical stories, the impressionists assumed a new and subjective position relative to their subject matter. The
individual sensations of the artist under the influence of a specific transitory experience, such as a particular time of
day or a condition of weather, became a dominant theme of the impressionists.
印象派是十九世纪的一种艺术表达形式。它在绘画方面应用很普遍，但是文学与艺术中也有。开始于 19
世纪中期的巴黎印象派绘画，绘画的对象通常是法国路易斯拿破仑统治时期流行的中产阶级的玩乐和小钱方面
的事物，它们被发现后就会被用来作为绘画的题材。艺术家们经常光顾他们描绘过的场景：海滨胜地，森林和
河流，路边的咖啡馆，赛马场，和戏剧和芭蕾剧场。摆脱了圣经，历史，或寓言故事一类的传统主题的权威，
印象派画家采取与他们的题材相对应的新的和主观的视角。在特定的短暂的经验的影响下，个人的艺术感觉，
如一天中的特定时间或天气状况，成为了印象主义中占主导地位的主题。
(1) Edouard Manet (1832—1883)
Manet was regarded as the leader of the impressionist movement.
Works: le Dejeuner sur L’herbe
Foliers Bergers
(2) Camille Pissarro (1830—1903)
Work: The Place du Theatre Francais
（1）马奈（1832—1883）
马奈是印象派运动的领袖。
作品：《地上的午餐》
《福列斯贝热尔酒吧间》
（2）卡米尔毕沙罗（1830—1903）
作品：《杜法兰西剧院》

3. Post-Impressionism（后印象主义）
Post-Impressionists extended Impressionism while rejecting its limitations: they continued using vivid colours,
often thick application of paint, and real-life subject matter, but they were more inclined to emphasize geometric forms,
to distort form for expressive effect, and to use unnatural or arbitrary colour.
后印象派是印象派的延伸，它抛弃其局限性，继续使用鲜艳的颜色和厚厚的颜料，以及现实生活中的题材，
但他们更倾向于强调几何形式和扭曲的形式以达到表达的效果，并运用不自然或任意的颜色。

9.2 课后习题详解

Questions for Revision:

1. When and in what country did the realist movement arise?
 Key: The Realist movement arose in the 50s of the 19th century and had its origin in France.

2. What is the chief difference between Romanticism and Realism?

Key: (1) In art and literature realism came as a protest against the falseness and sentimentality which realists thought
they saw in romantic fiction
(2) If romanticism allows full play to the imagination and stresses love of beauty and interest in the past, the
central issues of life for realists tend to be ethical or issues of conduct
(3) And their democratic attitude tended to make them value the individual very highly and to regard
characterization as the centre of the novel.
(4) In this sense, realism means more than a literary method; it defines a particular kind of subject matter —the
surface details, the commonplace actions and the tragedies of the ordinary people constitute the chief matter if realist
movement.
(5) Its language was simple, clear, and direct, while the tone was often comic, frequently satiric.

3. What were the conditions in Western Europe in the l 840s?

Key: In 1848 there was revolution throughout Europe. And once again the revolution started in France and was
followed by a series of revolution in other parts of Europe.

4. Who were the important French and English realist novelists? Name a few of their works.
Key: (1) The important France writers and some of their works:
Stendhal: The Red and the Black
Balzac: Le Pere Goriot, La Cousine Bette, The Human Comedy
Flaubert: Madame Bovary
Zola: Les Rougen-Macquarts
Maupassant: The Necklace, The Piece of String
(2) English realist novelists and some of their works:
Dickens: Hard Times, Black House, David Copperfield
George Eliot: The Mill on the Floss, Middlemarch
Thackeray: Vanity Fair
Hardy: Jude the Obscure, Tess of the D’Urbervilles, Far from the Madding Crown, The Return of the Native
George Bernard Shaw: Heartbreak House, The Doctor’s Dilemma, Major Barbara

5. Who has been called “the French Dickens”，and who “the English Balzac”? Why?
Key: Charles Dickens has been called “the English Balzac” and Balzac has been called “the French Dickens”.Both are
realist writers, both depict many walks of life in their novels and touches on most fields of knowledge.

6. Explain “A novel is a mirror walking along the road."

Key: This is Stendhal‟s words. It tells that the realists wanted a truthful representation in their works of Contemporary
life and manners. They thought of their method as observational and objective.

7. Can you account for the great achievement of Russian literature in the nineteenth century?
Key: It was no until the eighteenth century, when Peter the Great carried through the reforms that Russians really came
into contact with the literature of Western Europe. Between 1700 and 1815 Russia absorbed what she could of the
classical Renaissance, classicism, neo-classicism, etc. after 1815 modern Russian literature began at once with an
enormous power and full of vigor. Gogol was born in 1821 and Tolstoy, in 1828. Besides them was a host of other
writers. At one step, literature in Russia raised itself from nothingness to the centre of Russian life. The beginnings of
modern Russian literature are to be traced to the Napoleonic wars. Napoleon had tried to invade Moscow. The army
was defeated not by the Russian army but by the unfavorable conditions: cold and hunger. Later the Russian
participated in the battle of Waterloo and many intelligent young Russians spent enough time in France to become
acquainted with the ideas of democracy. They became “dangerous men” when they returned to Russia, where anyone
 who should say anything against the government was punished by severe sentences to labor in Siberia. Therefore the
political and philosophical aspirations of the Russian people expressed themselves in the form of literature, and
literature became the voice of the people.

