Environmental Management

Environmental Management
http://knowmeem.oncampus.de
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Environmental Management Content
Content
Environmental Management ......................................................................................................................................... 4
1 First segment .................................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Sustainability ............................................................................................................................................................ 6
1.1.1 Sustainable development ........................................................................................................................... 6
1.1.2 Sustainability Scenarios .............................................................................................................................. 7
1.1.3 Peak Oil and shipping .................................................................................................................................. 8
1.2 Environmental Impact Categories ................................................................................................................ 11
1.2.1 Ecotoxicity ...................................................................................................................................................... 12
1.2.2 Air pollution and health effects ............................................................................................................ 15
1.2.3 Acidification ................................................................................................................................................... 21
1.2.4 Eutrophication .............................................................................................................................................. 23
1.2.5 Climate change ............................................................................................................................................. 24
1.2.6 Ocean acidification ..................................................................................................................................... 27
1.2.7 Noise ................................................................................................................................................................. 27
1.2.8 Resource use ................................................................................................................................................. 28
1.2.9 Introduction of non-indigenous species ........................................................................................... 29
2 Second segment ............................................................................................................................................................ 31
2.1 Corporate Environmental Work .................................................................................................................... 32
2.2 Drivers for implementation ............................................................................................................................ 33
2.3 Costs and benefits from the use of an EMS ............................................................................................. 35
2.4 ISO 14001 ............................................................................................................................................................... 36
2.4.1 Requirements of a documented environmental management system ................................. 41
2.4.2 Requirements of environmental policy ............................................................................................. 41
2.4.3 Requirements of Planning ....................................................................................................................... 42
2.4.4 Requirements of Implementation and operation .......................................................................... 43
2.4.5 Requirements of Checking and corrective action ......................................................................... 44
2.4.6 Requirements on management review ............................................................................................. 45
2.5 Overview of requirements ............................................................................................................................... 45
2.6 Eco-management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) ......................................................................................... 46
3 Third segment ............................................................................................................................................................... 50
3.1 Shipping Companies and EMS ....................................................................................................................... 51
3.2 Farstad shipping .................................................................................................................................................. 53
3.3 Wallenius marine ................................................................................................................................................. 55
3.4 Stena Line ............................................................................................................................................................... 56
3.5 BP shipping ............................................................................................................................................................ 57
3.6 American Bureau of Shipping ........................................................................................................................ 58
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Environmental Management Content
Appendix
I List of figures .................................................................................................................................................................. 59
II List of tables .................................................................................................................................................................. 60
III List of media ................................................................................................................................................................ 61
IV List of tasks ................................................................................................................................................................... 62
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Environmental Management Environmental Management
Environmental Management
Welcome to this e-course on Environmental Management!
This e-course is divided into 3 segments:
• 1st segment: Environmental issues

• 2nd segment: Environmental work in companies – economics
• 3rd segment: Environmental work in shipping companies
This e-course relies equally on reading the text and on own efforts on the assignments
found in the question boxes “What do you think?” that you will find at the end of the
chapters. These assignments are of great importance to the understanding of the subject
and are crucial for answering the multiple choice quiz at the end. Take the opportunity to
use the discussion forums! You'll find the quiz and the discussion forums on the course
site.
This course was developed within the project KNOWME by Hulda Winnes (author) from
IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute and oncampus , e-learning department
of Lübeck University of Applied Sciences, Germany.
The research leading to these results
has received funding from the European
Union Seventh Framework Programme
FP7/2007-2013 under grant agreement n°
MOVE/FP7/265966/"KNOW-ME".
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Environmental Management 1 First segment
1 First segment
Environmental issues – changes in our living environment
After going through this first segment of the course you should be able to exemplify
learningobjectives
cause-effect relationships of at least three changes in our environment, perceived as
threats to our environment, caused by human activities.
Environmental issues that are connected to shipping activities will be in focus.
1 First segment
arrangement
1.1 Sustainability
1.2 Environmental Impact Categories
Duration
timerequirement In total this segment requires 21 hours of your time.
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1 First segment 1.1 Sustainability
1.1 Sustainability
1.1 Sustainability
arrangement
1.1.1 Sustainable development
1.1.2 Sustainability Scenarios
1.1.3 Peak Oil and shipping
The world environment changes. When changes are induced by human activities
and occur to an extent that degrades the surrounding ecosystems we talk about
anthropogenic environmental impacts. The anthropogenic changes in our environment
have since the industrial revolution occurred faster and faster. The degradation can
have many shapes and can be of both physical and chemical origin. The introduction
of chemicals in an environment where they do not initially occur can cause damages
to biological life. Also, damages from highly elevated concentrations of chemical
compounds can prove very harmful for the living environment. Certain chemicals can
be very harmful even in small concentrations and some artificially produced chemicals
have proven very difficult for the environment to decompose. Physical changes in our
environment include noise and ecological changes that cause loss of habitat and reduced
accessibility.
1.1.1 Sustainable development

A sustainable society does not care for the survival of specific industries; rather it is the
responsibility of each sector to fit in. There is a growing demand on our ecosystems today
with more people on the earth and increasing affluence. Sustaining the services from our
ecosystems is a central part of a sustainable society.
Forces with characters that range from strictly legal to voluntary, aim at forming a society
that is increasingly sustainable. In a report from the World Commission on Environment
and Development (WCED) (also called the Brundtland Commission), in 1983, an often
used formulation of sustainable development was declared: “Sustainable development
is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs". The report acknowledges that the needs
of the poor should be given priority over other sustainability issues, and to limitations
posed by the state of technology and social organization which might hinder the keeping
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1.1 Sustainability 1.1.2 Sustainability Scenarios
and development of a desired environmental state. The development of our society is

also driven by forces with other aims, e.g. purely commercial or uninformed and short
sighted actions may work in other directions than long term goals.
Sustainability has a profound conceptual meaning that includes responsibility for letting
future generations’ needs be met and having equity over time and at present. The equity
demand applies to economy, social grounds and environmental grounds. Sustainability
as a concept is most often anthropocentric (Ciegis, R. et al. 2009). The concept, however,
contains other elements than a wise handling of environmental resources. To reach
sustainability, societal aspects and economic welfare also need to be achieved. A societal
issue that is directly related to shipping is the ship dismantling industry. Another is the
differentiation of wages and employment standards of crew of different nationalities.
These issues are directed by the International Labour Organization (ILO). Economically,
the shipping industry is often considered to be very close to a free market and the
economic part of the sustainability concept is further left out of this e-course. Coupled to
the economic sustainability is economic stability in a global perspective; issues relating
to this are not within the scope of this e-course. The focus will instead be on the
environmental parts of sustainability and a discussion of societal issues will also be
included.
reflection
What do you think?
WHAT DO YOU THINK?

What is your opinion about a sustainable development? Is the use of resources in a finite
system compatible with continuous economic growth?
1.1.2 Sustainability Scenarios

Attempts to describe future societies have been made by many (see Ciegis et al. 2009).
Regardless of the sustainability elements in these descriptions, the reduced amount of
available oil is a common characteristic of them all.
In the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment from 2005, experts develop scenarios and
describe them qualitatively (Carpenter et al., 2005). Where possible, models are
used in order to add quantitative information on certain aspects. Four scenarios are
investigated based on large principles of societal development. Two scenarios emphasise
stronger regional development and two emphasise increased global development. For
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1.1 Sustainability 1.1.3 Peak Oil and shipping
both geographical scales, the environmental management could be either proactive or

reactive. None of them is likely to occur in isolation but rather a mix of them.
The scenarios are described from a perspective of ecosystem services functionality:

"Human well-being and progress toward sustainable development are vitally
dependent upon improving the management of Earth’s ecosystems to ensure their
conservation and sustainable use. But while demands for ecosystem services such as
food and clean water are growing, human actions are at the same time diminishing
the capability of many ecosystems to meet these demands."
In the Millennium Ecosystem Assessments, human wellbeing is also measured by the

parameters ‘Material well-being’, ‘Health’, ‘Security’, ‘Social Relations’ and ‘Freedom and
Choice’. Regardless of the likelihood of occurrence, the most satisfying scenario from a
sustainability perspective seems to include strong regional development with proactive
policy making to protect and support ecosystem services.
Also ecosystem services in general seem to be most prospering in this scenario

although a more globalised development has a better equality performance between the
developed and the developing world. This scenario, however, relies greatly on human
made and controlled ecosystems, something that is coupled to high ecological risk.
Other studies on scenarios for a sustainable living comprise the work of Raskin et al.
from 2002 (The Great Transition) and the work with the Special Report on Emissions
Scenarios (SRES) of the IPCC (see e.g. Arnell and Kram, 2010).
1.1.3 Peak Oil and shipping

