Sectorization Macro−micro cells
" Use directional antennas with 60 deg or 120 deg
coverage.
" Power of transmitters needs to be the same, as
distance to cell boundary is the same.
" In a 3−sectored cell, each sector has 1/3 the
number of users as in the cell, but all 3 sectors
need different channels. This means the same
overall number of channels.
" Small gains in capacity are possible.
" Multipath effects are lowered, range is increased.
Narrowband systems
" Available spectrum is carved up into channels
about 25−30 kHz wide.
" Each user is assigned a forward and reverse
channel.
" Emission masks very necessary.
" Fading affects entire transmission.
" Blocking systems.
" Eg. FDMA, TDMA
" Very small cells can be created in city centers, for
example, a street, or a few blocks. The transmitter
can be at street level. These are called microcells.
" Increased capacity, increased costs, more
handovers.
" Hierarchical structure: overlay with larger
macrocells. When a fast handoff needs to happen,
as when a car turns into a new street, the call can
revert to the macrocell.
" Macrocell may have only a few channels.
Wideband systems
" Entire frequency band is available to all users.
" Also called spread−spectrum systems
" Fading does not affect the entire channel.
" Emission masks not crucial.
" No blocking − graceful degradation in
performance as system load increases.
" Eg Fast frequency hopping, CDMA
 FDMA
" Available bandwidth is divided into 30 khz slots.
" Each user is assigned forward and reverse
channel.
" Advantages: simplest method to implement.
" Disadvantages: (1) Expensive filtering elements
needed (2) Duplexer circuitry needed
(3) Inefficiency in use of spectrum because of
guardbands (4) RF elements needed for every
channel.
TDMA
" Each carrier frequency is "divided" into time
slots, each time slot constitutes a channel.
" Each user is assigned a transmit slot and a receive
slot, which are separated both in time and in
frequency.
" User’s transmission is buffered and then sent in
the right transmit slot.
" Burst−mode transmission.

TDMA FDMA versus TDMA

" Advantages: (1) No duplexer circuitry necessary, " Overhead is very little. " Overhead is high.
as transmission and reception are not Frequencyguardbands. Sync sequences
simultaneous. (2) Handoffs can be done in idle No synchronization necessary.
slots. (3) Better sharing of system costs. required.
" Disadvantages: (1) Need to synchronize sender " Duplexer needed. " Duplexer not needed.
and receiver slots. Done by using synchronization " Handoff difficult. " Handoff transparent to
sequences which uses bandwidth. (2) More user.
complex to implement. (3) Needs adpative
equalization. " More channels for " Fewer channels for
same # of users. same # of users.
 FDMA versus TDMA
" Cochannel " Can be reduced by
interference is bad. using slow freq
hopping.
" ISI not a big problem. " ISI a big problem.
Adaptive equalization
is required.
" Mobile unit simple. " Mobile unit complex.
" Not used in newer " Adaptive.
systems.
" Poor sharing of costs " Better sharing of costs.
Spread spectrum
" Based on Claude Shannon’s information theory.
" Originated during World War II, as a way to
enable communication in presence of jammers.
" Imagine game with three participants:
C: Communicator
R: Receiver
J: Jammer
" C wants to send to R, J is an enemy who wishes
to jam the communication by sending on the same
channel as C.

Communication game. Communication game

" Assume all participants can transmit on any of a
number of channels, and all have the capability to
scan the spectrum to figure out which channel C
is sending on.
" Strategy for C: Send on a channel, and as soon as
J jams it, switch to a new channel. C and R have a
shared sequence of channels which they use,
which enables R to find the channel that C is
sending on quickly.
" Winning strategy for C: make the length of the
transmission burst <= length of propagation time.
By the time J gets the signal, C has already
switched to a new channel.
" To prevent J from guessing the sequence, C and
R use a shared random sequence.
" This scheme is called Fast Frequency Hopping.
 Frequency Hopping
" Effect of noise is reduced.
" Effect of multipath is reduced, as multipath
affects only some of the frequencies.
" If another user is added, he is assigned a new
random sequence, and if the number of
frequencies is large, chances of collisions are low
" As more users are added, the level of interference
increases, but there is no fixed limit on number of
users. When quality deteriorates, callers self−
regulate.
Direct−sequence spread spectrum
General idea: Add the signal to much stronger noise−
like signal, and send that instead of signal. At the
receiver end, subtract out the noise−like signal.
Let information signal be I with a bit rate of 10K b/s
and the code signal be C with bit rate of 100kb/s.
"Add" I to C and send that. Since the transmitted
signal is of much higher bandwidth than original
signal, code is said to spread the signal.

Example 1
Spreading and despreading
" Spreading: Let the codeword be
1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 Suppose sender wants to send d=1.
The bits of the sequence are called chips.
If the bit to be sent is 1, send the codeword. Transmitted signal: 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1
If the bit to be sent is 0, send the inverse of the Received signal: 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1
codeword, i.e. −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 Receiver codeword: 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1
" Despreading: Process of retrieving signal from Multiplication: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
received signal. Multiply the received signal with
the codeword, then divide by size of code. Result= 8
" Processing gain: rate of code/rate of information.
 Example 1 contd. Sending in presence of interferer

Suppose there is an interferer with codeword

Suppose sender wants to send d=0.
1 1 −1 −1 1 1 −1 −1. Suppose he wants to
send the bit 1 as well.
Transmitted signal: −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1
Transmitted signal: 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1
Received signal: −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1
Interfering signal: 1 1 −1 −1 1 1 −1 −1
Receiver codeword: 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1
Received signal: 2 0 0 −2 2 0 0 −2
Multiplication: −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 1
Receiver code: 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1
Multiplication: 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 2
Result = −8
Result = 8. Thus the signal can be retrieved.

