Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2017
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FLORIDA
STATE
UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE
OF
MUSIC
A
SCHENKERIAN
APPROACH
TO
DISCOVERING
EXPRESSIVE
IDEAS
FOR
THE
TROMBONE
REPERTOIRE
By
DAVID
ELLIS
A
Treatise
submitted
to
the
College
of
Music
in
partial
fulfillment
of
the
requirements
for
the
degree
of
Doctor
of
Music
2017
David
Ellis
defended
this
treatise
on
July
18,
2017.
The
members
of
the
supervisory
committee
were:
John
Drew
Professor
Directing
Treatise
Joseph
Kraus
University
Representative
Christopher
Moore
Committee
Member
Michelle
Stebleton
Committee
Member
The
Graduate
School
has
verified
and
approved
the
above-‐named
committee
members,
and
certifies
that
the
treatise
has
been
approved
in
accordance
with
university
requirements.
ii
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
iii
LIST
OF
FIGURES
1
Ursatz
..............................................................................................................................................................................
2
2
Prolongation
................................................................................................................................................................
3
3
Auf
dem
Flusse
graph
................................................................................................................................................
6
4
Auf
dem
flusse,
first
section
...................................................................................................................................
7
5
Auf
dem
flusse,
second
section
.............................................................................................................................
8
6
Auf
dem
flusse,
final
section
..................................................................................................................................
8
7
Einsamkeit,
descent
..................................................................................................................................................
9
8
Einsamkeit,
first
phrase
.......................................................................................................................................
10
9
Einsamkeit,
second
phrase
.................................................................................................................................
11
10
Einsamkeit,
final
section
1
...............................................................................................................................
11
11
Einsamkeit,
final
section
2
...............................................................................................................................
12
12
Letzte
Hoffnung,
first
phrase
graph
.............................................................................................................
13
13
Letzte
Hoffnung,
second
phrase
....................................................................................................................
14
14
Letzte
Hoffnung,
final
section
graph
...........................................................................................................
15
15
Vier
ernste
Gesänge,
Song
3,
first
section
graph
....................................................................................
16
16
Vier
ernste
Gesänge,
Song
3,
middle
section
............................................................................................
17
17
Vier
ernste
Gesänge,
Song
3,
final
section
graph
...................................................................................
18
18
An
die
ferne
Geliebte
#6,
first
section
graph
............................................................................................
19
19
An
die
ferne
Geliebte
#6,
climactic
moment
............................................................................................
20
20
An
die
ferne
Geliebte
#6,
final
section
&
graph
......................................................................................
21
21
Romance
form
........................................................................................................................................................
24
22
Romance,
first
phrase
........................................................................................................................................
25
iv
23
Romance,
second
phrase
..................................................................................................................................
26
24
Romance,
third
phrase
.......................................................................................................................................
27
25
Romance,
B
section
..............................................................................................................................................
28
26
Romance,
final
section
.......................................................................................................................................
30
27
Cavatine,
first
phrase
.........................................................................................................................................
31
28
Cavatine,
second
phrase
...................................................................................................................................
32
29
Cavatine,
third
section
.......................................................................................................................................
33
30
Cavatine,
B
section,
first
part
.........................................................................................................................
34
31
Cavatine,
B
section,
second
part
...................................................................................................................
34
32
Cavatine,
end
of
B
section
................................................................................................................................
35
33
Cavatine,
final
section
........................................................................................................................................
36
34
Sonatine,
mvt.
2,
second
passage
..................................................................................................................
38
35
Sonatine,
mvt.
2,
third
passage
......................................................................................................................
39
36
Sonatine,
mvt.
2,
final
passage
........................................................................................................................
41
v
ABSTRACT
This treatise is an adaptation of a series of two lecture recitals given on the use of
Schenkerian methods in discovering expressive ideas for performance. The first lecture
recital used examples from the repertoire of German lieder, while the second lecture recital
focused on adapting the process for trombone solo repertoire not limited to the common
practice period. Examples include “Auf dem Flusse,” “Einsamkeit,” and “Letzte Hoffnung”
from Franz Schubert’s Winterreise, the third song from Johannes Brahms’s Vier ernste
Gesänge, the final song from Ludwig van Beethoven’s An die ferne Geliebte, Romance by Carl
Maria von Weber, Cavatine by Camille Saint-‐Saëns, and the second movement from Jacques
vi
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
Many performing musicians struggle to find ways to apply the abstract concepts
learned through the study of music theory to the practical side of making music. Music
students learn many things regarding the structure of the music and its composition, but
this information about the music’s internal logic does not necessarily translate into tangible
instructions for performance. In fact, attempts to play music in a way that serves only to
highlight analytical findings, rather than convey inspired creative ideas, may come across
as inorganic and less interesting to the audience. It is possible, however, to use analytical
information as inspiration for expressive decisions, and thereby enhance the creative
process.
analysis is ideally suited for such a task, as it facilitates finding a more narrative approach
to the music in its search for resolution.1 Schenkerian analysis is a method of analysis
based on the ideas of Heinrich Schenker, a music theorist of the 19th century. Schenker
theorized that tonal music could be understood on multiple structural levels. At the deepest
level, according to Schenker, all tonal music was an expression of the tonic chord, played
out through time. This was illustrated through an idea he called the Ursatz, or “fundamental
structure” (see Figure 1) which, in its most basic form, manifested as the stepwise motion
from scale degree 3ˆ down to scale degree 1̂ (called the Urlinie, or “fundamental line”), with
scale degree 2̂ harmonically supported by an arpeggiation of the bass up to scale degree 5ˆ .