Peak oil is a term used to describe the point in time when the world crude oil production
starts to decline after increasing trends since exploration started. For transport in
general and for shipping in particular, the peak oil problem can be tightly linked to
future performance. The transport sector has been pointed out to be the driver of liquid
fuel demand (Hirsch et al., 2005) with the argument that peak oil will be a liquid fuels
problem and not an energy problem. There is yet no solution or ready alternative liquid
fuel available in enough quantities to fully support the industry.
The diminishing resources of oil are also an important feature of the future affluence
of the global population. Estimates of proved and probable oil reserves rely on data of
differing quality. Today there are about 70,000 oil fields of which a majority are small
fields. A quarter of the global oil production originates from 25 of these (Sorrell et al.,
2010a). Estimates of the remaining reserves today are between 870-3170 billion barrels
(Gb) (Sorrell et al, 2010a). According to IHS (http://www.ihs.com/) there were 1240
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Gb in reserves 2007. This is comparable to the total production (the extraction from
reserves) before 2008 (1128 Gb). However, the production still increases every year and
the global yearly production was 29.5 Gb in 2007 (Sorrell et al., 2010a).
Conventional oils (crude oil, condensate and natural gas liquids) are estimated to
reach a peak in production in the 2020s or 2030s. The uncertainties surrounding
these estimates are large and include factors such as economic and political stability,
improved technology and improved geological knowledge. Also, information on reserves
is varying. Undoubtedly however, the size of discovered oil fields is declining and many
of the giant fields are old and past their peak production date (Sorrell et al., 2010b).
Unconventional oil is a term used for oil sands, heavy and extra heavy oil. The reservoirs
of unconventional oils are large, but they have not previously been economically
attractive to explore. Conventional oil represents only about 30% of the total oil
resources while unconventional oil is more abundant (Alboudwarej et al., 2006). Large
oil sand reserves are present in Canada and Venezuela.
With a declining oil production, prices will increase and the use of the resources will
possibly be more and more questioned. Hirsch et al., (2005) describe an economic
recession as a consequence:
"When world oil production peaks, there will still be large reserves remaining. Peaking
means that the rate of world oil production cannot increase; it also means that
production will thereafter decrease with time.
Higher oil prices result in increased costs for the production of goods and services,
as well as inflation, unemployment, reduced demand for products other than oil, and
lower capital investment. Tax revenues decline and budget deficits increase, driving
up interest rates. These effects will be greater the more abrupt and severe the oil price
increase and will be exacerbated by the impact on consumer and business confidence.
The impact of oil price changes will likely be asymmetric. The negative economic
effects of oil price increases are usually not offset by the economic stimulus resulting
from a fall in oil prices. The increase in economic growth in oil exporting countries
provided by higher oil prices has been less than the loss of economic growth in
importing countries, and these effects will likely continue in the future."
Developing countries suffer more than developed countries from increased oil price.
These countries have an industry that is increasingly dependent on oil and that is less
energy efficient than manufacturing industry in the developed world (Hirsch et al.,
2005).
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In order to mitigate the effects of oil shortage on the transport market several
actions have been proposed and some taken. Some address the source and extraction
technologies through improved oil recovery technologies. These technologies are
expensive and therefore not yet widely used but can be expected to contribute
significantly as oil prices increase. Another option is to further extract the
unconventional oils (heavy oils and oil sands). The resources are vast but from a
sustainability perspective the severe ecologic stress from their mining should not be
neglected.
Liquefied natural gas is a fuel option that is increasingly prospected for ships. The gas
reserves are expected to last longer than the oil reserves; Aleklett et al., (2004) estimates
a plateau in natural gas production between 2015 and 2040, after which there will be
a steep decline. The natural gas market is more influenced by geographical constraints
than the oil market as its transport requires more specialised vessels or costly pipelines.
The gas is transported either liquefied or pressurised. Liquid hydrocarbons can also
be produced from gas with Fischer-Tropsch processes. Much gas is today stranded in
remote areas (Aleklett et al., 2004).
The synthetic diesel produced from the Fischer-Tropsch process can utilise a variety of
raw material for diesel oil production. Both hydrocarbons from renewable sources and
coal could be feed stock for this production. Switching to fuels of renewable origin can
thus be done via production of synthetic diesel oils from biogas or using other liquid
hydrocarbons such as methanol and oils from biologic sources.
A mitigation alternative is of course to more efficiently utilise the oil. For ships, the most
effective efficiency measure is in general to slow the ship steaming speed. Many reports
indicate that there is an abundance of cost efficient fuel saving alternatives available
(e.g. Eide, 2011 and Marine Environmental Protection Committee, 2009). Reasons why
they are not implemented on a larger scale can be attributed to barriers of technological,
institutional and financial character. The technological barriers include ship specific
design that is incompatible with certain technologies and potential risks with new
technologies. The institutional barriers comprise such as split incentives; a charterer or
a second hand market will not pay a premium for a fuel efficient ship, which means that
a ship-owner who invests in expensive technologies and then out charters the ship will
not be financially compensated for investment costs. Also, the charterer will pay for fuel
and is thus the one who makes potential savings; there is a lack of incentive for the ship
owner to invest in fuel efficient technologies. Financial barriers can exist, such as very
short payback times on retrofitted technologies.
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1 First segment 1.2 Environmental Impact Categories
reflection
What do you think?
WHAT DO YOU THINK?

Will the development of the global society towards more regional focus or more global
focus have an impact on the role of shipping in society? In what ways and why? What
adjustments will be needed to fit ships and shipping in a sustainable society?

arrangement
1.2.1 Ecotoxicity
1.2.2 Air pollution and health effects
1.2.3 Acidification
1.2.4 Eutrophication
1.2.5 Climate change
1.2.6 Ocean acidification
1.2.7 Noise
1.2.8 Resource use
1.2.9 Introduction of non-indigenous species
Environmental impacts do not solely depend on the extent of an ecological change,

emission or waste stream but also on the sensitivity of the exposed area. This aspect is
much related to reduction measures as the difficulty in avoiding an impact increases the
further away from the source a measure is implemented. For example, the potential to
minimise concentrations and impacts of acidifying sulphates in the atmosphere cannot
be done by collection of sulphate particles in the ambient air but rather at the source
of emission. Awareness within the industry is therefore an important complement to
regulations.
A brief introduction to causes and effects of a handful of environmental impact categories

will be the basis of this first course segment. The relation to ships and shipping will be
central and examples of industrial efforts that have resulted in positive development will
be given.
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1.2 Environmental Impact Categories 1.2.1 Ecotoxicity
Nine environmental categories will be presented as their connection to shipping is

evident and considered of high importance by regulatory bodies and public opinion.
These are
• ecotoxicity,
• air pollution and health effects,
• acidification,
• eutrophication,
• climate change,
• ocean acidification,
• noise,
• resource management and
• introduction of non-indigenous species.
1.2.1 Ecotoxicity
If toxicity is the degree to which a substance can damage an organism, ecotoxicity refers
to the degree to which a substance can damage an ecosystem. The two concepts are
closely connected and for the purpose of this course a distinction between the two is not
highly relevant.
Typical tests that are used in order to determine the eco-toxicity of substances comprise
LC50 and EC50 tests. In an LC50 test, a concentration level of a compound at which 50 %
of the individuals in a population have died after a specified time interval is determined;
Lethal Concentration 50 % (LC50). The EC50 is a similar test but the effect on the studied
organisms is not lethal; Effective Concentration 50 % (EC50). Another test that is used
to determine eco-toxicity is a No Observed Effect Level (NOEL) test. During NOEL-tests,
an exposure level at which there are no significant increases in the frequency or severity
of any effect between an exposed population and a non-exposed population. Short term
effects that immediately appear are so called acute toxic effects. Long term effects due to
chronic exposure of low concentrations of a harmful substance are much more difficult
to determine.
Two central concepts in eco-toxicology are bio-accumulation and bio-magnification. Bio-

accumulation occurs in organisms when they absorb a substance at higher speed than
they lose it. This is typical of compounds that are soluble in fats rather than water. Bio
magnification is when the concentration of a chemical increases at higher levels in the
food chain. Highest levels of chemicals are in these cases found in the living tissues of top
predators like tuna, salmon, fish-eating birds, marine mammals and also humans (EEA,
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2011). Compounds that bio magnify are typically the same as those that bio accumulate.
Examples are the so called Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) such as DDT, PCB and
TBT, and also heavy metals such as arsenic, mercury, cadmium and lead.
Daphnia magna
Source: PLoS Genetics, 2011
Chemicals for many different purposes have been shown to cause harmful effects on
living organisms:
• Pesticides used in agriculture have been shown to affect non-target organisms and
cause impairment of the nervous system;
• Exposure to medicine residues, often discharged with waste water, have been
shown to have impacts on vital organs of fish and antibiotics can be particularly
harmful to cyanobacteria;
• Nano-materials are increasingly frequently used in many different applications. The
effects of nano-material on organisms is not very well understood but has been
shown to increase the bioaccumulation of heavy metal in fish.
In addition to the above mentioned effects, many pesticides, medicines and personal care
products contain substances with structure similar to hormones. Numerous reports of
malfunctioning reproducing organs of water living animals have been published (EEA,
2011). Hormone-like substances cause sex changes or development of both female and
male reproductive organs in the same individual (imposex and intersex).
Ships emit harmful substances to the water they cross. Legal oily discharge contains a
mixture of organic compounds. As an example, leakage of the propeller lubricants in the
stern tube has been estimated to leak up to 6 dm3 per day (Ahlbom and Duus, 2003).
Additives are common in lubricant oils and are often acutely toxic, persistent and bio
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accumulating. An accumulation of hydrocarbons from oils in the bottom sediments can

be assumed to cause sub-lethal effects for many plants and animals in this environment.
The antifouling paint used on ships’ hulls is another large source of environmental
toxins in the marine environment. Traditional paints are designed to have a constant
leakage of the active ingredients (toxins) in order to limit growth of fouling organisms
on the hull. The leakage can be more or less controlled and modern paints to a large
extent use so called self-polishing copolymer techniques which results in a controlled
leakage (Chambers et al, 2006). The use of paints containing tri-butyl-tin (TBT) is
banned by the Anti-fouling Systems convention governed by the IMO. During the 1970’s
TBT was used to protect ship hulls from fouling almost exclusively but as the eco-
toxic effects of the compounds became apparent the convention was developed and
entered into force in 2008 (International Maritime organization, 2003). Still, high
levels of TBT are found in harbours and marinas. The active ingredients used in
contemporary paints are mainly compounds based on a heavy metal. The much used
copper-based toxins from anti-fouling paints do not have as broad a toxic spectrum as the
organic tin compounds previously used. However, at elevated levels toxic effects on fish,
crustaceans, molluscs and certain algae have been seen. The paints do also contain so
called booster biocides such as Irgarol, Diuron and Isotiazolin. Booster biocides increase
the length and functionality of copper based antifouling coating systems (Chambers
et al., 2006). Irgarol has a high bioaccumulation potential and is extremely toxic to
algae and water living plants as it effectively inhibits photosynthesis. EC50 values for
Irgarol between 0.096 and 3.8 µg/l (Ahlbom and Duus, 2003) have been established for
these plants. In total, the negative effects from anti-fouling products can be summarized
to be of different character and sometimes severely affect many species. The effects
include genetic diversity of copepods, decline in germination frequency of macroalgae,
sex change (imposex or intersex) in gastropod species, increased mortality and reduced
growth rate in blue mussel larvae. Toxic substances from anti-fouling have also been
found in liver tissue of marine mammals in the Baltic Sea.
reflection
What do you think?
WHAT DO YOU THINK?

