The Adult Learner (2005)

Malcolm Knowles, Elwood Holton, Richard Swanson

[L: The principles of adult learning as formulated by Knowles first in 1978,

revised in 1989 still seem to hold true (although nowadays there is a
tendency to see these principles as universal).]

Knowles formulated 6 core principles of adult learning

1) Adults need to know why they need to learn something before learning
it.
2) The self-concept of adults is heavily dependent upon a move toward
self-direction.
3) Prior experiences of the learner provide a rich resource for learning.
4) Adults typically become ready to learn when they experience a need to
cope with a life situation or perform a task.
5) Adults orientation to learning is life-centered; education is a process of
developing increased competency levels to achieve their full potential.
6) The motivation for adult learners is internal rather than external.

These principles are influenced by

1) the goals and purposes for learning (whether individual, institutional
or societal), and by
2) differences in
- Subject-matter: e.g. complex sm is more difficult to learn in self-
directed manner
- Situation: e.g. location, socio-cultural, environment
- Individuals: e.g. cognitive (abilities, learning styles), personality,
prior knowledge
but also adult development (how people learn at different points in
their lives).

Individual differences may be most important.

- Most effective learning professionals tailor principles to fit cognitive
abilities and learning style preferences.
- They know which principles are most salient to specific groups. E.g.
people without strong cognitive controls may not benefit initially by
self-directed learning.

New insights into the core principles

1) Learner’s need to know (how, what and why)

- Adults should be engaged in a collaborative planning process for their

learning.
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- Even when learning content is prescribed, sharing control over the
learning strategies is believed to make learning more effective.
- Research shows (Tannenbaum et al, 1991) that training fulfilment (the
extent to which a training meets the group’s expectations and desires)
relates strongly with commitment and motivation to use the training.
- Research shows (e.g. Hicks & Klimoski, 1987) that when people get a
more realistic preview of the topics that will be covered and the
expected outcome, and are given a choice about whether to attend,
this will result in higher motivation to learn (also more likely to believe
the training is appropriate for them), more learning and more
satisfaction.
- (Clark et al, 1993): When people perceive job and career utility, this will
enhance training motivation.
- (Reber & Walin, 1984): Knowledge of previous’ trainees’ successful
application of training results in higher achievement.
- Summary p.201: research indicates that the need to know affects
motivation to learn, learning outcomes and post-training motivation to
use learning.

2) Self-directed learning

Adults have a deep need to be self-directing; therefore, the role of the

teacher is to engage in a process of mutual inquiry with them rather then
to transmit his or her knowledge to them and then evaluate their
conformity to it.

Self-direction holds 2 (independent) dimensions: 1) self-teaching, 2)

personal autonomy; the latter is seen as the important one: taking control
of the goals and purposes of learning and assuming ownership.
A person may be highly autonomous, but choose to learn in a teacher-
directed way (e.g. because he knows little about a topic yet).

This principle is highly influenced by individual differences in

- Learning style
- Previous experience with the subject-matter
- Social orientation
- Efficiency
- Previous learning socialisation
- Locus of control (internal vs external = attribute control to self or
outside forces)

Any particular learner in a particular learning situation is likely to exhibit

different capabilities and preferences. Grow (1991) suggests 4 stages
towards self-direction with corresponding teacher styles:
sta student teacher examples
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ge
1 Depende Authority, Coaching with immediate feedback, drill,
nt coach informational lecture. Overcoming
deficiencies and resistance.
2 Intereste Motivator, Inspiring lecture plus guided discussion.
d guide Goal-setting and learning strategies
3 Involved Facilitator Discussion facilitated by teacher who
participates as equal, seminar, group
projects.
4 Self- Consultant, Internship, dissertation, individual work or
directed delegator self-directed study group.

3) Prior experiences of the learner

Experience is the richest resource for adults’ learning; therefore, the core
methodology of adult education is the analysis of experience.

- Use experiental learning techniques, because

- they fit better to individual differences caused by different
experiences
- they provide grounding for adults’ self-identity
- experiences provide a rich resource for learning.
- Argyris & Schon: there is a natural tendency to resist new learning that
challenges existing mental schema from prior experience (requires
double-loop learning - Argyris, ‘reflection in action’ – Schon).
- Senge (1990): from their experiences individuals build mental models
of how the world works. They enable people to function efficiently, but
also impede change that does not fit that model. People then need to
identify those models, test them and learn how to change them. People
need to learn that their mental models are assumptions, not facts
[LB: e.g. Action Learning or intervision are ways to do this].
- Information processing theory: prior knowledge acts as a filter; learner
is likely to pay more attention to learning that fits with prior knowledge
schemata (and v.v.).
Effect on long-term memory:
- Some pieces of information are selected, others excluded
- Underlying meanings are more likely to be stored than verbatim
input
- Existing knowledge about the world is used to understand new
information
- Some existing knowledge may be added to the new information;
so what is learned may be more than, or different from, the
information actually learned.

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2 conclusions:
1) experience can aid learning of new knowledge is presented in such a
way that it can be related to existing knowledge and mental models
2) the same models can become giant barriers to new learning. Thus
unlearning becomes as important as learning when new learning
challenges existing schema (Lewin: first stage of change is ‘unfreezing’).

4) Readiness to learn

Closely associated to the need to know: Adults are motivated to learn as

they experience needs and interests that learning will satisfy; therefore,
these are the appropriate starting points for organising adult learning
activities.

Learning professionals need to anticipate and understand the different life

[work] situations of the learners.
The life situation not only affects the readiness to learn but also how
people want to learn (e.g. self-directed).
There is a distinction between a need for direction and a need for support
in seeking assistance form a learning professional.
Direction refers to need for assistance in the learning process (function of
learner’s competence in subject-matter and general need for
dependence).
Support refers to affective encouragement the learner needs (product of
the factors ‘commitment’ and ‘confidence’).
In a learning situation with several people you will have all combinations of
these 2 dimensions.

5) Orientation to learning is problem-centered and contextual

Closely related to the role of prior experience: Adults generally prefer a

problem-solving orientation to learning rather then subject-centered
learning. They learn best when new information is presented in real-life
context.
Kolb’s learning cycle of experiental learning and all forms of experiental
learning (e.g. AL, on-the-job training) are exponents of this view.

Kolb’s model with suggested learning strategies:

- concrete experience - simulation, case study, field trip, real
experiences, demonstrations
- observe and reflect - discussion, small groups, buzz groups,
designated observers
- abstract conceptualisation - sharing content

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- active experimentation - laboratory experiences, on-the-job
experience, internships, practice session

6) Motivation to learn

Learning must have intrinsic value and a personal pay-off.

Adult learners will be most motivated when they believe that they can
learn the new material, and that the learning will help them with a
problem or issue that is important in their life.
The most potent motivators are internal (e.g. self-esteem, quality of life,
satisfaction), not external (e.g. reward).

Wlodowski’s model (1985) of characteristics and skills for instructors who

are good motivators:
1) Expertise – the power of knowledge and preparation
- Knows something beneficial
- Knows it well
- Is prepared to convey it through an instructional process
2) Empathy – the power of understanding and consideration
- Has a realistic understanding of learner’s needs and expectations
- Has adapted instruction to the leaner’s level of experience and skill
development
- Continuously considers learner’s perspectives
3) Enthusiasm – the power of commitment and animation
- Cares about and values what is being taught
- Expresses commitment with appropriate degrees of emotion,
animation and energy
4) Clarity – the power of language and organisation
- Can be understood and followed by most learners
- Provides for learners a way to comprehend what has been taught if
it is not clear in the initial presentation

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