What if interferer sends at higher

What if interferer wants to send 0?
power?

Transmitted signal: 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1
Transmitted signal: 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1
Interferer’s signal: 2 2 −2 −2 2 2 −2 −2
Interfering signal: −1 −1 1 1 −1 −1 1 1
Received signal: 3 1 −1 −3 3 1 −1 −3
Received signal: 0 −2 2 0 0 −2 2 0
Receiver code: 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1
Receiver code: 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1
Multiplication: 3 −1 −1 3 3 −1 −1 3
Multiplication: 0 2 2 0 0 2 2 0
Result= 8. Can still retrieve the right signal.
Result = 8 , can still retrieve it.
 Orthogonality Walsh_Hadamard codes
A family of orthogonal codes. Constructed
recursively. H_0 = (1).

Even if there are more interferers, the signal H_(i+1) = H_i H_i
can still be retrieved, provided all senders are H_i −H_i
using orthogonal codes.
H_1 = 1 1 H_2 =
Two codes (of same length) are orthogonal if their 1 −1
scalar product is 0.
Each row gives a codeword. Any two rows are
orthogonal.

Code requirements Orthogonal variable spreading factors

" Balanced − equal numbers of 1 and −1.
" Low auto−correlation: how much a code
correlates with a time−shifted version of itself.
" Low cross−correlation: how much a code
correlates with a time−shifted version of another.
" Walsh codes have high auto−correlation, and
cross−correlation for some time shifts.
" PN codes, Gold and Kasami sequences have these
properties, but are not orthogonal.
" Also useful to have many codes available.
" Some users may want higher data rates than
others.
" Can give a user many channels, or have different
spreading factors.
" Different users may be using different spreading
factors, but they still need to be orthgonal.
" Walsh code 1 −1 is orthogonal to 1 1 −1 −1.
 Varaible spreading factor codes Variable length codes

Suppose A uses codeword S and B uses codeword L

Walsh codes can be constructed in a tree fashion as where length(L)= 2 length(S).
follows: Root=1. Left child = parent.parent, and
right child = parent.inv(parent) Suppose L can be constructed as S. S. Then if A
1 sends the message 1 1 and B sends the message 1,
these messages cannot be distinguished.
1 1 1 −1
If L is an ancestor of S in the tree, then L and S
1 1 1 1 1 1 −1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 −1 1 cannot be used together.

GSM revisited GSM contd.

" TDMA/FDMA system that incorporates slow
frequency hopping.
" Each channel is 200 khz and is divided into 8
slots. A user is given one slot to transmit. Thus, if
the user is given slot 1, she transmits in slots
1, 9, 17, .....
" A transmission by a user is called a burst. The
user’s first burst is in slot 1, second burst is in slot
9, etc.
"
12 bursts have voice information, then the 13th
burst is used for control information. The next 12
bursts again hold voice data, and the 26th burst is
free. The cycle repeats.
" The slots where control information is sent by the
mobile is called the associated control channel,
which is mobile−specific. The remaining bursts
constitute the traffic channel.
" Transmit slot and channel are different from
receive slot and channel.
 Control channels
" On some carriers, a slot may be reserved for
control channels. These have a cycle of 51 bursts.
They periodically broadcast a pure sine wave,
followed by synchronization information, other
broadcast information, and paging messages.
" The uplink channel corresponding to this is the
random access channel.
" Mobile listening to control channel in its idle slots
is guaranteed to find any slot of the control
channel.
Near−far problem
" In CDMA systems, if the interferer uses much
higher power than the sender, it can cause
significant interference.
" As the mobile moves further away from the base
station, the base station cannot decode the signal.
" It is attempted to keep all signal strengths in a
small range.
IS−95
" Uses CDMA. Walsh codes for downlink and PN
codes for uplink.
" Each channel is 1.23 Mhz wide and is divided
into 64 logical channels (Walsh codes).
" Uses variable rate speech coding. As more users
enter the system, users can be given the lower
rate which results in poorer voice quality.
" All cells can use the same channels in principle.
Power control
" Open loop power control: Mobile estimates signal
strength from base station. As it gets weaker, it
increases its own strength. As it gets stronger, it
decreases its own strength.
" Closed loop power control: Base station makes
measurements and sends explicit instructions to
the mobile.
" Without power control, capacity is reduced
significantly.
 TDMA versus CDMA TDMA versus CDMA
" Wastage of spectrum " Without power " Sectorizing does not " Sectorizing is claimed
due to power ramping, control, capacity is really increase to improve capacity at
ISI, synchronization. greatly reduced. capacity. low cost.
" Some users have " Interference evenly " No problem with " May not work well
greater interference. distributed. micro−macrocells. with micro−macrocells
" In practice, less " In practice, 30% more " B/w flexibility can be " B/w flexibility can be
capacity. capacity. achieved by giving a achieved by using
" Frequency planning is " No frequency planning user more time slots. variable spreading
necessary. necessary. Code factors.
planning? " Low risk. " Higher risk?