There is a trade-off between fuel consumption (which increase as organisms attach to
the hull and alters its surface) and efficient anti fouling paints. Which is worst and why
is that?
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1.2 Environmental Impact Categories 1.2.2 Air pollution and health effects
1.2.2 Air pollution and health effects

According to the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) ships in
traffic in the waters around Europe were responsible for approximately 7800 tonnes
of deposited nitrogen on EU land in 2009. This can be compared to deposition that
can be traced to emissions from the EU countries themselves, approximately 10500
tonnes (Norwegian Meteorological Institute, 2011). Corresponding figures for sulphur
are 6700 tonnes that shipping is responsible for and 12700 tonnes from the EU countries
themselves.
Air pollution
All member states of the European Union need to follow the common air quality
standards established for safeguarding human health. The standards dictate maximum
allowed concentrations for coarse and fine particles, nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulphur
dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone, benzene, PAHs and a handful of heavy
metals. In order to comply with these limits, countries regulate emission sources with
effects in areas and cities that tend to have ambient concentrations exceeding the limits.
Ships are often a large source of many of the pollutants covered by the environmental
standards. In Gothenburg, which is the largest port of the Nordic countries, as an
example, ships are dominant contributors of SO2, NOX and are also major contributors
of particles:
Source SO2 tonnes/ NOX VOC Fossile CO2 Particles

yr tonnes/yr tonnes/yr tonnes/yr tonnes/yr
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Road traffic 3 2608 342 682000 414
Industry 303 872 6400 1183823 31
Energy/ 181 575 19 971890 37

Heating
Households - - 2900 - -
Shipping 944 4940 785 309537 161
Other off- - 580 57 87000 26

road
machinery
Gas station - - 127 - -
Total 1431 9575 10630 3234250 669
Calculated contributions of different sources to air pollution in Gothenburg 2010

Source: Göteborgs stad, 2011
Air pollution from traffic and the combustion of different fuels mainly relate to increased
ambient concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons
(HC), nitrogen oxides (NOX), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and particles.
Typical for air pollution from ships are high emissions of SO2 compared to other modes
of transport. Compared to trucks and trains, ships cause the most SO2 emissions in
grams per tonne-km. Emissions of SO2 are directly related to the sulphur content of
the fuel combusted. Sulphur bound to the hydrocarbons of the fuel react with oxygen
during the combustion and sulphur oxides are formed; SO2 more than SO3. SO3 is an
unwanted compound in the exhaust system as it rapidly forms corrosive H2SO4 in contact
with water. The formation of SO3 is determined by the amount of sulphur, combustion
temperature and pressure, and excess air. Normally in the diesel exhaust, about 3-5 % of
the SO2 will oxidize to SO3. If the exhaust gas temperature exceeds 450 °C an increasing
portion will form H2SO4. The formation of H2SO4 is catalyzed by iron and vanadium
oxides (Wright, 2000).
Emissions of NOX from diesel engines are high due to the high combustion temperatures
and a constant supply of oxygen. Also, during a slow combustion cycle, as for example
in a large two-stroke diesel engine, the time at high temperatures is relatively extended,
which is favourable for NOX formation.
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Abatement technologies for NOX emissions from ships of different character exist but
there has long been a lack of incentives to use these technologies on board. As diesel
engines used in land applications are regulated, these emissions are abated with the use
of catalytic cleaning and a range of other technologies. Existing international regulations
covering NOX emissions from marine engines have a delayed effect and the levels of
NOX from ship engines are high relative modern engines on land. As a consequence NOX
emissions measured per tonnekm are higher for vessels than for other transport means.
Large diesel engines also cause relatively high emissions of particles due to combustion
characteristics. Typically, high numbers of particles of very small sizes are emitted. There
is also soot formation in the cylinder, especially during accelerations, due to favourable
local differences in fuel-to-air ratios in the combustion chamber.
Particle formation is also dependent on which fuel that is combusted. Heavy fuel oil
typically contains high levels of ash and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which
play central roles in particle formation. In addition, these fuels contain relatively high
levels of asphaltenes which are large and complex hydrocarbon molecules that can pass
the combustion unaffected and that are found in the exhaust as large particles. Also the
sulphur content has a strong impact on emissions of particles as the sulphur oxides that
are formed during combustion are oxidised in the exhaust system and in the atmosphere
and form sulphate particles. The following figure indicates the composition of particles
from combustion of marine fuels.
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Example of particle composition after combustion of

marine fuels with different sulphur content
Source of data: Marine Environmental Protection
Committee, 2009
Other compounds that are formed in the combustion are various hydrocarbon
compounds and also carbon monoxide. Typically, the emission levels of these pollutants
are relatively high when an engine is run on low loads and combustion is incomplete
(Cooper and Gustavsson, 2004).
As the ship sails in different regions it will cause different effects on the environment.
Estimates have been made suggesting that 70% of ship emissions occur within 400 km
from nearest land (Eyring et al., 2009).
Ship traffic density around the world’s oceans

Source: T.Hengl; http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
sa/3.0/deed.en
One parameter that determines the environmental impact of an emission is the

sensitivity of the area that is exposed to it. An important aspect of this is the proximity
to inhabited areas, as many airborne pollutants cause health risks to people. The other
parameter is the contribution of ships to background pollution levels. It is sometimes
practical to divide the pollutants in groups depending on the geographical extent of their
effect, which to some degree depends upon their lifetimes in the atmosphere and how
far they are transported. The emissions to air have impacts on local, regional and global
scales. The pollutants in the exhaust plume are dispersed and are also part of chemical
reactions that change the overall chemical composition of the ship plume. Secondary
pollutants like particles and ozone are formed. Secondary pollutant is a concept used
for pollutants formed by chemical and physical reactions taking place after the actual
combustion. Many types of particles are typical secondary pollutants. Ozone is another
one, formed in the atmosphere in the presence of NOX and volatile organic compounds
(VOC) under the influence of sunlight. Ozone levels will therefore be high on bright sunny
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days in places where NO2 and VOC are abundant in the air, typically in cities with high
intensity of traffic.
Since the environmental effect is dependent on the dose of a pollutant and the response
in the environment, atmospheric dispersion and reactions of pollutants on their way
from the emission source to the recipient are important factors to consider in order to
assess their environmental impact.
Effects on a local scale are typically seen in port cities where many ships are concentrated
in a small area. Emissions of fine particulate matter and NOX from combustion in the
ships’ engines contribute to elevated levels of harmful compounds in city air. Fine
particles tend to attach to each other in the atmosphere and by that the number of
particles is reduced further from the source. Number concentrations of particles found
in ship plumes have been observed to peak at diameters of 0.01-0.10 μm (Russell et
al.1999, Hobbs et al., 2000, Petzold et al., 2008, Lack et al., 2009). The timescale for a
particle in this size mode is in the range of minutes to a day at atmospheric conditions1.
On a regional scale, emissions of SO2 and NOX are important. They remain in the
atmosphere for several days and have an impact when they are deposited on land and
sea surface. Both species are acidifying and NOX is also one cause of eutrophication.
Different regions of the world are sensitive to different degrees to acidification and
eutrophication. As particle size grows due to chemical and physical processes, their
lifetime in the atmosphere is increased and they are transported long distances. Thus,
particles will have an effect not only in the absolute vicinity of an emission but also on
regional scales.
It has been estimated that approximately half of the amount of emitted SO2 from ships
is deposited, mainly on the sea surface, by dry deposition (Endresen et al., 2003). The
levels of SO2 in a plume have been observed to reach background concentrations after
a couple of hours, and the lifetime of SO2 in a plume has been estimated by modelling
to be 0.5-2 days (Chen et al., 2005, Davis et al., 2001). Reactions with SO2 form sulphate
containing particles in the atmosphere which are involved in cloud formation around the
particles and subsequent precipitation.
The lifetime of NOX in the atmosphere is to a large extent influenced by solar radiation
which speeds up the chemical reactions involving NOX and thereby shortens its lifetime.
Consequently, the chemical pathways and lifetimes of NOX will differ between tropical
regions and mid-latitudes, and between emissions at night and during the day. Typical
for reactions involving NOX in ship plumes is that they are reversible; although most NOX
19 / 62
can be removed within a few hours the secondary pollutants that are formed can react to
form NOX again if the environmental conditions change (Finlayson-Pitts and Pitts, 2000).
Gases and particles that influence our climate are considered to be pollutants on a global
scale. Carbon dioxide warms up our atmosphere while the effects of particles can have
both warming and cooling effects depending on their characteristics (Finlayson-Pitts
and Pitts, 2000).
Smog in LA
Source: NASA/Terry Lathem
The health risks associated with air quality issues are mainly related to respiratory
effects and heart failure. All the mentioned pollutants from combustion in marine
engines are known to cause these health risks although the effects differ between them.
Carbon monoxide (CO) reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood, VOCs can be
carcinogenic while NOX, SO2 and particles primarily effect the respiratory tracts. High
concentrations of the secondary pollutant ozone have for several decades been known
to cause health risks (Haagen-Smit, 1952).
Of importance in this category are particles, or particulate matter as it is often referred

to. Particulate matter is a heterogeneous group that can be divided into subgroups based
on characteristics that are believed to determine health risks: particle surface area,
particle size, elemental composition, composition of organic compounds are supposed
to be more important than particle mass for determining associated health risks (Lighty
et al., 2000; WHO, 2006). Which properties lead to the most health risks is not fully
understood. Several epidemiological studies, however, suggest that elevated mortality
20 / 62
1.2 Environmental Impact Categories 1.2.3 Acidification
risks are correlated to the concentrations of particles and some of them indicate that fine
particles are more harmful than coarse particles (Pope et al., 2006). The concentration
of number of particles from diesel engines is highest for ultrafine and fine particles while
the mass concentration peaks in the accumulation mode and sometimes in the coarse
mode.
In addition to the mortality risks, there are several different types of health risks
including cardiovascular diseases and respiratory failure. It is the ultrafine particles that
primarily have been observed to cause damage to other parts of the body than the lungs
(Pope et al., 2006). In 2007, Corbett et al. reported that, globally, up to 64,000 premature
deaths per year could be attributed to emissions of PM2.5 from ships in 2002, and that
number is predicted to increase to 91,000 by 2012 (Corbett et al., 2007).
Photochemical oxidant is a term used for atmospheric oxidants that are formed by
photo-chemically induced processes of mainly hydrocarbons and NOX. Ozone is the
most important photochemical oxidant formed in polluted areas (Kley et al., 1999).
In the presence of sunlight, the reactions between hydrocarbons and NOX can lead to
a net formation of ozone. High ozone concentrations are typical of smog incidents, a
phenomenon first described in the 1950ies (Haagen-Smit, 1952). Damages from ozone
include eye and lung irritation and damage to crops (Kley et al., 1999).
reflection
What do you think?
WHAT DO YOU THINK?