8. Who among all the Russian writers has exerted the greatest influence on the European novelists of the twentieth
century?
Key: Dostoyevsky.

9. What is the book for which Whitman is famous throughout the world?
Key: Leaves of Grass.

10. Who is regarded as the father of American literature? What did Hemingway say about him?
Key: Mark Twain was regarded as the father of American literature. Hemingway thought highly of him, as he put it,
“All modern literature comes from one book by Mark Twain, called Huckleberry Finn…”
 第 10 章 现代主义和其他趋势

10.1 复习笔记

I. General Introduction
1. Modernism Defined
2. Historical Context
3. Progress in Science
4. New Ideas and Thoughts
II. Contemporary Western Literature Before 1945
1. English Literature
2. Irish Literature
3. American Literature
4. German Literature
5. French Literature
6. Russian and Soviet Literature
III. Literature and Philosophy Since 1945
1. Angry Young Men in England
2. Beat Generation in America
3. Nouveau Roman (New Novel)
4. Existentialism
5. The Theatre of the Absurd
6. Black Humour
IV. Art and Music
1. Fauvism
2. Expressionism
3. Cubism
4. Futurism
5. Dadaism
6. Surrealism

I. General Introduction（概述）
1. Modernism Defined（现代主义的定义）
Modernism was a complex and diverse international movement in all the creative arts, originating about the end
of the 19th century. It was made up of many facets, such as symbolism, surrealism, cubism, expressionism, futurism,
etc.
现代主义是源于 19 世纪末期所有创造性艺术领域里的一场复杂的、多样化的国际运动。它由许多的方面
所组成，如象征主义，超现实主义，立体主义，未来主义，表现主义等。

2. Historical Context（历史背景）
★World War I took place from 1914 to 1918.
★socialist Russia was born in 1917.
★economic crisis in all the imperialist countries deepened.
★This worldwide economic disaster gave rise to a most ugly phenomenon — Hitler and his Nazi party came into power
in Germany.
★The Second World War.
★从 1914 到 1918 爆发了第一次世界大战。
★1917 年社会主义的俄罗斯诞生了。
★所有帝国主义国家的经济危机的加深。
★这场全球经济灾难造成了了一个最丑陋的现象——希特勒和他的纳粹党在德国上台。
★第二次世界大战的爆发。

3. Progress in Science（科学的进步）
The beginning of the 20th century saw a rapid development in all fields of technology at a speed the world had
never seen. The highest point of this development was represented by Einstein, who revolutionized science with his
theory of relativity.
二十世纪初见证了所有技术领域以从未有过的速度快速地发展。这一发展的最高点是以爱因斯坦为代表的
一场科学革命，他的相对论对科学进行了一场革新。

4. New Ideas and Thoughts（新思想和新思路）

(1) The Unconscious（无意识）
Freud believed that there is a great part of the human mind we don‟t know about, and he concluded that some of
the most powerful influences on human personality are things about which we are not conscious. According to Freud,
many of our experiences, especially our childhood experiences， are forgotten and buried in the unconscious.
Although we don‟t recall them consciously, they continue to influence our behavior.
佛洛伊德认为，大脑中的很大一部分是我们所不知道的，他认为，我们没有意识到一些对人类性格影响
最大的事情。根据佛洛伊德的说法，我们的许多经验，特别是我们的童年经历，是被遗忘和埋葬在无意识的。
虽然我们会有意识地去回忆，他们仍会继续影响我们的行为。
(2) Id, Ego, Superego（本我，自我，超我）
Freud divided human personality into three functional parts —Id, Ego and Superego. In the Freudian system, the
Id is the container of the instinctual urges. It is the unconscious part of mind, which seeks immediate satisfaction of
desires. It is concerned with what a person wants to do.
①Ego is the rational, thoughtful, realistic personality process. It is characterized by a desire for independence, autonomy
and. self- direction. It is concerned with what a person can do.
②Superego is the idealized image that a person builds of himself in response to authority and social pressures.
③The Id and the Superego often come into conflict with each other. It is the task of the Ego, according to Freud, to try to
find a realistic way to resolve the conflict — by satisfying the demands of Id without offending the Superego.
佛洛伊德把人的性格分成三个功能部件——本我，自我和超我。根据弗洛伊德的理论系统，本我是本能愿
望的容器。它是心灵的无意识部分，旨在寻求欲望的立即满足。它控制的是一个人想做什么事。
①自我是理性的，深思熟虑的，现实人格的过程。它的特点是渴望独立，自主，掌握自我方向。它控制的是一个
人能做什么。
②超我是一个人为应对权威和社会压力所建立起来的理想形象。
③本我和超我经常互相冲突。根据佛洛伊德的理论，试图找到解决冲突的现实途径是自我的责任——在不触犯超
我的前提下满足本我的需求。
(3) Oedipus Complex（俄狄浦斯情结）
According to Freud‟s psychosexual development theory, children are born with powerful sexual urges. From 3
to 5, they become especially aware of the differences between themselves and members of the opposite sex. In this
period, a child becomes a rival for the affections of the parent of the opposite sex. The boy wants to win his mother
for himself, so he tends to be hostile to his father. The girl does exactly the opposite. However, neither the parent nor
their children are aware of this. It is an unconscious process.
根据佛洛伊德的性心理发展理论，孩子一出生就与强大的性冲动。从 3 岁到 5 岁，他们开始知道识自己
和异性之间的差异。在这一时期，一个孩子为寻求爱，而与自己同性的父母成为竞争者。男孩想赢得母亲，
所以他敌视父亲。女孩却正好相反。然而，无论是父母还是孩子都不知道这个。这是一个无意识的过程。