1
Jeffrey
Swinkin,
Performative
Analysis
(Rochester,
N.Y.:
University
of
Rochester
Press,
2016), 94.
1
It
is
also
common
to
understand
certain
pieces
of
music
as
descending
from
scale
degree
5ˆ ,
although some argue that this is an elaboration of the descent from 3ˆ .
Figure 1 – Ursatz
According to Schenker, every piece of functionally tonal music elaborates on this
structure, “always the same, but not always in the same way.”2 Each level, from the deepest
level (the Ursatz), to the middle level(s), to the surface level (the actual notes of the music),
is elaborated upon through methods of “prolongation” (Figure 2). This is purely conceptual,
of course, as composers did not likely compose this way. “Prolongation” is the means of
stretching a note or harmony in time by elaborating on it through various techniques.
Notes and harmonies can be prolonged with neighbor-‐note motion, stepwise progressions
into “inner voices” (notes that support and are harmonically related to notes of the Urlinie),
2
Heinrich
Schenker,
Beethoven’s
Last
Piano
Sonatas:
An
Edition
with
Elucidation
Volume
4
(Oxford
University
Press,
2015),
9.
This
is
a
motto
that
Schenker
used
frequently
in
its
Latin
form:
Semper
idem
sed
non
eodem
modo.
2
Figure 2 – Prolongation
and numerous other compositional tools. Swinkin points out that these are not purely
abstract or theoretical constructs, but gestures that carry expressive connotation.3
Many mistakenly believe that the “goal” of Schenkerian analysis is to “boil down” the
surface information in order to “get to” the Ursatz, in apparent disregard for the
composition’s unique features. Rather, the purpose is to provide context for the surface
information
so
that
it
is
more
meaningful.
As
Swinkin
describes
it:
3
Jeffrey
Swinkin,
Performative
Analysis,
75.
3
To
view
musical
gestures
through
a
Schenkerian
lens
is
to
imbue
them
with
somatic
qualities
they
would
not
otherwise
have,
or,
perhaps
more
precisely,
it
is
to
actualize
the
somatic
qualities
they
only
potentially
have.4
In
other
words,
the
purpose
of
the
process
is
not
in
the
discovered
analytical
information
itself, but in considering the possible consequences of it in order to answer further
According to Charles Burkhart in his article “Schenker’s Theory of Levels and
Musical Performance,” Schenker believed his method gave the performer objective
information so they would not have to “rely on guesswork and personal fancy.”5 Yet rather
than denounce the creativity of the performer, the idea is to “confirm intuition with the
help of principle.” This serves to enrich the creative process and potentially perceive more
Some of Schenker’s own writings on performance may appear at first glance to limit
the performer’s creative options. Many passages consist of specific performance
instructions (often addressing technique, such as piano fingerings) followed by an
explanation based on his analysis.7 This approach, rather than an explanation of the music’s
construction, followed by examples of possible ways to interpret the information for
performance, might lead one to the conclusion that Schenker seemed to believe that “each
work of art has only one true rendition.”8 Schenker argues, however, that the works of the
4
Jeffrey
Swinkin,
P.
A.,
page
71.
5
Charles
Burkhart,
“Schenker’s
Theory
of
Levels
and
Musical
Performance,”
Aspects
of
that
Schenker
intended
to
eventually
publish
this
work,
though
he
died
before
it
was
completed;
so
it
is
unknown
whether
this
statement
would
have
survived
his
editing
4
masters
need
to
be
played
with
the
utmost
expressive
freedom;9
and
throughout
his
writings his main critique seems to be the apparent lack of awareness of underlying
musical principles he perceives in performances rather than their failure to adhere to a
specific “correct” interpretation. Swinkin concludes that Schenker’s method ideally inspires
different interpretations in different performers rather than limits the creative options.10
Due to the nature of the Ursatz as the basis for Schenker’s theory, as well as the
tonal principles that govern the processes of prolongation, Schenker’s method best applies
to the common practice period, when music was firmly rooted in functional tonality. Even
more specifically, Schenker believed that the German master composers in particular had
perfected the art of realizing and elaborating upon the Ursatz.11 For this reason, several
examples from the repertoire of German lieder by Schubert, Brahms, and Beethoven have
been chosen in order to illustrate the benefits of using Schenkerian analysis to discover
expressive ideas. The advantage to using lieder over other German art music, in addition to
the fact that it translates well to the trombone as a solo instrument, is that the analytical
findings can be related to the expressive content of the lyrics as an extra set of guidelines in
process.
Schenker
seems
to
be
referring
to
the
differences
in
approach
that
one
must
take
when
practicing
similar
passages
in
different
works,
so
perhaps
this
statement
is
merely
a
consequence
of
hasty
wording
on
Schenker’s
part
and
its
translation.
9
Heinrich
Schenker,
Art
of
Perf.,
68.
10
Jeffrey
Swinkin,
P.
A.,
95.
11
Heinrich
Schenker,
Beethoven’s
Last
Piano
Sonatas,
Vol.
4.
This
view
is
illustrated
through
Schenker’s
preliminary
remarks,
ranging
from
his
comments
specific
to
composition
to
his
nationalistic
political
commentary.
5
CHAPTER
2
The first example selected is “Auf dem Flusse,” or “On the River,” the seventh song
from Franz Schubert’s song cycle Die Winterreise. It is important to note that the goal is not
to discover the “truth” of how a piece of music should be played, but rather to influence our
This song’s lyrics are about the similarities between a frozen river and a tormented
heart, with its icy exterior hiding a raging torrent. The piece is in E minor, but frequently
ventures into D-‐sharp minor, followed by other keys. As shown in Figure 3, this piece can
be understood as descending from scale degree 3ˆ .12 As with most pieces, the main descent
happens at the end. Up until that point, scale degree 3ˆ is being set up by a long conceptual
12
Heinrich
Schenker,
Free
Composition
(Hillsdale:
Pendragon
Press,
2001),
Figure
40-‐2.