Which way is preferable to direct air pollution reductions from ships? Should it be based
on voluntary commitments or regulations? Motivate your opinion. In what way have the
international conventions that regulate the use of the seas influenced regulatory efforts
on air pollution?
_
1
The lifetime of a compound is defined as the time it takes to reduce the concentration
of the compound to 1/e (~37%) of the initial concentration.
21 / 62
1.2 Environmental Impact Categories 1.2.3 Acidification
1.2.3 Acidification
Acidification is primarily caused by acid rain that contains the strong acids sulphuric acid
and nitric acid. Ships are significant sources of SO2 and NOX, the precursors of the two
acids. SO2 and NOX in the exhaust gases of a ship are oxidised in the atmosphere to these
acids and precipitates as acid rain. There is also dry deposition of the gases, meaning
that the gas molecules are deposited directly on a dry or wet surface.
Acidification
When pH is reduced as a consequence of acid rain, effects are visible in marine,

freshwater and land ecosystems. Several physiological effects of water living plants
and animals have been observed as well as long-terms changes in ecosystem functions
(Schindler et al., 1985). The effects of acid rain are very much dependent on the soil type
in the affected area. If it weathers easily, the buffering capacity is generally higher than
in hard soils, like granites, which weather slowly.
There are different steps in the acidification process. Certain ions in water and in the
surrounding soils have a capacity to buffer acidification. As the buffering capacity is
used up, the acidification continues and below pH 5.5 aluminium ions accumulate in
the water mass causing a lot of problems (Elvingson and Ågren 2004). Aluminium ions
and aluminium containing compounds are known to be directly toxic to plants and
animals. In extremely acidic conditions, other metal ions which may be even more toxic
22 / 62
1.2 Environmental Impact Categories 1.2.4 Eutrophication
than aluminium are also present. The sensitivity to an acid environment differs widely
between species.
Shipping has been estimated to contribute 25-50 % of nitrate wet deposition and 15-25
% of sulphur deposition in North Western North America and Scandinavia (Dalsøren et
al., 2009). Another study considering acid deposition in Europe due to shipping indicates
that the effects are most significant in the area around southern Scandinavia and the
English Channel (Derwent et al., 2005).
1.2.4 Eutrophication
Eutrophication as a phenomenon is mainly caused by excess nutrient content of soils
and waters. Nitrogen is a nutrient that regulates the growth of many plants. Other
important nutrients are phosphorus and potassium. Ships are in general emitters of
large amounts of nitrogen oxides (NOX) that react with water and reactive gaseous
molecules to form nitric acid. When NOX reacts with water in the atmosphere, the nitric
acid can be deposited through precipitation. Increased atmospheric levels of nitrogen
containing compounds with subsequent deposition are strongly related to the use of
combustion engines.
Fish in eutrophicated water

Photo: Piet Spaans
Creative Commons Attribution-Share
Alike 3.0 Unported license
Certain plant species benefit strongly from more available nitrogen and grow rapidly at
the expense of others. This causes a reduction in biodiversity that is difficult to evaluate.
Also, eutrophication has been associated with algal blooms in marine ecosystems
causing excessive production of microalgae. Nitrogen in the form of nitrate is easily taken
up by plants. The nitrate becomes available for plants as it is deposited on land and water
surfaces. Too much nitrate in the North Sea for example, is responsible for an excessive
23 / 62
1.2 Environmental Impact Categories 1.2.5 Climate change
production of certain algae. Excess growth in sea masses can be coupled to oxygen
depletion of the seafloor and ultimately sea floor death; algae are short-living plants and
as they die and sink to the sea floor they are eaten by bacteria and other decomposers.
This decomposition process requires oxygen and leads to oxygen depletion of the sea
floor and ultimately dead bottoms.
Sewage discharge from ships is also a source of increased nutrient levels. These effects
are most significant fairways that are heavily trafficked by passenger ships. Also food
waste from ships can contribute to elevated nutrient levels in the marine environment.
1.2.5 Climate change

Climate as a concept comprises atmospheric conditions and processes for a longer
period of time in a certain area. Climate differs substantially between various parts of
the earth and it changes over long time periods. The main reasons for climate change
from a present-day perspective are:
• Changes in radiation activity of the sun

• Changes of the earth's surface (e.g. less snow and ice cover causes less direct
reflection of sunlight)
• Change of the currents and layering relations of the oceans
• Changes of the mass balance of the atmosphere
• Changes of the radiation balance
With the exception of the first aspect the changes can be caused by natural variability
or human activities. Industrialization signified the beginning of human activities leading
to emissions of climate gases. Examples of climate gases are CO2, CH4, N2O, SF6, O3,
CFCs/HCFCs and also water vapour. Particles in the atmosphere can also impact the heat
balance of the atmosphere. An increased use of fossil energy sources such as oil, coal
or natural gas, an expansion of industrial production, changes of land utilization and an
expansion of livestock production all contribute to increased emissions of climate gases.
The climate gases let short-wave solar radiation pass unimpeded while they absorb long-
wave radiation (heat) that typically is reflected from the earth’s surface. Climate gases
that have a notable effect are carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane. Freons (CFCs
and HCFCs) and a sulphur containing compound called sulphur hexafluoride are very
potent and long-lived warming gases and exist in minor amounts in the atmosphere.
Ozone is similarly a very potent gas, but is relatively short-lived. Elevated concentrations
of these gases in the atmosphere results in more energy being trapped which results in
an increase of temperature. The term ‘short lived climate forcers’ are sometimes used
24 / 62
as a collective name for black carbon, methane and ozone and a few other compounds.
Black carbon is effective in absorbing sunlight and by that warms the atmosphere. The
short lived climate forcers on average stay in the atmosphere for weeks to years.
The chemical lifetime of a CO2 molecule in the atmosphere is approximately 4 years

although the situation around CO2 is very complex and total removal of CO2 from the
atmosphere in the "natural"1 carbon cycle takes on average 100 years (Finlayson-Pitts
and Pitts, 2000). The CO2 in the atmosphere is mainly removed through efficient uptake
by the ocean surface and biomass on land. However this uptake is reversible and the high
concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere is determined by the constant fluxes between
the atmosphere and the ocean and land surface (Finlayson-Pitts and Pitts, 2000). Carbon
dioxide is responsible for the main rise in global temperature.
The individual gases’ potential to warm the atmosphere is determined partly by their
lifetime in the atmosphere. Global warming potential (GWP) is a measure considering
the time parameter, which can be used to compare the impact of emissions of different
magnitudes and compounds. Often, the GWP of CO2 is used as baseline and set to 1, and
other gases and compounds are related to it. As the global warming potential is a time
integrated index, it should always be accounted for together with a time horizon.
From ice core data and modern measurements it has been concluded that the
atmospheric concentrations of CO2, N2O and CH4 all increased distinctly after 1750,
the beginning of the industrialization era (IPCC, 2007). From the 1960’s and onwards,
ambient CO2 levels have been recorded at Mauna Loa, Hawaii. A mean value of
approximately 390 ppm was recorded in 2009. This level is about 100 ppm higher than
in pre-industrialization time.
Ships emit a series of climate gases as a consequence of combustion of oil. Climate gases
from combustion in ship engines are typically N2O, CH4 and CO2. N2O and CH4 are only
emitted in small amounts and can therefore be considered to be of minor importance
compared to CO2 (Cooper and Gustavsson, 2004).
Also, ships are allowed to install refrigeration and air conditioning systems that use
HCFCs until 1st Jan 2020. Other freons (CFCs) are not permitted in new installations on
board ships according to international regulation due to their ozone depleting potential.
Leakage rates on board ships have been estimated to 40% from systems on board
with direct expansion and 20 % from systems with indirect expansion (Schwarts and
Rhiemeier, 2007). HCFCs are powerful greenhouse gases and also a common replacer,
HFC, has a high global warming potential, more than 1000 times that of CO2.
25 / 62
Storm clouds
Source: NASA
An expected climate change can be coupled to several effects that in turn affect maritime
transport itself, such as heavy weather conditions, hurricanes, melting polar caps. As
a part of climate change, the sea level will rise due to melting glaciers and on shore
ice sheets on Greenland and the Antarctic and due to thermal expansion of the ocean
volume. The thermal expansion is likely to be the largest contributing factor to sea level
rise. During the 20th century, the sea level increased by 1-2 mm per year (IPCC, 2001)
of which approximately 58 % can be attributed to thermal expansion.
Sea level rise during this century is projected to be between 0.18 to 0.59 m (IPCC, 2007b),
while more drastic scenarios includes a rapid loss of Antarctic ice covers that could
result in elevations of approximately 6 m. Uncertainties accompany these estimations
and depend largely on the temperature rise (IPCC, 2001).
Aerosol particles might have either a cooling or a warming effect; sulphate particles
typically cools the troposphere as it reflects part of the incoming solar radiation and
soot particles will instead absorb radiation and by that traps heat in the atmosphere.
A secondary effect of particles in the air is their role in cloud formation. Clouds form
as water is condensed on particle surfaces. This effect is estimated to contribute to
cooling of the troposphere as clouds reflect solar radiation (Seinfeld and Pandis, 2006;
Finlayson-Pitts and Pitts, 2000).
26 / 62
1.2 Environmental Impact Categories 1.2.6 Ocean acidification
The emissions from ships are considered to have a cooling effect on the climate in a
short term perspective due to high emissions of sulphur dioxide which forms sulphate
particles and due to the following cloud formation (Lee et al., 2006; Eyring et al. 2007;
Lauer et al., 2007). However, the substances that contribute to cooling have considerably
shorter residence times in the atmosphere and the warming effects of CO2 will be
dominant in a longer perspective (Marine Environmental Protection Committee, 2009).
reflection
What do you think?
WHAT DO YOU THINK?

Is climate change an important issue to discuss for the ship industry? Why or why not?
Please consult the internet for information on expected growth of the sector within the
coming years to answer the question and see if your answer changes.
_
1
As opposed to anthropogenic or caused by man.
1.2.6 Ocean acidification

A consequence of higher concentrations of CO2 in the air is more CO2 dissolved in
the ocean leading to acidification. This is caused by the changing equilibrium between
concentration in the air masses above the sea surface and the concentration in the liquid
phase. Even though binding CO2 from the atmosphere in the ocean reduces the load in
the atmosphere, the effects on maritime ecosystems can be severe. For instance, ocean
acidification is a phenomenon that causes problems for a range of marine organisms
with calcareous shells. This in turn threatens to eliminate the very first step in the food
chain. Globally, anthropogenic CO2 emissions are responsible for the majority of ocean
acidification but on local and regional scales HNO3 (from NOX) and H2SO4 (from SO2)
may dominate the effect (Doney, Mahowald et al. 2007).
27 / 62
1.2 Environmental Impact Categories 1.2.8 Resource use
1.2.7 Noise
Underwater ship propulsion causes noise from 20 to 200 Hz to spread in the water. Low
frequency noise like this can travel long distances. A 20 Hz sound has approximately half
its energy left after 10,000 km. Sonar and seismic surveys also cause noise in the marine
environment.
Water living organisms use sound to communicate. The frequencies occupied by

commercial vessels overlap the hearing range of fish and water living mammals
(Slabbekoorn, Bouton et al. 2010). Future increases in marine traffic will further reduce
the effective communication ranges of marine mammals (Southall and Scholik-Schlomer
2008); the effect on mammal communication is more established than that on fish
communication. Research on the subject is determining by different methods how
water living animals change their behavior in response to a noisier environment. Acute
effects are behavioral stress responses. The animals may also change their signaling
behaviour. Observed effects related to underwater noise are changes in vocalisation,
faster swimming and faster respiration rates and displacement from critical feeding
and breeding areas. In addition, strandings are believed to have occurred as a result
of military sonar activities and fatal occasional hearing damages may occur (Weilgart
2007). Long-term effects of noise exposure are still not well established although
effects such as loss of habitats are expected (Weilgart 2007; Tyack 2008) and although
behavioural changes have been observed in many marine mammals as a response
to increased underwater noise, the actual impacts of these changes are insufficiently
determined.
Air borne noise can be a problem in inhabited areas close to ports. The noise comes from
loading and off-loading activities and also from noise from auxiliary engines and fans.
These issues are generally dealt with by local regulations that set ceiling levels for noise
at different times during day and night. Some technological measures exist that mitigate
the noise from on board machinery.
1.2.8 Resource use