II. Contemporary Western Literature Before 1945（1945 年前的当代西方文学）

1. English Literature（英国文学）
(1) T. S. Eliot (1888—1965) （爱略特）
★The most modern and the most traditional, the most influential and the most influenced, of poets in the 20th century.
He drew people‟s attention to two literary influences.
他 20 世纪是最现代和最传统，最有影响力和最受影响力的人诗人。他让人们体会到了两次文学影响。
★Major works: （主要作品）
The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock (1915) 《艾尔弗雷德普鲁弗洛克的情歌》
Four Quartets (1944) 《四重奏》
The Waste Land (1922) 《荒原》
★The Waste Land: It is a rich and complex poem about spiritual emptiness and emotional impoverishment common to
both the dying genteel world and the new urban materialist world. In this poem, Eliot brings in allus ions to mythology,
classical literature — such as the Bible and Dante‟s Divine Comedy.
荒原：它是一首关于精神的空虚和两个垂死的世界的诗。在这首诗中，爱略特引用了神话和文学经典——
如圣经和但丁的神曲。

(2) Joseph Conrad (1857—1924) （约瑟夫·康拉德）

★He wrote mostly of sea. As a novelist, Conrad was concerned with men under stress. His novels were marked by close
examination of human motives and moral values. They were also marked by exceptional style and crafts manship. He
combined plot and action, psychic indirection, ingenious manipulation of time sequences, and an intricate use of
narrators to produce a powerful and highly dramatic effect.
他写的大多是海。作为一个小说家，康拉德所关心的是人受到压力时的情况。他的小说以审视人类的动机
和道德价值观为主要特点。他们还以特殊的风格和技艺的标记而出名。他把情节与动作，心灵的间接性，巧妙
的时间控制，复杂的叙述手法的运用结合起来以此创造出一个强大的和高度戏剧性的效果。
★Major works: （主要作品）
Lord Jim (1900) 《吉姆勋爵》

(3) Virginia Woolf (1882—1941) （弗吉尼亚伍尔夫）

★Woolf was dissatisfied with the conventional novels based on familiar, factual and external details. So she followed
the clues of the stream of consciousness to a more internal and subjective rendering of experience.
因为不满于那些基于熟悉的，真实的和外部的细节的传统小说，所以她采用意识流的手法来达到一个更深
的更为主观的经历讲述。
★Major works: （主要作品： ）
Mrs. Dalloway (1925) 《达洛维夫人》
To the Lighthouse (1927) 《到灯塔去》
★To the Lighthouse is a novel with very little action. James Ramsay, a writer of philosophy, wants his children to be
aware that life is difficult, and that it needs courage, truth and the power to endure. So he doesn‟t want his son, James,
to go to the lighthouse by insisting that the weather won‟t be fine the next day. James hates his father for this. It is only
many years later before this voyage is at last achieved, by James, his sister and their father. But this time the mother
and her two other children are dead already. The plot of the novel is simple and the main interest is focused upon the
thoughts and impressions of the Ramsays and their guests.
《到灯塔去》是一个非常小的动作小说。杰姆斯拉姆齐，一个哲学家，希望自己的孩子能够意识到生活是
困难的，需要勇气，真理与忍耐力。因此他不想让他的儿子，杰姆斯到灯塔去，因而说第二天天气不好。杰姆
斯为此而讨厌他的父亲。许多年后，他和他的姐姐父亲终于实现了这个旅行。但这一次，他的母亲和另外两个
孩子已经死了。这部小说的情节很简单，主要看点集中在拉姆齐夫妇和他们的客人的印象和思想上。