6
One
of
the
very
interesting
things
about
this
piece
is
that
it
uses
several
chromatically altered scale steps structurally. In the first half of the piece, instead of A and
G, our usual scale degrees 4̂ and 3ˆ in E minor, A-‐sharp and G-‐sharp have been used
prominently. When compared with the lyrics, it is clear that these are used for their
respective effects. A-‐sharp, raised scale degree 4̂ , produces a gloomy and unnatural effect,
and coincides with the eerie stillness and silence of the frozen river. G-‐sharp, which would
be scale degree 3ˆ in E major, produces a warm and comforting effect, and coincides with
the section of the lyrics devoted to love.13 Finally, in the last section, the non-‐diatonic key
centers correlate with the imagery in the lyrics regarding the mirror image between the
These insights can be used to enhance the performance expressively. For example,
some of the most fundamental decisions a performer can make involve manipulating
dynamics and tempo. The analytical information discovered can be translated into
expressive information involving these variables. In the first section (Figure 4), when the
music moves to D-‐sharp minor to prolong the altered scale degree 4̂ , the performer could
decide to play these passages softly. This would compliment the passage’s “falsehood,” as
For
further
insight
regarding
the
treatment
of
scale
degrees
3ˆ
and
4̂
in
this
piece,
particularly
through
the
E
major
section,
Carl
Schachter’s
article
“Either/Or”
discusses
the
symbolic
implications
of
their
roles
and
relationship
to
the
arpeggio
as
a
motif.
7
well as illustrate the lyrics referring to the stillness and the silence of the river. Because the
next section utilizes G-‐sharp, major 3ˆ , and also speaks of love, the performer could decide
to play this passage faster, to indicate increased passion as well as a heightened energy
which is marked by the major 3ˆ rather than the minor 3ˆ (Figure 5). Finally, non-‐diatonic
passages of the last section can be treated similarly to those of the first section, both
because they are metaphorical “detours” from the Ursatz, and because the lyrics here are
lonely and forlorn. The return to E minor coincides each time with the “raging torrent” of
the heart and river and, therefore, could be played louder (Figure 6).
8
In
the
previous
example,
insights
about
the
chromatic
alterations
at
the
middleground level were used to inspire creative ideas for performance. Of course, there
are more kinds of insights that can be taken from Schenkerian analysis, and there are often
multiple valid ways that the performer might interpret the information. This will be
The next example is the twelfth song of the same song cycle, “Einsamkeit,” or
“Solitude.” This song is in D minor, and seems to descend from scale degree 5ˆ . This piece
seems a little more straightforward harmonically at the middle level, with the exception
that the descent appears to be supported by parallel fifths. This is of course masked at the
surface level (Figure 7), primarily by avoiding scale degree 4̂ and scale degree 2̂ explicitly
by having the melody trace the conceptual inner voices instead.14 This affords the
performer an opportunity to decide how to treat these moments.
14
Walter
Everett,
“Grief
in
Winterreise:
A
Schenkerian
Perspective”,
Music
Analysis
9/2:
157–175.
Walter
Everett
reconciles
the
problem
by
explaining
that
the
VII
that
harmonizes
4̂
belongs
to
a
V7
chord
through
chromatic
alteration.
The
VI
chord
then
serves
as
an
upper
neighbor
to
V,
and
the
motion
to
2̂
happens
over
a
cadential
V.
9
In
the
first
section
of
the
piece,
the
inner
voice
seems
to
leap
out
over
the
melody
(Figure 8), and these instances happen to coincide with the lyrics “cloud” and “treetop.”
The performer could decide to play those with a lighter, more floating sound. Alternatively,
the performer could decide that those are the exciting moments in an otherwise somewhat
stagnant prolongation of scale degree 5ˆ , and play them louder. A performer can
expressively interpret analytical information in multiple ways successfully and, either way,
Similar decisions can be made in other passages of this song. The performers can
decide for themselves if the “inner voices” that take over are expressively “floating” above
the main melodic activity, or if they are an exciting detour; further, performers could make
different decisions at different moments. Again, we are not searching for the “right” way to
perform a piece, but rather searching for more information that can be used for inspiration.
Consulting the lyrics could help the performer to decide which action to take at each
moment.
The next phrase (Figure 9) shows a superimposition of an inner voice reached
through arpeggiation followed by descending stepwise motion, which serves to prolong the
A, first on the word “road,” then on the word “life.” Performers could decide to diminuendo
10
into the D, which might be more intuitive; or, the lyrics could inspire them to crescendo to
illustrate the forward nature of these words, “road” and “life.” Through the next section
(Figure 10) the superimposed inner voice obscures the main melodic descent. The first two
lyrics, “oh that the air should be so still,” and “oh that the world should be so light,” might
suggest ending these gestures softly. The F then emerges and is embellished with an
11
upper-‐neighbor
G-‐flat
(Figure
11)
that
also
could
be
seen
as
a
false
chromatic
substitute
for
the G that was passed over by the inner voice. This moment coincides with the word
“storm” in the lyrics, so the performer might choose to play this loudly. The next gesture
similarly uses an E-‐flat as a misleading hint at an altered scale degree 2̂ that really serves
as stepwise motion down to D to prolong the F. Schubert has used this deception to paint
the lyrics, which read “I was so miserable…” followed by the resolution with “so
miserable not!” The decision to play the first gesture soft and the resolution loud
would not only compliment the functions of the notes as melody vs. inner voice, but
12
To
this
point,
the
decisions
have
primarily
involved
dynamics
and
tempo,
based
on
information revealed by Schenkerian analysis at the middleground level, and now the
surface level. The next song to be examined will explore the decisions one can make
involving less-‐obvious and less-‐tangible things that a performer can manipulate: tone color
The next example is the sixteenth song from Schubert’s Winterreise, “Letzte
Hoffnung,” or “Last Hope.” The song is in E-‐flat major and seems to descend from scale
degree 5ˆ .15 The lyrics describe the watching of a leaf in autumn and equate the detachment
of the leaf with the loss of hope. The angst and uncertainty is illustrated by the conflict
between C-‐flat and B-‐flat that plays out through the song.