The reason for this environmental impact category is to a large part ethical. To
use resources uneconomically will contribute to unnecessary waste and degrading of
material and energy. The construction of ships demands tonnes of metal and plastics.
Only the production of subsystems for a ship of less than 3000 dwt (excluding the hull)
were calculated to consume 500 tonnes of steel, 30 tonnes of copper and 14 tonnes of
plastics (Intermodeship, 2005).
28 / 62
1.2 Environmental Impact Categories 1.2.9 Introduction of non-indigenous species
During the operational phase the consumption of bunker fuel for propulsion and for
electricity on board are important aspects in this impact category since these are non-
renewable resources. Lubrication oils also fall into this category.
One side of these issues is alternative uses of resources. For example, fossil oil could
either be combusted in engines or used in petrochemical industries, land could either
be used to cultivate energy crops or food.
Resource use is strongly connected to waste generation, the waste handling procedures
and the possibilities to reuse or recycle the waste produced. Waste streams of differing
characters are produced during the different phases of a ship lifecycle; construction,
operation and dismantling. The environmental issues during dismantling are very much
related to the work environment.
1.2.9 Introduction of non-indigenous species

Ships transport living organisms in ballast waters and the sediments that are
unavoidably pumped into the ballast tanks together with the ballast water. Also, fouling
on the ship hull, rudder and propellers transport organisms between locations. Ballast
water is seawater taken up at a port or during a journey to reach a specific weight needed
to stabilise the vessel during an empty run. The water is being pumped into tanks and
discharged once the loading of the ship begins. Unavoidably, organisms are transported
with ballast water into areas they do not originally inhabit. In the absence of natural
predators that control a population’s growth, a single species might have very beneficial
life conditions and sometimes come to dominate an ecosystem and possibly eliminate
original species. In the Baltic Sea (including Kattegat), to give an example, approximately
105 non indigenous species have been recorded (Behrens et al., 2005). In the North Sea,
approximately 82 non indigenous species have been recorded (Behrens et al., 2005).
reflection
What do you think?
WHAT DO YOU THINK?

When are indigenous species a problem? Is it a question of reduced biodiversity,
economic loss or aesthetic issues? Is there such a thing as an ecologic balance?
Discuss this with other participants in the Moodle forum of segment 1 !
Also, have a look at this video about invasive species in the Great Lakes, U.S.A.:
29 / 62
1.2 Environmental Impact Categories 1.2.9 Introduction of non-indigenous species
In the online version an video is shown here.
Link to video : http://www.youtube.com/embed/Gzhp_FNA2Hk

Great Lakes Invasive Species Documentary
Copyright 2010 Great Lakes Media
30 / 62
Environmental Management 2 Second segment
2 Second segment
Environmental work in companies – economics
After going through this second segment of the course you should be able to identify
learningobjectives
possibilities to combine environmental improvements within your company without
impact on company finances.
2 Second segment
arrangement
2.1 Corporate Environmental Work
2.2 Drivers for implementation
2.3 Costs and benefits from the use of an EMS
2.4 ISO 14001
2.5 Overview of requirements
2.6 Eco-management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)
Duration
31 / 62
2 Second segment 2.1 Corporate Environmental Work
2.1 Corporate Environmental Work

In corporate environmental work, tools can be chosen from a large toolbox. Tools can be
on a product level, process oriented or management oriented:
Source: According to Fet, 1997
Environmental Management Systems (EMS) are used to organise the procedures and
activities with environmental impact, on a company level. The establishment of an EMS
within a company does not exclude any of the other tools mentioned, which can be
helpful tools for assessments and improvement strategies within the EMS.
An Environmental Management System can be seen as a tool that lets companies have
a systematically organised overview of their activities that impact the environment. An
EMS used correctly will help a company in fulfilling the environmental policy and goals
developed by the company management. Procedures ultimately aiming at continual
improvement are documented as are lists of the most important environmental aspects
and relevant environmental legislation is documented. Responsible persons for different
procedures and for the EMS as a whole are also clearly appointed. There are examples
of companies that mainly use the system for gaining approval and appreciation from
external stakeholders (Darnall et al., 2008). In these cases the EMS can be a few files on
the shelf, seldom consulted.
The review or audit is another important part of the EMS. A company may choose to
do this internally or externally. External audits are often conducted by organisations
that are recognised and accredited to assert that specified standards such as ISO14001
standards or EMAS standards are fulfilled. ISO 14001 in its introducing chapter states:
32 / 62
2 Second segment 2.2 Drivers for implementation
"International Standards covering environmental management are intended to

provide organizations with the elements of an effective environmental management
system (EMS) that can be integrated with other management requirements and help
organizations achieve environmental and economic goals."
(International Standardization Organization, 2004)
An environmental management system should cover the entire company. The

management system should be documented and each division of the company needs to
be included. This can cause high complexities in EMSs in large companies with many
departments with many activities that are included in the EMS. A smaller firm has in
general simpler procedures.
The overall success of an EMS depends upon factors of employee participation,

management commitment, explicit EMS aims and the scope stated by the management
and an explicit integration in the company’s core business. A common problem
associated with EMS failure is lack of dedication from management. This causes the
environmental management to be a parallel process to other operational management
which inevitably results in low commitment among employees, inefficient procedures
and bureaucracy.
reflection
What do you think?
WHAT DO YOU THINK?

Why are external audits needed? Consult the Internet and find accredited auditors in
your country. You will most likely find several of the classification societies – how come?
2.2 Drivers for implementation

Companies can experience regulatory pressure, market pressure, social pressure and/
or ownership pressure that drive the company management to start the process of
implementing an EMS.
Regulations do not explicitly require enterprises to have EMSs implemented. However,

companies can find competitive advantages from proactive measures made possible
by the EMS implementation and they may also accrue good will with regulators. The
result can be that governments choose non-regulatory ways forward for companies’
environmental improvements. Another expression of regulatory pressure is the fear of
legal sanctions, which is the most common reason for companies to be proactive in their
33 / 62
2 Second segment 2.2 Drivers for implementation
environmental efforts (Darnall et al., 2008). EMSs can help organisations to comply with
legal obligations (Edwards, 2004).
The public is increasingly well informed about industries’ environmental impacts. The
reputation of organizations and their products can be greatly affected by environmental
scandals and irresponsible behaviour. An EMS can be used as a sign of company
awareness and environmental responsibility. The EMS may also be rewarded by
customers directly, since some companies choose to include in their EMS a requirement
on their suppliers to have EMSs certified according to international standards (Darnall
et al., 2008).
Pressures from organizations such as environmental NGOs, community groups and

labour unions exert a form of social pressure on a company. These groups can cause a
lot of bad publicity for a company if it causes environmental damage. Also, it has been
shown that organizations often mimic the behaviour of similar organizations in their
network, which means that the use of EMSs by one or a few actors in an industry can
cause pressure to implement EMS by many more similar actors (Darnall et al., 2008).
Shareholders, in general terms, have growing interests in investing in environmentally

conscious businesses. The fact that stock prices have shown to be higher for companies
that have high environmental performance compared to those that have high emission
levels is an additional reason for shareholder interest in companies’ implementation of
EMSs (Darnall et al., 2008).
The reasons for companies to involve environmental aspects in their management

processes can thus be of economic, legal or commercial nature or combinations of the
three. Also pure ethical reasons exist. Ethical aspects rely on arguments that human
beings should live in a sustainable manner with respect to our common resources and
with respect to coming generations.
Differences between organizations will cause the implementation process to be anything

from simple to complicated. These differences are not only size dependent as mentioned
before but can have many reasons. Characteristics that influence this can be such as
whether the company has already implemented a system for quality management or for
health and safety management. With these management systems already in place the
implementation of the EMS is often smoother than if the EMS is the first documented
management system of the company (Darnall et al., 2008). Employee commitment,
investments in environmental research and development are other success factors for
an EMS implementation. Companies in the export industry can draw benefits from
being accustomed to much different legislation and from having insight in a variety of
34 / 62
2 Second segment 2.3 Costs and benefits from the use of an EMS
corporate cultures. Such experiences have proven to facilitate implementation of EMSs

(Darnall et al., 2008).
reflection
What do you think?
WHAT DO YOU THINK?

What is in your opinion the strongest driver for an EMS implementation?
2.3 Costs and benefits from the use of an EMS

Direct economic benefits from EMSs can be consequences of more efficient use
of resources and energy. Insurance companies may also offer reduced premiums
to companies that have well-managed environmental work and by that reduce
environmental risks. Many companies require their suppliers to have an implemented
EMS and by demonstrating a well-functioning EMS, new business opportunities may
appear (Edwards, 2004). There are also economic benefits from EMSs since risks,
weaknesses and costs can be identified and controlled (Kolk, 2000).
There are costs associated with creating, launching and maintaining the EMS. To
keep costs low the system should be simple without losing the essential issues of
environmental concern within the organization. The EMS can in a longer perspective
contribute to savings from observant users from more efficient use of energy, water,
transport, packaging and possibly raw material. In addition, savings can be made
from reduced waste streams and from prevention of clean-up expenditures, lowered
insurance premiums and avoided environmental charges (Kolk, 2000 and Edwards,
2004). A strategic focus of the components of environmental management systems
including aspects that influence firm’s image, profitability, competitiveness, markets or
products can be a way to reduce costs associated with the EMS (Kolk, 2000). An efficient
EMS must also integrate the routines of the EMS (concerning, goals, competences,
communication, responsibilities and organisation, measurements and corrections etc.)
with other company routines. When the operational management is uniform regardless
of subject, environment becomes one of several aspects that are considered in planning
of competence development and communication. If instead the environment is treated
separately, the EMS will become unnecessarily bureaucratic and an inefficient use of
company finances.
35 / 62
2 Second segment 2.4 ISO 14001
A management system need not follow specific standards but there are many times
commercial benefits of having the system certified according to an acknowledged
standard. The certification process is costly but many companies still choose to certify
their management system. To have the system audited by an external organ is a
certificate that makes company efforts easier to communicate to suppliers, customers,
regulators, competitors and society. This course will present the standards for
environmental management systems of the International Standardisation Organization
(ISO), ISO 14001 and the European Eco-management and Audit Scheme (EMAS). The
two standards have many characteristics in common and a few differences (Edwards,
2004).
The US EPA lists costs and benefits on the following site: http://www.epa.gov/ems/
#basic
2.4 ISO 14001
2.4 ISO 14001