(4) David Herbert Lawrence (1885—1930) （戴维·赫伯·特劳伦斯）

★Lawrence took human relationship, especially that of men and women, as his major theme. His novels are full of
scenes of sensuous beauty, with a lot of naturalistic details. His works turned out to be a challenge to conventional
morality. And some people rejected them, especially Lady Chatterley‟s Lover (1928), as pornographic. But his books
are filled with ideas and they penetrate into the shadows of the human psyche. In his works, Lawrence showed the
instinctual force in human nature and offered a critique of modern industrial society.
劳伦斯把人际关系，尤其是男人和女人，作为他的重要主题。他的小说充满了感性美的场景，有很多自然
的细节。他的作品是对传统道德的挑战。一些人排斥他们，尤其是查泰莱夫人的情人（1928），视其为视为淫
秽作品。但他的书充满想法并穿透到了人类心灵的阴影中。在他的作品中，劳伦斯展示了人性本能的力量，并
批评了现代工业社会。
★Major works: （主要作品：
）
The Rainbow (1915) 《彩虹》
Women in Love (1920) 《恋爱中的女人》
The Lost Girl (1920) 《那迷失的女孩》
Lady Chatterley’s Lover《查泰莱夫人的情人》
★Sons and Lovers (1913): which is, in many ways, autobiographical. It tells the story of a miner‟s family — the Morel
family. Mrs. Morel is disillus ioned with her husband, a coarse and hard-drinking miner. Therefore, she places all her
expectations on her sons, especially Paul. As Paul grows older, tensions develop in this relationship, until his passions
for two other women involve him in a fatal conflict of love and possessiveness. This book has been regarded by critics
as a brilliant illustration of Freud‟s theory of Oedipus Complex.
《儿子与情人》 （1913）：这是一部自传。它讲述了一个矿工家庭的故事——摩尔家庭。莫雷尔太太对她的
丈夫很失望。因此，她把她所有的期望都寄托在她的儿子们身上，尤其是保罗。随着保罗的长大，在这种关系
开始变得紧张，直到他对两个其他女人的激情将他卷进了在一个致命的爱和占有的冲突中。

2. Irish Literature（爱尔兰文学）
(1) William Butler Yeats (1865—1939) （威廉·巴特勒·叶芝）
★Irish poet, has been considered to be the greatest poet of our time. Yeats‟ career stretched across the whole modern
period. His poems reflect the varying developments of his age and at the same time maintain a distinctive individual
accent.
★Major works:
“Responsibilities” (1914)
“The Tower” (1928)
“The Winding Stair and Last Poems”(1940)
“The Second Coming”
★爱尔兰诗人，被认为是当代最伟大的诗人。叶芝职业生涯横跨整个现代时期。他的诗反映了年龄的变化，同时
保持鲜明的个人特点。
★主要作品：
《责任》（1914）
《塔》（1928）
《弯曲的楼梯和最后一首诗》
（1940）
《第二次降临》

(2) James Joyce (1882—1941) （杰姆斯·乔伊斯）

★James Joyce, Irish writer, was perhaps the most important fiction writer in the 20th century. His works are
characterized by experiment with language, symbolism and such narrative techniques as interior monologue and
stream of consciousness.
★Major works:
①Dubliner (1914): a collection of 15 short stories. These stories are full of symbolic meanings.
②A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man
③Ulysses (1922): It is considered his most mature work and the single best fiction ever written since the beginning of
the 20th century. The book had some censorship troubles but immediately became famous. He describes the events of
a single day —June 16, 1904 — in Dublin. In it Joyce used stream of consciousness skill profusely to depict the three
main characters in great detail. Thematically, the Odessey myth is employed to show modern man‟s voyage and
adventures in life. Due to his innovations in narrative technique, the book is difficult to read.
④Finnegans Wake
★杰姆斯乔伊斯，爱尔兰作家，也许是二十世纪最重要的作家。他的作品的特点是语言的创新，象征主义，内心
独白和意识流等叙事技巧的运用。
★主要作品：
①《都柏林人》（1914）：包含了 15 个简短的故事，这些故事充满象征意义。
②《一个青年艺术家的自画像》
③《尤利西斯》
（1922）：被认为是他最成熟的作品，二十世纪初最好的小说。这本书有一些审查麻烦但立即成名。
这本书在审查上出现了一些麻烦，但出名很快。他描述了都柏林一天中所发生的事─ 1904 年 6 月 16 日。在
此书中，乔伊斯采用意识流描绘了三个主要的人物。主旨上，奥德赛神话被用来表现现代人的旅行和生活中冒
险。由于他在叙事技巧上的革新，这本书很难读。
④芬尼根守夜人

3. American Literature（美国文学）
(1) Ezra Pound (1885—1972) （庞德）
★Pound began as an imagist, but his work soon transcended the limits of Imagism and evolved into what is called
“Vortixism”.
★Major works:
In a Station of the Metro
★英镑开始是一个一个意象派诗人，但他的作品很快超越了意象主义的限制，成为了所谓的漩涡主义。
★主要作品：
《地铁站》

(2) William Faulkner (1897—1962) （威廉福克纳）

★William Faulkner, American novelist and short story writer, was one of the winners of the Nobel Prize in that country.
He wrote about America‟s south and used the method of the stream of consciousness and multiple-narrators.
★Major works:
The Sound and The Fury (1929)
As I Lay Dying (1930)
★As I Lay Dying is a book typical of his style. It is a story of a family, told by almost every member of it. The reader is
presented with the inner selves of these people, and several points of view are involved.
★威廉福克纳，美国小说家和短篇故事作家，是该国的诺贝尔奖得主之一。他写美国的南部，采用意识流和多个
叙述者的写法。
★主要作品：
《喧哗与骚动》（1929）
《在我弥留之际》（1930）
★《在我弥留之际》展示了他的典型风格。它是一个家庭的故事，几乎由它的每一位成员所讲述。读者能够读到
这些人的内心所想，并多角度参与。