The first phrase is illustrated by the graph in Figure 12. One way a performer might
interpret this is to play the beginning of the phrase (starting on the C-‐flat) in a way that
15
Lauri
Suurpää,
Death
in
Winterreise
(Indiana
University
Press,
2014),
85–99.
Lauri
Suurpää
interprets
“Letzte
Hoffnung”
as
descending
from
scale
degree
3ˆ ,
which
arrives
in
the
upper
register
in
the
final
section
of
the
piece.
I
prefer
to
interpret
this
note
as
an
inner
voice,
since
the
Urlinie
resolves
in
the
lower
register.
13
conveys
uncertainty,
perhaps
with
a
lighter,
more
transparent
tone
color.
As
the
phrase
gains its footing in the home key from B-‐flat down to E-‐flat, the performer may play this
with more conviction and a more assertive tone. This can be repeated but, when the next
phrase redirects up towards G, the performer may choose to play this in a way that seems
to “trail off.” This also happens to coincide with the lyrics “lost in thought.”
The next phrase (Figure 13) features a B-‐natural, which serves a dual purpose. On
one hand, it is the enharmonic spelling of C-‐flat, which is the source of the angst and
conflict. On the other hand, in this instance it is spelled as an alteration of scale degree 5ˆ ,
and it is also supported with major harmonies. This may be seen as false hope, and indeed
the lyrics confirm the momentary hope. The performer may decide to play this phrase
warmly. The next phrase melodically and harmonically obscures our sense of the Ursatz,
and also lines up with the narrator’s fear, so this might be played with increased tension
and angst.
The next section is structurally very ambiguous, and the key seems to have moved
to E-‐flat minor. The performer might find various ways to create extra musical tension
through this section, as this is the peak of the uncertainty and angst in the piece. The final
section (Figure 14) returns to E-‐flat major and contains the full descent from B-‐flat. The
14
first
attempt
to
resolve
is
evaded
(on
the
word
“hope,”
no
less),
and
the
lyrics
are
repeated.
This may be interpreted as another chance for hope. The second attempt jumps up to G (an
inner voice), so that there is more room to “fall.” Finally, C-‐flat makes one final appearance,
again on the word “hope.” It falls once more to B-‐flat and, with it, the leaf falls, along with
the narrator’s hope. The performer may choose to stretch this moment, to increase the final
drama between C-‐flat and B-‐flat, and to cling to “hope” once more before the fall.
Another element that a skilled performer can manipulate is the sense of “weight”
(emphasis, such as through a tenuto articulation) and phrase direction. Passages can be
played with emotional gravity, they can be played haltingly, they can be played with clear
direction, or they can be played as if the notes exist in a conceptual vaccum. These will be
The next piece is the third song from Johannes Brahms’s song cycle, Vier ernste
Gesänge, or Four Serious Songs. The song begins in E minor and ends in E major, and can be
15
The
first
phrase
(Figure
15)
prolongs
the
B
with
motion
into
an
inner
voice
note,
F-‐
sharp. It is relatively straightforward melodically and harmonically, so the performer may
choose to play this passage with weight and clear phrase direction. The next passage plays
out less obviously, begins to obscure the prolongation of B, and makes use of a sequence
that ascends by thirds. The performer may play this passage with noticeably less weight
and allow the phrase direction to be less obvious. As the sequence ascends, adding
direction and weight may increase the tension and agitation through the passage, which
Figure 15 – Vier ernste Gesänge, Song 3, first section graph
The next section (Figure 16) moves to E major and takes a sweeter tone, and
changes the opening gesture so that it leaps up rather than down. The first phrase prolongs
G-‐sharp as an inner voice with fairly typical stepwise motion and harmonic support. This
might be an opportunity for the performer to play with less weight, to compliment the shift
to a major key, but with clear phrase direction. As the passage continues, the melody and
16
harmony
once
again
obscure
the
Ursatz,
so
this
is
another
example
where
the
performer
may choose to obscure the sense of phrase and play the notes as if in a vacuum. As the
section ends and returns to V and reveals the inner voice F-‐sharp, the performer may
choose to reflect this by playing with increasing weight and phrase direction.
The final section (Figure 17) reveals the main melodic descent, and serves as a great
opportunity for the performer to play again with clear phrase direction. Notes of the main
melodic descent are often approached from above, which might inspire the performer to
play with more weight, while “inner voice” notes are often approached from below, which
17
Figure 17 – Vier ernste Gesänge, Song 3, final section graph
There have been demonstrated several ways that a performer might use
information discovered through analysis in expressive ways to enhance the creative
process and inspire a more nuanced performance. This has been shown through several
different songs and a specific approach has been taken with each one regarding the use of
Schenkerian analysis to influence the interpretation. In the next example, these ideas will
be applied simultaneously.