arrangement
2.4.1 Requirements of a documented environmental management system
2.4.2 Requirements of environmental policy
2.4.3 Requirements of Planning
2.4.4 Requirements of Implementation and operation
2.4.5 Requirements of Checking and corrective action
2.4.6 Requirements on management review
"This International Standard specifies requirements for an environmental

management system to enable an organization to develop and implement a policy
and objectives which take into account legal requirements and information about
significant environmental aspects. It is intended to apply to all types and sizes
of organization and to accommodate diverse geographical, cultural and social
conditions. The success of the system depends on commitment from all levels and
functions of the organization, and especially from top management. A system of this
kind enables an organization to develop an environmental policy, establish objectives
and processes to achieve the policy commitments, take action as needed to improve its
performance and demonstrate the conformity of the system to the requirements of this
International Standard. The overall aim of this International Standard is to support
environmental protection and prevention of pollution in balance with socio-economic
36 / 62
needs. It should be noted that many of the requirements can be addressed concurrently
or revisited at any time."
(International Standardization Organisation, 2004)
An environmental management system can only be implemented with commitment

from the organization’s top and preferably through the whole company structure. The
environmental policy should be well funded with the management in order to have
a successful implementation and operation of the EMS; it should be well written and
thought through. The policy is better written after the environmental aspects have been
identified and there is a good overview of the environmental impacts of the company
than at the initiation of the process (Edwards, 2004).
An environmental management system has many resemblances with a quality

management system and often builds on the four phases of the quality cycle of continual
improvement, the so called Deming cycle:
The Deming cycle
The Deming cycle consists of the four phases plan, do check and act. In an EMS this
should be interpreted as planning the environmental policy, implement it, check and
correct it and then review it (Kolk, 2000). If used correctly, the model can help to lead
to continuous improvement.
The process from idea to fulfilment, the planning process following the commitment,
contains the following steps (Edwards, 2004). Click on the headings in the table for more
information:
In the online version an click interaction is shown here.
37 / 62
Steps in planning process

Source: According to Edwards, 2004
Begin printversion
Resources Somebody in the company needs to be
designated the task of managing the
implementation and operation of the
system. This person should report directly
to the company management on these
issues.
Communication All employees should preferably be

informed that the company is about to
implement and use an environmental
management system (also why, how and
when) prior to the start of the practical
work with it.
Environmental legislations and The major environmental impacts caused

Environmental aspects by the company should be identified
and also the legislation which the
company should observe and follow. In
a prolongation these should be kept in
registers, one register of environmental
aspects and one register of environmental
legislation.
38 / 62
Management objectives and policy Once the environmental impacts of

the company have been mapped and
assessed, an environmental policy can be
formulated. The policy is an expression of
top management ambitions for company
environmental work. From the policy,
company objectives and goals are
concretized. Management by objectives
has proven to be the most efficient way
to improve company activities. Company
goals can be split and adjusted to suit
different divisions of an organisation. In
order to realise the goals, an action
plan that contains information on actions
that need to be taken to reach a goal
within the specified time frame, should be
established.
Procedures Procedures within the company that are

related to the identified environmental
aspects and legislation should be
documented and listed, preferably
in a systematic way. All significant
environmental and relevant legislative
aspects should be accompanied by
a specified management routine. This
routine can contain an explicit
responsibility and a frequency for action.
The system can by this assure that
the company complies with relevant
legislation and works to minimise its
environmental impact.
39 / 62
Writing the manual A manual that contains information on

how the organization meets the clauses
and sub clauses within the standard
should be compiled. A modern EMS is
more focussed on actual work than on
routines in manuals and integration in
existing routines is valuable.
Implementation The system should be launched by a review

meeting, spreading of the documents,
communication to the whole company and
specific training actions.
Auditing Internal audits of the implementation

and operation of all elements of the
manual and procedures need to be made
periodically. One or more employees
should be designated with the task of being
the company’s environmental auditor.
During day to day work with the EMS, the
audit should be preceded by checking and
corrective actions including monitoring
and measurement.
Choosing your Assessor External auditors, assessors, can only

be chosen from a set of accredited
certification bodies. A pre-visit of the
assessor is recommended in order to
discover any misses in the manuals and
procedures.
Assessment The assessor visits the company and

checks that employees and management
are familiar with the procedures described
in the EMS and that major environmental
aspects and legislation are covered. In
the actual work a management review
meeting with feedback of the EMS
progress to the top management is a
central concept of the EMS.
40 / 62
2.4 ISO 14001 2.4.1 Requirements of a documented
environmental management system
End printversion
With an overview of these steps it is possible to establish a timetable and an overall

programme. It is not easy to give a general view of the time requirements for the
implementation process. The processes of the initial review of environmental aspects
and environmental legislation is time consuming as are the writing of the procedures
and the auditing and revising procedures. A small company can complete the process in
around eight months while the larger company might need over a year (Edwards, 2004).
reflection
What do you think?
WHAT DO YOU THINK?

Do you think the Deming cycle is a useful representation of the system and that it can
support the work to continual improvement?
2.4.1 Requirements of a documented environmental

management system
The requirements for the different components of the EMS are divided into six categories
where the first one simply is to have a documented environmental management system
that meets specified requirements on environment policy, planning, implementation and
operation, checking and corrective action and management review. The following five
paragraphs give an overview of the subsequent requirements.
2.4.2 Requirements of environmental policy

The environmental policy must include but is not limited to commitments on the
following aspects (Edwards, 2004):
• commitments to continual improvement
• commitments to pollution prevention
• compliance with relevant environmental regulation and any requirements such as

an industry sector code of practice or the policy of the parent company
• setting and progression of objectives and targets
41 / 62
2.4 ISO 14001 2.4.3 Requirements of Planning
The policy can also contain statements that the EMS is documented, implemented and
maintained, that the policy has been communicated to all employees and that the policy
is available to the public (Edwards, 2004). Long texts could however be placed in
descriptions of routines instead of in the policy.
2.4.3 Requirements of Planning

The requirements on planning cover documentation of environmental aspects and legal
aspects, objectives and targets and the development of a programme for achieving
objectives and targets.
The mapping of environmental aspects of a company can be completed by an employee

within the company or en external person. The environmental impacts to be investigated
should mainly be those occurring outside the site boundaries. Inventory lists of
everything that enters the site (material, energy, water...) and everything that leaves
the site (waste water, effluents, exhausts, waste...) should be established. Whatever
is bought and enters the company activities should be considered from a lifecycle
perspective; how have the purchased parts been produced and what is the origin of the
electricity used. Drains and manholes within the site and the recipients of those should
be considered. Transports to and from the company and the potential impacts of those
need to be recorded and storages on site of chemicals and hazardous substances need
to be documented.
Each found aspect then needs to be studied systematically to determine and quantify
risks or extent of impact. The result is a register of environmental aspects in which
the most important aspects are identified. A routine should accompany any significant
environmental aspect preferably containing information on explicit responsibility and a
frequency for action.
The Register of environmental legislation should be comprehensive but some sensible

judgments may need to be drawn on what to include. It may be of help to consult an
industrial organisation like a trade association or such, which sometimes have lists
of relevant environmental legislation. A routine should also accompany any relevant
environmental legislation preferably containing information on explicit responsibility
and a frequency for action.
Objectives are defined in order improve company performance on an environmental

aspect in a general sense. The objective should be formulated after considering the
significance of the environmental aspects together with requirements from legislation,
42 / 62
2.4 ISO 14001 2.4.4 Requirements of Implementation and
operation
finance, operations and also technological options (Edwards, 2004). The targets are
measurable improvements of individual aspects.
The environmental management programme defines the roles of employees and

management in the EMS work. A detailed timetable is produced including the actions
that will lead to the completion of the EMS.
reflection
What do you think?
WHAT DO YOU THINK?

Search on the Internet for an environmental policy of a company and check it against the
criteria specified above. Do you think it is a good environmental policy? Motivate your
opinion. Can you, on the homepage of that company, see any signs of their actual work
with specific environmental aspects and are any environmental objectives published?
2.4.4 Requirements of Implementation and operation

The requirements on implementation and operation include requirements on
• structure and responsibility,

• training,
• awareness and competence,
• communication,
• environmental management system and documentation,
• document control,
• operation control and
• emergency preparedness and response.
A management representative, an environmental manager, should be appointed. This

person is responsible for the creation and implementation of the EMS and for
the monitoring of environmental performance and reporting to top management.
Responsibilities of other key persons must be defined and the management has a task
to allocate enough resources to the implementation and operation of the system.
Training needs of all employees that are involved in the EMS need to be identified.
Training must be given and documented. The standard specifies that employees
should know about important environmental aspects of their jobs, the importance of
conforming to the policy and procedures in the EMS, the roles and responsibilities in
43 / 62
2.4 ISO 14001 2.4.5 Requirements of Checking and corrective
action
the EMS and potential consequences from deviations from the operating procedures.
The company needs to show that all employees are competent to carry out their
responsibilities (Edwards, 2004).
The EMS should comprise procedures for internal and external communications on
environmental issues. It is not mandatory that the company is open to the public about
all environmental aspects but the company can chose to state if they will do so in the EMS.
The standard requires the company to keep documentation of the core elements of the
management system and the way they interact. The documentation can be in paper or
electronic format and must include references to all associated documentation such as
registers and operating procedures (Edwards, 2004).
Documents in the EMS should be controlled through reviews and revisions. They should
be authorised and distributed to all persons concerned. The standard requires that there
is a system in place for document control.
Requirements on operational control comprise requirements on documented

procedures and work instructions that ensure that the EMS is followed. Suppliers
and contractors should be made aware of important environmental aspects and the
procedures, which should also be included in the documents on operational control.
Risks and emergencies that are reasonably foreseeable should be identified. Once
procedures on response to emergencies have been established, these should be reviewed
and tested periodically.
2.4.5 Requirements of Checking and corrective action

The requirements on checking and corrective actions include requirements on
monitoring and measurement, non-conformance and corrective and preventive action,
environmental management records and environmental management system audit
(Edwards, 2004).
The standards prescribe that activities that impact the environment should be
monitored and measured with calibrated equipment and procedures for monitoring
should be described.
A system must be in place to ensure that any non-compliance with the EMS is handled.
The procedure around this should include the following issues (Edwards, 2004):
• Responsibility and authority for handling and investigating the non-conformity
• Action to deal with any impacts caused
44 / 62
2.4 ISO 14001 2.4.6 Requirements on management review
• Taking corrective and preventive action
• The action must be appropriate to the size of the problem and the environmental
impact
• Records must be kept
The standard requires the company to have procedures for identifying and caring for
environmental records which could be any document within the EMS that is used in an
EMS procedure. Records should be legible, identifiable, protected against damage and
retrievable.
The EMS should be audited internally within the company on a regular basis. The
procedures around the audit should be described in an audit programme and in a
reporting and follow-up procedure.
2.4.6 Requirements on management review

The standard requires periodic top management reviews to ensure continuing stability,
adequacy and effectiveness. The periodicity of these reviews may vary from company to
company.
reflection
What do you think?
WHAT DO YOU THINK?