(3) Ernest Hemingway (1899—1961) （厄内斯特海明威）

★Hemingway helped to accomplish a revolution in literary style and language. He tried to cut out all words that were
not strictly necessary. His style is characterized by short and simple sentences with very few adjectives and adverbs.
But they are full of emotion.
★Major works:
The Sun Also Rises (1926)
A Farewell to Arms (1929)
For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940)
The Old Man and the Sea (1952)
★海明威帮助完成了一场文体和语言的革命。他试图省略掉所有不必要的话。他的风格的特点是剪短和简单的句
子，用很少的形容词和副词。但他们都充满情感。
★主要作品：
《太阳照常升起》（1926）
《永别了，武器》（1929）
《丧钟为谁而鸣》（1940）
《老人与海》（1952）

4. German Literature（德国文学）
 Thomas Mann (1875—1955)
★He was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1929.
★Major work:
The Magic Mountain(1924): The major theme of the book is the psychological effect of isolation.
托马斯曼（1875——1955）
★他荣获 1929 年度诺贝尔文学奖。
★主要作品：
《魔术山》
（1924）：这本书的主题是孤立的心理效应。

5. French Literature（法国文学）
The major writers are AndréGide, Marcel Proust, Albert Camus.
主要作者纪德，普鲁斯特，艾伯特，加缪。

6. Russian and Soviet Literature（俄苏文学）

Major writers include: Maksim Gorky, Russian author and founder of the literary doctrine of socialist realism,
was the greatest Russian literary figure of the 20th century.
大作家包括：高尔基——社会主义的现实主义的文学理论的俄罗斯作家和创始人，是二十世纪俄国最伟大
的文学人物。

III. Literature and Philosophy Since 1945（1945 以来的文学和哲学）

1. Angry Young Men in England（英国愤怒的年轻人）
"Angry Young Men" was a term referring to a group of English writers who found themselves to be social misfits.
They felt they were socially stateless, even though they were university graduates. They were very sensitive to the
undesirable things of the society. The term "Angry Young Man" came to be widely used only after the publication of
John Osborne‟s play Look Back in Anger.
(1) Kingsley Amis (1922—1995)
He is best known for his first novel Lucky Jim (1954), in which he created a comic figure, Jim Dixon, an anti-hero.
(2) John Osborne (1929—1994)
John Osborne, British dramatist, ushered in a new period in modern drama with his play Look Back in Anger in 1956.
“愤怒的青年”一词指的是一群英国作家，他们发现自己与社会格格不入。他们感到在社会上没有地位，虽
然他们都是大学毕业生。他们对这个社会的不良的东西很敏感。 “愤怒的青年”在约翰奥斯本的剧本发表后被
广泛应用。
（1）金斯利艾米斯（1922—1995）
他因他的第一部小说《幸运的吉姆》 （1954）而出名，在书中他创作了一个漫画人物，吉姆狄克逊，一个反
英雄。
（2）约翰奥斯本（1929—1994）
约翰奥斯本，英国剧作家，他的剧本《愤怒的回顾》开创了现代戏剧的新时期。

2. Beat Generation in America（美国垮掉的一代）

It was a name adopted by some American youngsters who refused to accept "respectability" and conventional social
behavior and who cultivated a rootless manner of living. This attitude found its expression in poetry and prose writing
and all other forms of art. The distinctive features of the Beat Generation are as follows: they used a special slang
language and loved jazz; many of them were drug addicts; they often kept an appearance of deliberate neglect in
clothing and personal hygiene.
(1) Allen Ginsberg (1926—1997)
Allen Ginsberg, American poet, best represents the Beat Generation. He is chiefly known for his poem Howl, written
in1956.
Howl focuses on the evils of materialism and calls attention to the insulted and the injured of the earth.
(2) Jack Kerouac (1922—1969)
His first and best-known novel is On the Road (1957). In this book Kerouac developed a new, spontaneous, nonstop,
 unedited method of writing.
它是美国年轻人所取的一个名字，这些人拒绝接受“尊重”和传统的社会行为，养成了无家的生活方式。这
种态度在诗歌和散文写作和其他的艺术形式上都有所表现。“垮掉的一代”的鲜明特点如下：他们使用一种
特殊的俚语和喜爱爵士乐；他们中的许多人是吸毒者；他们经常保持刻意忽略服装和个人卫生的外观。
（1）艾伦金斯伯格（1926——1997）
艾伦金斯伯格，美国诗人，最能代表“垮掉的一代”。他主要以他的诗嚎叫而出名。嚎叫着重描述唯物主义
的罪恶，呼吁关注受侮辱和受害者。
（2）杰克凯鲁亚克（1922——1969）
他的第一部，也是最有名的小说是《在路上》（1957）。在这本书中，凯鲁亚克发明了一种新的，自发的，
不间断的，未经编辑的写作方法。