This last piece from the repertoire of German lieder is the final song from Ludwig
van Beethoven’s song cycle, An die ferne Geliebte, or To the Distant Beloved. This song is in
This piece was composed earlier than the previous pieces, so it is harmonically less
adventurous. Because the melody and harmony embellish the Ursatz in a less chromatically
inflected way, and because the melodic descent is easier to track, one must focus on the
surface level and find various creative ways to treat each phrase.
18
The
first
two
measures
(Figure
18)
establish
a
motive
of
6ˆ -‐ 5ˆ -‐ 4̂ -‐ 3ˆ ,
but
obscure
it
by
stepping up towards E-‐flat, an inner voice. One way a performer might treat this is to play
lightly from C up to E-‐flat, and increase the phrase direction as it moves down towards the
G. In the next two measures, the voice moves down by a step and prolongs the F. As the line
moves up and back down to and from the inner voice, a performer may decide to crescendo
and diminuendo accordingly. The next two measures contain little melodic activity and
therefore might be played more softly, with less direction, or held back. As the melody
regains its place in the next two measures and reestablishes the G, the performer might
compliment this with a crescendo and by playing with more weight and phrase direction.
Figure 18 – An die ferne Geliebte #6, first section graph
As the next section strays away from the melody’s journey and becomes less clear in
its direction, this might be played with a more lonely tone color and less weight and phrase
direction. The music, of course, regains its footing as the A material returns. When the
music proceeds to the next section and leaps up to the F (Figure 19), this coincides with the
19
lyrics
“conscious
of
longing,”
so
a
performer
might
choose
to
stretch
the
time
here,
and
play
The next section of the piece teases the audience with multiple descents that each
sound like the end of the piece, but actually still serve to prolong the G using the 6ˆ -‐ 5ˆ -‐ 4̂ -‐ 3ˆ
motive. In addition to the marked accelerando, the performer might increase the intensity
of the dynamics, the weight, and the phrase direction in order to reflect the delays in the
successful resolution of the melody. The sweeping melodic line that jumps up to the inner
voice (Figure 20) might be played then with less weight, while continuing to increase the
intensity of the other variables. After the first fermata, there is a chance to reset and build
the intensity again to the next fermata. Finally, the last phrase leaps up to scale degree 3ˆ ,
but this simply serves to increase the drama of the piece. This section can be played with
the utmost weight to illustrate the gravity of the final descent.
20
Figure 20 – An die ferne Geliebte #6, final section & graph
21
CHAPTER
3
In Chapter 2 the principles discussed, and the process of translating them into
expressive ideas, were explored through the genre of German lieder. Because this style of
music functions in accordance with Schenker’s ideas, this allowed for the analytical
findings to be given context and meaning through their relationship to the Ursatz. In
addition, the relationships to the lyrical content could be consulted for further performance
inspiration. In the genre of trombone solo repertoire, however, there are no lyrics, and
much of this music was written after the common practice period, meaning we cannot rely
For obvious reasons, it becomes more difficult to apply this approach in music that
does not function according to Schenker’s theory. Without the Ursatz functioning as
expected at the deepest level, there is no inherent context for the middleground and
surface level voice leading patterns. And without lyrics, there are even fewer tools with
which to give meaning to the analysis. As a result, one must find ways to interpret the
potential purpose of the musical gestures found at different structural levels based on
musical principles that are not as reliant on context based on the relationship to the Ursatz.
The relationships of prolonged notes and harmonies to the Ursatz are often related
to the form of the piece, as each new passage of music usually coincides with a melodic or
harmonic development or event of some sort. Even in the absence of a functioning Ursatz,
the form of a piece of music can be a useful backdrop that gives the various passages of
music context, as if they are chapters in a story. By relating our analytical findings of each
section of music to its function in the overall form, as well as focusing on the broad musical
22
effects
of
the
discovered
contrapuntal
patterns,
we
can
reveal
context
for
certain
phrases
and infer potential expressive meaning. This way, we can find creative ideas for
performance. To reiterate, the goal is not to find a hypothetical “correct” way to perform a
piece of music, but rather to enhance the creative process by enriching our interpretive
The first example is a piece of trombone solo repertoire from the common practice
period. This will provide a smoother transition from the previous lecture, as the piece
functions somewhat in accordance with Schenker’s ideas. This piece is titled Romance, and
is attributed to Carl Maria von Weber. It is worth mentioning that there is dispute and
doubt that Weber is the true composer of this piece, but it is nonetheless a trombone solo
The piece begins and ends in C minor, though the majority of the piece explores
other key areas. The form (Figure 21) consists of an introduction in C minor, a transition
that modulates to G minor, an “A section” that modulates to B-‐flat major, a “B section” that
includes a modulation to and from G-‐flat major, the “A section” material again transitioning
from C minor to C major, the “B section” material modulating to and from A-‐flat major, and
As might be expected, an unusual form makes for an unusual manifestation of the
Ursatz. As is typical of music that includes some form of recapitulation, there is an
interruption, which means that, before the Ursatz reaches scale degree 1̂ , it resets and
starts over. The most common way this is realized is for the Ursatz to step down to scale
16
Martin
Harvey,
“Weber’s
Romance
With
the
Trombone
Over?”
in
ITA
Journal
19/2
(1991): 12–13.
23
degree 2̂ when the music first modulates, typically to the dominant. When the music is
recapitulated, the Ursatz resets at scale degree 3ˆ and continues to prolong this through the
material that had previously modulated but is now in the key of the tonic. This piece works
similarly, except that the primary material that is recapitulated has already modulated to
prolong scale degree 2̂ in its first presentation and, therefore, is also modulated further for
the purpose of the recapitulation, in order to facilitate the interruption and reset at scale
degree 3ˆ .