Are the requested top management involvement (both for policy development and
review) needed? Why?
2.5 Overview of requirements

The ISO14001 requirements can be sorted under the Deming cycle phases as shown in
the figure below. The cyclic appearance of the phases of the EMS can be seen as a sign that
the system is not a static document but a proactive tool that should be under constant
review that leads to continual improvement of environmental work if used to its full
potential.
45 / 62
2 Second segment 2.6 Eco-management and Audit Scheme
(EMAS)
The Deming cycle applied to an ISO14001 environmental management system

Source: on the basis of Kolk, 2000
reflection
What do you think?
WHAT DO YOU THINK?

Has your opinion on the usefulness of the Deming cycle model changed after studying
the processes of EMS in a bit more detail? How?
2.6 Eco-management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)

EMAS is a standard for environmental management systems developed by the European
Commission. The similarities between the standard and the ISO14001 standard are
many and the following paragraphs will focus on differences between the two rather
than iterating what is already stated for the international standard. Generally the EMAS is
perceived as more demanding (costs, time and effort) compared to the vaguer and more
flexible ISO standard. Traditionally, EMAS was only directing manufacturing industry,
46 / 62
(EMAS)
energy production, waste management and mining (Kolk, 2000). This is most likely a
reason for more explicit requirements on accounting for actual effects and the relatively
small room for interpretation of concepts in the standard. Now the third edition of EMAS
(EMAS III) that applies to all sectors and that also has some extension outside the EU
boundaries is valid. The most distinct differences between the ISO14001 and EMAS are
listed in the following table (click on the headings in the table for more information):
In the online version an click interaction is shown here.
Major differences between EMAS and ISO14001

Source: According to Edwards, 2004; Kolk 2000
Begin printversion
EMAS ISO14001
Geographical scope Primarily EU states but: International

“the scheme allows Member
States to open EMAS
to organizations located
inside or outside the
Community. The EMAS
Regulation applies to
all 27 EU Member
States and Norway, Iceland
and Liechtenstein and
European Union Accession
Countries. In addition, if
a Member State decides
to allow registration
of organizations located
outside the Community
(‘Global EMAS’), these
organizations have to
address their request for
registration to a Competent
Body of that Member State”
Initial review requirements Preliminary/Initial review Preliminary/Initial review

mandatory recommended
47 / 62
(EMAS)
Environmental Statement Include an independently No requirements on an

verified environmental environmental statement
statement directed to for public communication
the public. This is a
document produced in
addition to the policy,
objectives and targets and
management programme. It
includes a description of
company activities on site,
quantified assessments of
significant environmental
aspects, the environmental
policy and the management
programme
Audit cycle Three year audit cycle Annual (at minimum) audit
cycle
Indirect environmental Strong emphasis on Less strong emphasis

impact indirect environmental on indirect environmental
impact related to the work impact.
by suppliers, contractors
and other stakeholders.
Environmental technology Requires continual More flexible on choice of

options improvement of technology
environmental
performance to the level
of best available technology
(BAT)
Impacts or aspects Requirements on Requirements on

identification of significant identification of significant
environmental impacts or environmental aspects
effects.
End printversion
48 / 62
(EMAS)
One of the greatest added values of the EMAS over ISO standard is argued by the
European Commission to be the public environmental statement that does not have a
counterpart in the ISO14001 (Kolk, 2000).
The latest progress and standards for EMAS are available from the following web pages:
• http://ec.europa.eu/environment/emas/index_en.htm
• http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?
uri=CELEX:32009R1221:EN:NOT
reflection
What do you think?
WHAT DO YOU THINK?

Would you prefer EMAS or ISO14001 as EMS in your company? Why?
49 / 62
Environmental Management 3 Third segment
3 Third segment
Environmental work in shipping companies
In this third segment of the course you will learn the central aspects of environmental
learningobjectives
policy in ship owner companies and learn to discuss potential specific characteristics
of ship owner companies that influence your work with Environmental Management
Systems.
3 Third segment
arrangement
3.1 Shipping Companies and EMS
3.2 Farstad shipping
3.3 Wallenius marine
3.4 Stena Line
3.5 BP shipping
3.6 American Bureau of Shipping
Duration
50 / 62
3 Third segment 3.1 Shipping Companies and EMS
3.1 Shipping Companies and EMS

Ships have a central part in interregional transport and their importance for a future
sustainable European transport system is stressed in the EU White paper on transport
(European Commission, 2011). For the sake of sustainability, policies aiming at reduced
environmental impact from ships are implemented.
The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) was
adopted in 1973 and amended in 1978. Although legislation has been established for
several decades, criticism has been directed towards the shipping industry for too slow
an adaption to environmentally sustainable behaviour. Certain aspects of environmental
performance are lagging far behind land based industry that is covered by a regulatory
framework more based on national policies. One such aspect is emissions to air including
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. The first international agreement on prevention of
air pollution from ships entered into force in 2005. The Convention of Long Range
Transport of Air Pollution (CLRTAP), which acknowledges the transboundary effects of
air pollution and involves signatory states to limit, reduce and prevent air pollution, had
by that time been in place in 22 years.
Only in 2011 did the members of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) agree
to add a regulation in the MARPOL Annex VI on air pollution that targets emissions of
CO2. International Shipping is not a part of the UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol and the IMO has
experienced pressure from the European Union to address the matter or else find that
regional regulations for shipping would be made.
Other aspects of the business that have adverse effects on the environment are the
use of the sea as a recipient for litter, oil and grey- and black water. All these are
treated by regulations in the MARPOL Convention; certain areas of the seas which are
designated sensitive areas adhere to stricter regulations than non-designated areas.
Other environmental issues that are not treated in the MARPOL are problems related
to ballast water discharge and toxic anti-fouling paints which are covered by separate
conventions.
51 / 62
3 Third segment 3.1 Shipping Companies and EMS
The shipping industry has a long tradition of quality and safety regulations. There
is a strong element of risk-related environmental impact from ships. This is largely
connected to the transportation of large volumes of oil in sensitive areas but the
reasoning is also valid for other cargo and the ballast water issue. Risk analysis tools
have a longer history in the ship design industry than do EMSs, and are focused on local
conditions and on single events. However, as mentioned before, EMSs do consider risk
mitigation measures and action plans in emergency situations.
An already existing management system for quality (eg. ISO9001) can make the
implementation of the EMS easier (Darnall et al., 2008). It is not easy to assess
whether environmental improvements within a company is a result of the use of an
adoption and certification of an EMS or if they would have occurred also without
the system in place. Benefits of a more organizational character are however evident
and the certification of an EMS has proven to integrate environmental, health, safety
management systems and also quality management systems (Morrow, 2002). Also,
green supply chain management is more frequently used in companies with an EMS
in place. The EMS as such does not require a company to place demands on the
environmental performance levels of suppliers and buyers but implementations of EMS
nevertheless seem to bring these effects (Darnall et al., 2008b).
Some examples and results on integration of management systems can be read in

Oskarsson and von Malmborg, 2005, the following link directs you to the article:
pdf document: Oskarsson, von Malmborg (2005):
Integrated Management Systems as
a Corporate Response to Sustainable
Development
Source: http://download.clib.psu.ac.th/
datawebclib/e_resource/trial_database/
WileyInterScienceCD/pdf/CSR/CSR_5.pdf
A training needs assessment (TNA) on environmental policy conducted for the

KNOWME project indicates that the reasons to implement and operate EMSs in ship
owner companies are many. This is possibly an effect of the organisation of different
shipping sectors and their customers.
52 / 62
3 Third segment 3.2 Farstad shipping
To give an example: Interviewees from three ship owner companies in the supply ship
example
segment were asked whether they experienced external pressure to implement and
certify an EMS. The business is organised such that long contracts with oil companies
are vital for good business. All ship owners involved in the offshore supply industry have
very direct requirements from their customers. The oil companies require certification
according to standardised environmental management systems and one interviewee
mentioned that without an EMS it is not possible to have long term contracts with a large
oil company. Another respondent mentioned that the oil companies are very occupied
by environmental issues and all three of the interviewees in the offshore supply segment
mentioned that their customers request low fuel consumption. A reasonable explanation
that is indicated is that the oil companies pay for the fuel which in that case could
increase their wish for a well organised economic and environmental management that
lead to continual improvement.
In the following paragraphs, examples of environmental policies from three ship owners
and the environmental statement of BP Shipping is presented. Please read through
the policies and reflect on their qualities. Remember that the environmental policy
has a purpose of reflecting the environmental ambitions of top management and that
the EMS in large fulfils. The information partly builds upon findings from the TNA in
environmental policy mentioned earlier.
reflection
What do you think?
WHAT DO YOU THINK?