3. Nouveau Roman (New Novel) （新小说）

"Nouveau Roman" refers to some 20th-century French novels. The term "Nouveau Roman" came into being with
the publication of some essays by Alain Robbe-Grillet, a French writer. In one of his essays, Robbe-Grillet claimed to
write for his time and he said his kind of novel will pay much attention "to the ties that exist between objects, gestures,
and situations, avoiding all psychological and ideological commentary on the actions of the characters.”
“新小说”指的是二十世纪的法国小说。 “新小说”源于法国作家罗伯-格里耶一些文章的发表。在他的一
篇文章中，罗伯-格里耶声称为时间而作，他说他写的小说会格外关注“物体，手势，与情景之间的关系，避
免对人物的行动的所有的心理和思想的评论。 ”

4. Existentialism（存在主义）
Existentialism is a philosophy that became a self-conscious movement in the 20th century. Its basic concern is
human existence. It is an inquiry into the conditions of man with relation to the problems created by an extreme crisis
in historical and intellectual contexts. It advocates human freedom in the face of established ideas and institutions.
存在主义作为一种哲学，在二十世纪成为了一个有意识的运动。它关注的是人类的存在，探讨人的状况与
历史知识情境中极端危机造成的问题之间的关系。它主张人在已有思想和机构面前的自由性。

5. The Theatre of the Absurd（荒诞剧）

The "Theatre of the Absurd" is a term referring to the works of some European, particularly French, playwrights
of the 1950s and60s. The word "absurd" originated from the works of Camus, who saw human situation as "absurd".
In their plays, these playwrights attempted to convey the idea that human existence is purposeless, meaningless, and
that in this world man feels constantly bewildered, troubled and threatened.
(1) Samuel Beckett (1906—1989)
His masterpiece was a play called Waiting for Godot (1952), which was remembered as one of the most famous
Absurd Drama.
(2) Eugène Ionesco (1912—1994)
Eugene Ionesco, French writer, was another representative of the Theatre of the Absurd. In his works he
dramatized the absurdity of human experience and the meaninglessness of clichés.
“荒谬剧”是一个术语，指的是 20 世纪 50 年代和 60 年代一些欧洲，尤其是法国的作品剧作。 “荒谬”
源于加缪的作品，他认为人的境况是“荒谬的”。在他们的剧作中，这些剧作家试图传达这样的理念：人类的
存在是毫无目的的，毫无意义的，在这个世界上，人类经常受迷惑，困扰和威胁。
（1）塞缪尔贝克特（1906—1989）
他的代表作是一个叫做《等待戈多》（1952）的戏剧，它被公认为最著名的荒诞派戏剧。
（2）尤涅斯库（1912—1994）
尤涅斯库，法国作家，是荒诞派戏剧的另一个代表人。在他的作品中，他戏剧化了人类经验的荒诞和的陈
词滥调的无意义。

6. Black Humour（黑色幽默）
Black Humour is a term derived from Black Comedy. Its origin can be traced back to Shakespeare‟s time. But
now the term is usually used to refer to some Western, especially American Post- World War Ⅱ writers. Black humour
 is a kind of desperate humour. It is the laughter at tragic things. In this meaningless world, according to Black
Humorists, man‟s fate is decided by incomprehensible powers. We can‟t do anything about it, therefore we may as
well laugh.
黑色幽默源于黑色喜剧。它的起源可以追溯到莎士比亚时期。但是现在这个术语通常用来指一些西方，尤
其是第二次世界大战后的美国作家。黑色幽默是一种绝望的幽默。这是对悲惨事情的嘲笑。在这个无意义的世
界，黑色幽默作家认为，人的命运是由不可思议的力量决定的。我们不能做任何事情，因此我们不妨笑一笑。
★Joseph Heller (1923—1999) （约瑟夫海勒）
Joseph Heller, American writer, is the author of the best-selling novel Catch-22 (1961), which has been
considered the major work of Black Humour. Catch-22. According to the novel, an army regulation is designed to trap
the pilots of the Air Force into flying more missions. It says an officer can only be sent away from war when he is mad.
But if he says he is mad, the doctor will say no madman will admit he is mad. Therefore he has to fly more missions.
This book is a bitter attack on the dehumanizing military institutions in the U. S. A.
美国作家约瑟夫海勒，是畅销小说第二十二条军规的作者（1961），《第 22 条军规》一直被认为是黑色幽
默的主要作品。小说中，为让空军飞行员执行更多的任务，军队设计了一条军规。军规规定，军官只有在疯了
之后才能被送离战场。
，但如果他说他疯了，医生会说没有疯子会承认他疯了。因此他不得不进行更多的飞行
任务。这本书是对美国非人性化的军事机构的抨击。

IV. Art and Music (艺术和音乐)

1. Fauvism（野兽派）
The Fauves expressed their emotional reaction to the subject in the boldest colour and strongest pattern of lines.
They preferred this to objective representation.
野兽派用最为大胆的色彩和强烈的线条图案来表达他们对主体情感的反应。他们喜欢这样的客观表述。