In addition to this, there are passages where the melody note of the Ursatz is
chromatically inflected. Scale degree 2̂ is lowered when the music modulates to G-‐flat
major. The reason for this is to allow scale degree 3ˆ to return to its lowered form before
resolving after the recapitulation. Related to this is the fact that scale degree 3ˆ is raised in
the “B section” after the recapitulation. This is because scale degree 2̂ had previously been
harmonized as the major third through much of the “B section” and, as this material serves
to prolong scale degree 3ˆ rather than 2̂ after the recapitulation, scale degree 3ˆ must be
24
Because
the
chromatic
inflections
of
the
Ursatz
seem
to
be
more
for
the
purposes
of
the form than specific expressive function, it makes sense to derive context and meaning
from the role of each passage in the narrative of the form rather than its relationship to the
The first phrase of the music (Figure 22) serves mainly to establish the key, and can
be interpreted as climbing up to either scale degree 3ˆ or 5ˆ . Because it is unclear at this
point whether the piece will descend from scale degree 3ˆ or 5ˆ , the passage’s relationship
to the Ursatz provides little or no information that can be used for expressive purposes.
Instead, by examining the more surface-‐level structure, in this case the ascending motion,
25
and
giving
this
information
context
by
observing
that
the
purpose
of
this
passage
seems
to
be to establish the key of C minor and to set up the descent of the Ursatz, some interpretive
decisions can be made. The performer could play the passage with expressive intent that
reflects the analysis by playing not only with the indicated crescendo, but also by
increasing the weight and phrase direction in order to compliment the heightening energy
of the upward melodic motion, as well as manipulating the tone color to enhance the drama
further.
The next section (Figure 23) serves to modulate from C minor to G minor. After a
brief passage that serenely prolongs E-‐flat over the major III chord, a dramatic gesture is
played and then repeated a whole step higher. The end of the section completes the
modulation, but evades the cadence with deceptive motion and sets up the dominant of G
minor instead. The performer may choose to interpret the first gesture calmly by holding
back the tempo and playing with a lighter tone, the second gesture with more agitation and
building energy, and then finish the passage somewhat inconclusively by decreasing the
weight and phrase direction at the moment of the deceptive harmonic motion.
26
This
sets
up
what
will
be
referred
to
as
the
“A
section”
of
the
piece,
as
this
is
the
material that appears at the recapitulation. The passage begins in G minor, which means
that scale degree 2̂ of the Ursatz (D) is now being prolonged. The end of the phrase sets up
the modulation to B-‐flat major, the key of the “B section,” which also serves to prolong scale
degree 2̂ .
In the first four measures (Figure 24), the melody and bass rise stepwise in parallel
tenths. The expressive effect of this musical gesture is to build energy, momentum, and
excitement. The music instructs the performer to crescendo, which helps to accomplish
this; however, in order to enhance the effect, the performer may also decide to add an
accelerando. Through the next few measures, as the sequence stops and the melody comes
27
to
rest
on
C,
the
performer
could
then
pull
the
tempo
back
in
order
to
compliment
the
The next phrase of the piece (Figure 25) merely serves to prolong D within the
context of B-‐flat major. The harmonies are straightforward and the music seems to bask in
itself without a true sense of direction or urgency. The performer may choose to illustrate
this by playing with a light, “floating” tone color and a less urgent sense of phrase direction.
This provides a nice contrast from the rest of the piece, which is in many ways overly active
harmonically.
28
The
music
then
modulates
to
G-‐flat
major,
which
prolongs
a
lowered
scale
degree
2̂ .
This achieves a certain amount of agitation and heightened energy and might be played
accordingly, with a more urgent phrase direction, as if the music wants to return to its
natural state.17 This also helps to link the section through to the end of the passage, which
concludes in B-‐flat major, and illustrates that the modulation to G-‐flat is just a side venture
within the larger context of the B-‐flat section. When the music returns to B-‐flat, the
performer might illustrate the relief and gravity of the moment by pulling the tempo back
The recapitulation functions similarly to before, and can be treated as such. When
the music changes (Figure 26) in order to resolve, this time in minor rather than major, this
reveals the descent of the Ursatz and the functional end of the piece; therefore, the
performer may choose to pull the tempo back dramatically and play very deliberately and
with much weight. Because the resolution is in the lower register of the trombone, it may
be a good idea to play a little more loudly as well. The coda serves as the narrative “falling
action” and, therefore, should be used to bring the audience from a climactic point of
excitement down to a restful state. The performer can allow the tempo and phrase
direction to relax through to the end in order to accomplish this. Finally, to delay further
the final resting point of the piece, the performer may elect to play the upper indicated
notes.
17
Alain
Trudel,
Récital,
1997;
Christian
Lindberg,
The
Romantic
Trombone,
1985;
this
is
an
example
of
how
this
approach
might
lead
to
an
interpretation
that
differs
from
convention.
Recordings
by
Alain
Trudel
and
Christian
Lindberg,
for
instance,
involve
a
sweeter,
calmer
approach
to
this
section
(though
Christian
Lindberg
does
eventually
increase
the
agitation
later
in
the
passage.)
29
The next piece to be examined is “Cavatine” for trombone and piano by Camille
Saint-‐Saëns. This piece contains more chromaticism, more chords that are not considered
tonally functional, and contains a middle section in the key of raised scale degree 2̂ (or the
enharmonic spelling of lowered scale degree 3ˆ ). Considering these things, it is best to focus
again on the middle and surface level patterns and their relation to the narrative of the
form.