What is your opinion about the potential for environmental improvement in the shipping
industry? Do you think a more common use of EMSs in companies within the industry
will improve the environmental performance of the sector as a whole? Are companies
in the shipping industry in general more or less suited to use EMSs than companies in
other sectors? Compare a few and see what you think!
3.2 Farstad shipping

Farstad shipping (Farstad Website ) is one of the companies who have integrated
health, safety, quality and environmental management. Read their policy on these
matters:
53 / 62
3 Third segment 3.2 Farstad shipping
The Health, Safety, Welfare and Environment Policy of Farstad shipping
example Farstad Shipping is committed to being a premier provider of shipping services to the
offshore oil and gas industry. Of prime importance in meeting its goal is the health, safety
and welfare of its employees and those that may be affected by its operations, together
with the protection of the environment in which it operates. The Company considers health,
safety; welfare and environment are core business values that rank equally with essential
financial, commercial and community values that sustain the business.
In recognising that health, safety, welfare and environment is a management responsibility,

its successful implementation is dependent upon the commitment of all employees sharing
the Company’s vision of an injury free workplace and protection of the environment. Staff,
contractors and visitors must comply with the Policy and Company procedures during their
work on company business, either on site or onboard vessels.
To achieve these objectives, Farstad Shipping shall:
''Comply with applicable statutory legislation and standards. In countries where

legislation may not be at an advanced stage of development, the Company will establish
appropriate standards incorporating best industry practice.
Identify, document, prioritise and periodically review the principal health, safety, welfare,
social and environmental risks associated with each operation’s activities. Through this
review, to develop and monitor plans to eliminate or reduce identified risks as low as
reasonably practical.
Encourage all members of staff to contribute whenever the opportunity exists to improve
its organizations performance in the management of health, safety, welfare and the
environment.
Through this policy confirm that all members of staff undertaking operational tasks have
the right and obligation to immediately call for the task to be halted if a new or unexpected
hazard that could harm personnel, property or the environment is identified.
Not undertake operations unless satisfactory means of controlling hazards have been
identified and implemented.
Co-operate with and take account of the concerns of external bodies and local
communities on social issues relating to its business activities.''
54 / 62
3 Third segment 3.3 Wallenius marine
Establish a documented management system according to recognised standards, such

as the International Safety Management (ISM) Code for all ship operations, to control
identified occupational health, safety and environmental risks.
Maintain an annual audit program for all vessels to review current operations, practices
and procedures to ensure the continued effectiveness of the management system.
Maintain emergency response plans for all foreseeable and realistic emergency situations
regarding the operations and periodically undertake drills to test the effectiveness of the
response.
Provide awareness, training, instructions and supervision as necessary to support the

programs in various areas of the Company’s operation.
Establish health, safety, welfare, social and environmental targets to drive continuous
improvement within the Company.
The Chief Executive Officer, Directors and General Managers are responsible for compliance
of this Policy across Farstad Shipping.
Source: https://www.farstad.com/business/sustainability/hseq/hseq-policies
3.3 Wallenius marine

Another example comes from Wallenius Marine (Wallenius Website ) that is the ship
management company for the Wallenius fleet with car and truck carriers. Wallenius
Marine is responsible for the technical and environmental development of the ships. The
Wallenius companies are family driven and the environmental work and visions have
always been an important aspect of their business. This is something that originates in a
belief of the owner. The company is certified by ISO14001 since 1998 and environmental
issues are parameters considered in an integrated manner in business decisions.
Wallenius’ EMS work is not driven by external requirements but is rather seen as a way
to communicate the importance of engagement in these questions.
Read the environmental policy of Wallenius:
WALLENIUS recognizes that our business, shipping and logistics, has an environmental
example
impact.
Wallenius will be a leader in our industry in reducing our environmental footprint.
55 / 62
3 Third segment 3.4 Stena Line
We take active measures to reduce our environmental effects and our use of natural
resources. Focus lies on being energy efficient, emissions, ballast water and antifouling. Our
philosophy is based on upstream solutions which mean that we work to prevent the origin
of pollution.
Continuous improvements are fundamental for our environmental work.
We are committed to comply with both national and international environmental rules,
regulations and other requirements, but also comply with our own internal requirements
which go way beyond external requirements. Our targets are ambitious but fully
achievable.
We encourage suppliers, customers and other business partners and stakeholders to reduce
their environmental impact.
As our co-workers play a very important role when it comes to our environmental
work, we increase environmental awareness through training and communication of our
Environmental Policy and Program to all co-workers.
Source: http://www.walleniuslines.com/Environment/Strategy/Environmental-
Policy/
3.4 Stena Line

Yet another segment of shipping is the passenger ferry services which offer a service
directly to an end customer (Website Stena Line ). However, Stena Line’s environmental
controller says that they do not experience any direct requirements from their customers
to implement an EMS. Stena Line is one of Europe’s largest ferry companies and Stena
Line Scandinavia has certified their EMS under ISO14001. Like the other shipping
companies, this means that all ships and all on-shore activities within the company
should be included in the EMS.
The environmental controller at Stena Line mentioned that environmental aspects

are often a parameter that influences decision making in the company, although
sometimes, decision that counteract environmental improvements are taken. As an
example investments on their passenger ships that are done in order to have a more
pleasant journey; for example solariums are mentioned. There is, however, since a long
time back an awareness of these issues.
Read the environmental policy of Stena Line:
56 / 62
3 Third segment 3.5 BP shipping
The Environmental Policy of Stena Line:
example Stena Line is an environmentally aware company and the environmental policy applies for
all business areas, ashore as well as at sea.
Information about our environmental policy is open to anyone who would like study it.
Each business area, each route and each place or unit in our business, must draw up goals
for environmental protection and environmental improvements annually.
• All personnel must be given suitable training on environmental issues and be

encouraged to participate actively in the environmental work. When new operations
are planned or when new technology is introduced, the environmental consequences
must be studied and constitute a part of the basis for decision-making.
• To reduce the environmental burden from our operations, Stena Line as far as is
reasonable shall have control of the operations that are needed in order to be able
to prevent or reduce the effects on our surroundings. In particular, we shall focus
on our emissions and improvements in this area as a contribution to sustainable
development.
• Stena Line shall comply with the laws and requirements that are placed on our
business.
The suppliers and contractors that are decisive for our total environmental burden shall
deliver agreed products and services in such a way that together we can comply with this
policy.
Source: http://www.stenaline.com/en/stena-line/corporate/environment/
miljopolicy/
3.5 BP shipping
BP shipping (BP shipping Website ) is a ship owner company with oil and gas carriers.
They were one of the early adopters of the ISO14001 standard in the shipping industry.
In addition to what is required they publish an environmental statement.
Read their environmental statement from 2009:

pdf document: BP Shipping Environmental Statement
2009
Source: www.bp.com
57 / 62
3 Third segment 3.6 American Bureau of Shipping
3.6 American Bureau of Shipping

The maritime classification societies are often assessors accredited to certify the
accomplishment of an ISO or EMAS standard EMS. The American Bureau of Shipping
(ABS) is in several countries one of the organs that issues the certification according to
the standard. ABS provides their guidelines for EMS according to ISO14001 here:
pdf document: ABS Guide for Marine Health, Safety,
Quality, Environmental and Energy
Management
Source: www.eagle.org
reflection
What do you think?
WHAT DO YOU THINK?

What challenges and benefits related to an implementation and operation of an EMS can
you foresee in your company? If your company already has an EMS – find out which they
are!
58 / 62
Appendix I List of figures
I List of figures
Daphnia magna...........................................................................................................................13
Air pollution.................................................................................................................................15
Example of particle composition after combustion of marine fuels with

different sulphur content.......................................................................................................17
Ship traffic density around the world’s oceans........................................................... 18
Smog in LA................................................................................................................................... 20
Acidification................................................................................................................................. 22
Fish in eutrophicated water................................................................................................. 23
Storm clouds................................................................................................................................25
The Deming cycle...................................................................................................................... 37
The Deming cycle applied to an ISO14001 environmental management

system.............................................................................................................................................45
59 / 62
Appendix II List of tables
II List of tables
Calculated contributions of different sources to air pollution in Gothenburg 2010......15
.............................................................................................................................................................................32
60 / 62
Appendix III List of media
III List of media
Great Lakes Invasive Species Documentary................................................................................... 30
Steps in planning process.......................................................................................................................37
Major differences between EMAS and ISO14001.........................................................................47
61 / 62
Appendix IV List of tasks
IV List of tasks
What do you think?......................................................................................................................................7
What do you think?................................................................................................................................... 11
What do you think?................................................................................................................................... 14
What do you think?................................................................................................................................... 21
What do you think?................................................................................................................................... 27
What do you think?................................................................................................................................... 29
What do you think?................................................................................................................................... 33
What do you think?................................................................................................................................... 35
What do you think?................................................................................................................................... 41
What do you think?................................................................................................................................... 43
What do you think?................................................................................................................................... 45
What do you think?................................................................................................................................... 46
What do you think?................................................................................................................................... 49
What do you think?................................................................................................................................... 53
What do you think?................................................................................................................................... 58
62 / 62

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Environmental Management

state 07.12.2015 20:38

This e-course is divided into 3 segments:

• 1st segment: Environmental issues

Environmental issues that are connected to shipping activities will be in focus.

timerequirement In total this segment requires 21 hours of your time.

1.1.1 Sustainable development

and development of a desired environmental state. The development of our society is

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

1.1.2 Sustainability Scenarios

both geographical scales, the environmental management could be either proactive or

The scenarios are described from a perspective of ecosystem services functionality:

In the Millennium Ecosystem Assessments, human wellbeing is also measured by the

Also ecosystem services in general seem to be most prospering in this scenario

1.1.3 Peak Oil and shipping

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

1.2 Environmental Impact Categories

1.2 Environmental Impact Categories

Environmental impacts do not solely depend on the extent of an ecological change,

A brief introduction to causes and effects of a handful of environmental impact categories

Nine environmental categories will be presented as their connection to shipping is

Two central concepts in eco-toxicology are bio-accumulation and bio-magnification. Bio-

accumulating. An accumulation of hydrocarbons from oils in the bottom sediments can

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

1.2.2 Air pollution and health effects

Source SO2 tonnes/ NOX VOC Fossile CO2 Particles

Road traffic 3 2608 342 682000 414

Industry 303 872 6400 1183823 31

Energy/ 181 575 19 971890 37

Shipping 944 4940 785 309537 161

Other off- - 580 57 87000 26

Gas station - - 127 - -

Total 1431 9575 10630 3234250 669

Calculated contributions of different sources to air pollution in Gothenburg 2010

Example of particle composition after combustion of

Ship traffic density around the world’s oceans

One parameter that determines the environmental impact of an emission is the

Of importance in this category are particles, or particulate matter as it is often referred

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

When pH is reduced as a consequence of acid rain, effects are visible in marine,

Fish in eutrophicated water

1.2.5 Climate change

• Changes in radiation activity of the sun

The chemical lifetime of a CO2 molecule in the atmosphere is approximately 4 years

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

1.2.6 Ocean acidification

Water living organisms use sound to communicate. The frequencies occupied by

1.2.8 Resource use

1.2.9 Introduction of non-indigenous species

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

Discuss this with other participants in the Moodle forum of segment 1 !

In the online version an video is shown here.

Link to video : http://www.youtube.com/embed/Gzhp_FNA2Hk

timerequirement In total this segment requires 16 hours of your time.

2.1 Corporate Environmental Work

Source: According to Fet, 1997

"International Standards covering environmental management are intended to

An environmental management system should cover the entire company. The

The overall success of an EMS depends upon factors of employee participation,

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

2.2 Drivers for implementation

Regulations do not explicitly require enterprises to have EMSs implemented. However,

Pressures from organizations such as environmental NGOs, community groups and

Shareholders, in general terms, have growing interests in investing in environmentally