2. Expressionism（表现主义）
Expressionist art is marked by the expression of reality by means of distortion to communicate one‟s inner vision.
The artists of this school used bright colours to bring out their pessimistic views on life. They showed a world of
subconsciousness, a world of distress and torment, and a world which is totally their own imagination.
表现主义是艺术家通过作品着重表现内心的情感，而忽视对描写对象形式的摹写，因此往往表现为对现实
扭曲和抽象化的做法。它们展示的是潜意识世界，一种悲伤和痛苦的世界，一个完全自己想象的世界。

3. Cubism（立体派）
This is a type of abstract painting which aims to penetrate beyond surface appearances and single vision and
depict persons and objects from varying angles simultaneously and three-dimensionally.
这是一种抽象画，旨在透过表面现象和单一的视觉，从不同角度同时立体地描绘人和物体。

4. Futurism（未来主义）
The works of futurism portray the dynamic life of the 20th century. They glorify war, danger, machine age and
attack museums and academies. They are interested in expressing the speed, progress and even the violence of modern
live.
未来主义的作品描绘了二十世纪的动态生活。他们美化战争，危险，机器时代,攻击博物馆和研究所。他
们对速度表达和现代生活中的暴力感兴趣。

5. Dadaism（达达主义）
Dadaists created works that were anti-war, anti-modern life, and indeed, anti-art. When they held exhibitions the
Dadaists sometimes encouraged the public to destroy their displays. That was their reaction to the new civilization of
the 20th century. They thought that the world had become insane and art too serious.
达达主义者创造的都是反战，反现代生活的作品。当他们举办展览时，达达主义者有时会鼓励公众来摧毁
他们的展览。这是他们对二十世纪新文明的反应。他们认为，世界已经变得疯狂，艺术太过严肃。

6. Surrealism（超现实主义）
 This new school combined the Dada idea of automatism with the psychology of Sigmund Freud. The surrealists
felt that the job of the artist was to show an unconscious world.
这个新学派结合了西佛洛伊德心理学和自动达达主义。超现实主义者认为，艺术家的工作是展示一个无意
识的世界。

10.2 课后习题详解

Questions for Revision:

1. What are the most salient characteristics of the Modernist movement?
Key: (1) Modernism has been called “the tradition of the new”. It was characterized by a conscious rejection of
establishment rules, traditions and conventions. It strove to reflect 20th century‟s social and political changes. It
provided fresh ways of looking at man‟s position and function in the universal.
(2) Modernism has also been called the “dehumanization of art”. It pushes into the background traditional
humanistic notions of the individual and society. Yet, it is not divorced from the past. It restates, in new terms, the
same questions about existence and human nature found in former works of art.
(3) Modernism has also become the synonym of revolution in form. The term “modernism” is reserved for more
experimental and innovative modern works.
(4) Modernism is indebted much to Freud and many other theorists. The modern tradition is pluralistic, marked
by different ways, experimental and traditional, in which it embodies 20th century.

2. In what historical context did the Modernist movement take place?

Key: (1) The World War I took place from 1914 to 1918. Ten million people were killed or missing and many more
were wounded during the war. When this massive manslaughter was going on in most parts of Europe, a socialist
Russia was born in 1917. From then on, the Russian working class established the world‟s first democratic
government of the workers and peasant.
(2) After the World War, economic crisis in all the imperialist countries deepened. Everywhere prices were
altered and international tensions mounted. All aspects of Western culture, including art, literature, theatre, education
and science were shaken and given new direction
(3) The World War II, the most destructive war in history, was fought between 1939—1945. This time, the war
was not confined to European continent. More than 17million members of the armed forces of the various countries
were killed.
(4) The war turned out to be a victory for democracy over fascism; it strained the economic capabilities of t he
major nations and left many countries on the verge of collapse.

3. Who was Freud? In what ways did his theory influence the Modernists?
Key: Modernists were very much indebted to Sigmund Freud. He was the “father” of psychoanalysis, a new school of
psychology embodying revolution and controversial views of human behavior. His books entitled The Interpretation
of Dreams, Three Contributions to the Sexual Theory and The Ego and Id had a profound influence upon the
modernist movement. In his theory, the unconscious is emphasized and human sexuality is given prime importance in
analyzing human behavior. His discovery opened up a new dimension for the modernists, who later strove to explore
this new “inner” reality in many of their works.

4. Who is the author of The Waste Land?

Key: T.S. Eliot is the author of The Waste land

5. Who wrote the novel Remembrance of Things Past?

Key: Marcel Proust wrote the novel Remembrance of Things Past.

6. Which book(s) is Joyce famous for?

Key: Joyce is famous for his Ulysses, Finnegans Wake, Dubliners, and A portrait of an Artist as a Young Man.
7. What is the Bloomsbury group?
Key: Virginia Woolf was a very famous writer. Quite early in her career, her house in Bloomsbury became a literary
and art centre. The artists, critics and writers who were attracted to it became known as the Bloomsbury group.

8. What are the major characteristics of Faulkner‟s novels?

Key: (1) Faulkner wrote about America‟s south and used the method of the stream of consciousness and
multiple-narrators.
(2) In his novels, he created a Mississippi community modeled on his own country. In this community, he put
the characters he observed, using brilliant and complicated literary techniques to tell their stories.
(3) He wrote of conflicts: the conflicts of different generations, of social classes, of races, and of men.
(4) His philosophy was that the brotherhood of man would triumph.