Additionally, two elements of the piece make it more difficult to analyze: the
“dialogue” format between the trombone and piano (rather than a solo/accompaniment
format) and the arpeggiating motif that may render certain inversions of the observed
chords seemingly nonfunctional. Because of this, one must infer a certain amount of
information regarding the harmonies present when the trombone plays alone and, in some
cases, some liberties must be taken regarding the inversions of chords. Additionally, some
seemingly non-‐functional harmonies may be a result of a desired bass note and harmonic
color that differ from that achieved through traditional functional harmony.
The piece begins with octave Fs in the piano, which are then revealed to belong to a
first inversion tonic chord in D-‐flat major. The trombone introduces the arpeggiating motif
30
on
the
tonic
chord
and
prolongs
scale
degree
3ˆ
through
the
first
phrase.
The
consequent
of
the phrase uses more downward motion and weaker harmonies, and resolves on the F an
octave lower than is first presented; however, the bass notes move up stepwise. One way
the performer might interpret this passage (Figure 27) is to play the antecedent boldly
with forward motion, and to play the consequent with a softer tone color and less forward
motion, while still honoring the upward motion in the bass with a crescendo, and finally
The next gesture (Figure 28) makes use once more of the ascending arpeggio motif,
but then redirects to the low range, and then hints subtly at deceptive motion harmonically.
One way to navigate this is to play the phrase heavily, but lighten up when moving into the
D-‐flat “resolution.” This also sets up a nice contrast for the next gesture, a rapid scalar
31
passage. The scale concludes again with a vague, potentially deceptive harmonic motion
before launching into yet another rapid scale which, in turn, moves into a similar gesture,
only to redirect and resolve to G-‐flat, a structural upper neighbor to the F that has been
prolonged. The performer could make full use of these subtle changes by gradually
decreasing the weight and phrase direction at the top of each scalar passage, but then
increasing the weight and direction as the passage redirects downward to resolve.
The next section of the music (Figure 29) makes use of a fanfare-‐like gesture that
moves outward stepwise between the melody and bass to prolong the upper neighbor G-‐
flat, which is further prolonged with a large-‐scale voice exchange. This increases the energy
and drama and, therefore, could be enhanced with forward momentum. When the F
returns, the harmony has changed and the piece begins to “trail off” as if it did not reach its
goal properly. The performer may decide to compliment this by playing with decreasing
The B section of the piece is harmonically closed in E major and could be seen as
prolonging either raised scale degree 2̂ before an interruption that resets at the
recapitulation, or it could be seen as prolonging the enharmonic spelling of lowered scale
32
degree 3ˆ . Either way, the effect of the chromaticism compliments the restlessness of the
The first phrase (Figure 30) begins as though it will resolve to tonic, but leaves the
listener hanging with a dominant chord, which prolongs one’s attention through the next
phrase. As the phrase ascends, the performer may take a cue from this and crescendo
towards the end of the phrase, only to diminuendo when it trails off.18 The expressive
18
Christian
Lindberg,
T.
R.
T.;
Ron
Barron,
Le
Trombone
Francais,
1998;
by
contrast,
recordings
by
Ron
Barron
and
Christian
Lindberg
maintain
a
subdued
dynamic
through
this
section.
33
gesture can be repeated as the next phrase ascends and then steps downward towards a
resolution; however, the harmony shifts and interrupts the resolution. The performer can
compliment this by playing with less phrase direction into this false cadence.
This leads restlessly into the next phrase (Figure 31), which could be complimented
34
with
a
slight
accelerando.
The
phrase
moves
into
a
prolonged
dominant
that
seems
to
rock
back and forth with pedal 64 motion. This can be exaggerated by holding back the tempo
and playing with less phrase direction. As the bass steps downward and the music moves
forward, the energy and agitation of the piece increase. Playing with increasing intent in
the phrase direction can help the music achieve this goal.
The bass continues to step down (Figure 32), ultimately to prolong the dominant.
The performer can play with increasing weight to compliment the increasing gravity of the
music. When the bass begins to step upward in parallel tenths with the melody, the
performer might decide to add an accelerando. Finally, the climax of the B section can be
35
played
with
more
weight
and
phrase
direction
to
compliment
the
resolution
that
has
been
delayed for so long. Similar to the end of the Romance, the final gesture of this section
serves as “falling action,” and can be played in a way that allows the energy to come to rest
again.
After the recapitulation, the music changes during the fanfare gestures. This time,
the passage plays out in a harmonically different way (Figure 33). The G-‐flat is prolonged
further into a new section of music. The F finally returns belonging to a V64 chord that is
somewhat obscured, which can be complimented with a softer tone color and less phrase
36
direction.
Despite
being
harmonized
with
an
F
minor
chord,
the
scale
degree
5ˆ
penultimate
note is reminiscent of dominant function in its leading to the tonic, which can be seen as a
functional substitute for scale degree 2̂ , completing the descent in a sense.
The final piece to be examined is the second movement of the Sonatine for
Trombone and Piano by Jacques Castérède. This piece was written in 1957, well after the
common practice period, but has its roots in tonality. The harmony is highly embellished
with color tones and chords that are not traditionally functional, so once again there are
The first passage is similar to the first passages of the previous two pieces in that it
serves mainly to establish the sense of tonic. The movement is in A major, and the melody
likely descends from 5ˆ , as E is prolonged through this passage. As with the previous two
pieces, the performer might help to establish this by playing the first passage with clear
phrase direction.
In the second passage (Figure 34), one can see that the main structural motion is a
stepwise descent of parallel tenths between the melody and bass, from D over B to G-‐sharp
over E. In Schenkerian terms, this illustrates a technique known as “unfolding” and outlines
an E dominant seventh chord. Towards the end of the phrase, the sequence is broken and a
dominant to tonic resolution is implied: the “inner voice” G-‐sharp resolves to A, while the D
from the beginning of the passage, which has been prolonged through the unfolding,
resolves to C-‐sharp. The resolution of the bass is delayed, as well as obscured, by non-‐
traditional harmonies in order to enhance the effect of the final resolution of the
movement, and to keep the momentum of the piece moving forward.
37
The
unfolding
motion
of
a
dissonant
interval
(D
to
G-‐sharp)
as
an
outline
of
the
dominant seventh chord can be interpreted as building tension. The performer could
contribute to this by adding a crescendo and gradually playing with more weight through
the phrase until the melody resolves and rests on A in measure 16.19 In addition, a slight
ritardando at the end of the phrase could further enhance the effect, as well as help to
emphasize the resolution of the D to C-‐sharp, before coming to rest on the inner voice A.
The next phrase (Figure 35) is energized by a move to an F-‐major chord, but in first
inversion
to
maintain
the
bass
note
for
a
smooth
transition.
The
F
in
the
melody
can
be
19
Christian
Lindberg,
The
Burlesque
Trombone,
1986;
Thomas
Horch,
Recital
Francais,
2003;
recordings
by
Thomas
Horch
and
Christian
Lindberg
do
not
crescendo
through
the
first
four
measures
of
the
phrase,
or
otherwise
bring
out
the
unfolding.
38
seen
as
an
upper
neighbor
to
the
E,
and
this
gesture
can
be
played
more
energetically,
with
forward motion and possibly a little more volume than indicated. This allows the next
statement, an echo in D minor over a B-‐flat bass note, to be played more softly in order to
compliment the weaker harmonic support and downward register shift for the F. The next
passage involves the melody ascending as the bass descends, thereby increasing the
tension and agitation of the passage. This can be reflected with an increase in volume as
well as weight, before the end of the phrase abandons the F and retreats into the piano’s
answer.
The next passage played by the trombone is the same as the beginning, except it has
been transposed down one whole step and harmonized more unusually, as well as
39
accompanied
by
melodic
material
in
the
piano.
This
can
be
interpreted
as
a
weakened
version of the first material in every sense, and therefore might be played not only more
softly, but with a transparent tone color and less defined phrase direction.
Following this is a return of the main melodic note, E, harmonized with an A in the
bass. The phrase unravels itself harmonically, resulting in increased agitation, which can be
shown with a more urgent tone color and forward motion. The final passage (Figure 36) is
similar to the unfolding near the beginning of the movement, except that it has been
transposed by a half-‐step and the rhythm has been shortened. The unfolding is also
obscured as the bass note arrives later, after which the music reestablishes itself and
resolves in the home key. This can be interpreted with similar increasing tension as before,
but rather than playing more heavily, the altered tonality and shortened rhythm makes for
a more unsettled and almost hurried musical gesture, and could be played with more
forward momentum, as if the music is trying to return to its natural state. This also helps to
compliment the sense of relief when the accompaniment finally resolves in the last
measure.
40
41
CHAPTER
4
CONCLUSION
Many musicians struggle to find ways to use concepts learned through the study of
music theory in their creative process when preparing a piece of music for performance.
Through these examples, it has been demonstrated that information discovered through
analysis can serve as creative inspiration for performance. Heinrich Schenker’s ideas of
how notes and harmonies relate to each other and serve to prolong deeper structural
patterns have been shown to be a particularly useful medium for this process.
While Schenker’s methods are most applicable to music from the common practice
period, since findings can be given context through their relationship to the Ursatz, it is still
possible and effective to take a similar approach in later music. Without a functioning
Ursatz, the structures at the middle and surface levels can be given context through their
function in relation to the form and other broad musical principles, such as voice leading.
This can be applied to music of other genres with the understanding that music further
removed from the common practice period must potentially be analyzed with less concern
on tonality-‐dependent principles and more attention given to the implications of
The study of music is enriched through the integration of its disciplines.
Performance and its creative process are enhanced, rather than stifled, through study and
analysis; likewise, music theory plays an active (rather than purely abstract) role in making
music. Musicians will always benefit from a deeper understanding of music, regardless of
42
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44
BIOGRAPHICAL
SKETCH
David Ellis is a trombonist and educator from the state of Colorado. He served as a
Graduate Teaching Assistant with the Florida State University trombone studio, where he
completed his Doctorate of Music degree in Performance. Before studying at Florida State,
he earned his Master of Music degree in Performance at the University of Massachusetts
Amherst, where he was a Graduate Teaching Assistant for Music Theory, and he earned his
Bachelor of Music degree in Performance and Composition at Colorado State University.
Before discovering a passion for teaching, David played Dixieland jazz in various
festivals and venues around Colorado, including the Summit Jazz Festival, the Evergreen
Jazz Festival, and the Denver Jazz Club. His involvement in keeping traditional jazz alive
even afforded him opportunities for travel: performing at the Sacramento Jazz Jubilee, the
Jazz Festival Enkhuizen in the Netherlands, and various venues in Germany and Austria.
As a classical trombonist, David has performed with the Colorado Symphony, as well
as several regional orchestras in Colorado and in Massachusetts. In Florida, he held the
position of Principal Trombone with the Sinfonia Gulf Coast as well as interim Principal
Trombone with The Gainesville Orchestra. David has also had many performing
opportunities as a member of the Seminole Trombone Quartet, including a full recital in
Weill Recital Hall at Carnegie Hall, a performance lecture at the 2016 Midwest Clinic, and
David’s work in composition and music theory influences his playing and teaching.
In addition to his goals as a performer and pedagogue of trombone, David strives to
contribute to the study of applied music by highlighting the expressive implications of the
45