9. What marks out Hemingway‟s style of writing?

Key: Hemingway is known for his mastery of the art of modern narration. He helped to accomplish a revolution in
literary style and language. He tried to cut out all words that were not strictly necessary. His style is characterized by
short and simple sentences with very few adjectives and adverbs. But they are full of emotion.

10. Who is the major figure in 20th century German literature?

Key: Thomas Mann is the major figure in the 20th century German literature.

11. What place does Corky hold in 20th century Russian literature?
Key: Gorky was the founder of the literary doctrine of socialist realism and has been regarded as the greatest Russian
Literary figure of the 20th century. Many of this works are largely autobiographical. Mother, is now considered to a
classic of socialist realism. The trilogy containing Childhood, My Apprenticeship and My University depicts a
panorama of Russian society of his time.

12. How do you describe "Angry Young Men" in England?

Key: “Angry Young Men” was a term referring to a group of English writers who found they to be social misfits.
They felt they were socially stateless, even though they were university graduates. They were very sensitive to the
undesirable things of the society. The term “Angry Young Men” came to be widely used only after the publication of
John Osborne‟s play Look Back in Anger.

13. Who belonged to the Beat Generation?

Key: Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac belonged to the Beat Generation.

14. Who wrote the poem Howl?

Key: Allen Ginsberg wrote the poem “Howl”.

15. What is new about the Noveau Roman?

Key: (1) The New Novel pays much attention “to the ties that exist between objects, gestures, and situations,
avoiding all psychological and ideological commentary on the actions of the characters”.
(2) The New Novel tends to be objective. Human characters are on an equal footing with things. Things and
their interactions are the major interest of these novelists. Plot, action, narrative, ideas and analysis of characters are
no longer important. They try to avoid taking sides when they come to description of characters, making no
distinction between good and bad or between important and trivial. Their characters are often shapeless and
sometimes even nameless.

16. What is the key concept of Existentialism?

Key: The key concept of Existentialism is that the man is nothing but what he makes of himself. Existence is
 believed to precede and decide essence. As an individual and active existence, each man must have the f reedom of
choice, and create his own existence.

17. What do Beckett and Ionesco intend to convey through their plays?
Key: They wanted to convey the idea of irrationality of events.

18. What characterizes Black Humor? Which particular book represents Black Humor?
Key: Black Humor is a tern derived from Black Comedy. Its origin can be traced back to Shakespeare‟s time. But
now the term is usually used to refer to some Western, especially American post-World War II writers. Black Humor
is a kind of desperate humor. It is the laughter at tragic things. In his meaningless world, man‟s fate is decided by
incomprehensible powers. We can‟t do anything about it therefore we may as well laugh.
Joseph Heller‟s Novel Catch-22 is regarded as the major work of Black Humor.

19. Who are the best known artists and musicians in modern times? What do you know about their masterpieces?
Key: The best known artists in modern times can be classified into different groups, they are as followings:
(1) Fauvism
Henri Matisse: The Joy of Life and Harmony in Red
(2) Expressionism
Emil Nolde: The Prophet, Christ Among Children
Max Beckmann: Dream
Paul Klee: Twittering Birds
Wassily Kandinsky: Sketch I for Composition
(3) Cubism
Pablo Picasso: Demoiselles d’ Avignon, The Musicians
Georges Braque: Le Courrier
(4) Fururism
Umberto Boccioni: The City Rises
(5) Dadaism
Marcel Duchamp: The Bride
(6) Surrealism
Salvador Dali: Persistence of Memory
The best known musicians and their masterpieces are:
Arnold Schoenberg: Violin Concerto, Op. 36, Piano Concerto, Op. 42
Igor Stravinsky: The Rite of Spring, The Firebird
Bela Bartok: Concerto for Orchestra.
 平台简介及版权声明

圣才电子书平台是一家人人可参与制作、发布、分享并销售电子书（图文、视频、直播）的知识变现平台。
该平台拥有 10 万种考试类电子书（题库、视频），同时用户可以制作电子书、开展直播、上传视频、发布新闻资
讯。
圣才电子书平台提供四种工具（制作电子书、发布图文、上传视频、5 分钟直播），每个人都能够把知识（专
业、生活等）制作成为自有版权的富媒体电子书（可插入视频、图片、动漫、音频、AR 等）。其中，优质电子
书可以设价销售，而制作发布的免费内容可以获得平台的广告收入分成，从而打造一家人人都可以实现知识变现
的电子书平台。
本平台尊重知识产权，要求所有作者发布的电子书引用的文字、图片等资料均需注明作者和来源。本电子书
（图文、视频、直播）的部分内容参考了部分网络及相关资料。但由于特殊的原因，比如作者姓名或出处在转载
之前已经丢失，或者未能及时与作者取得联系等，因而可能没有注明作者的姓名或出处。如果原作者或出版人对
本书内容有任何异议，请与我们联系，我们会在第一时间为您处理！
圣才电子书 APP 下载：www.100xuexi.com/app

联系电话：400-900-8858（8:30-00:30）

咨询 QQ：4009008858（8:30-00:30）