QC Students Material

Quality Improvement
(Formerly titled Quality Control 8th Edition)
Chapter 1
Introduction to Quality
PowerPoint presentation to accompany
Besterfield, Quality Improvement, 9th edition
Definitions
Quality
• Ratio of the perceptions of performance to
expectation.
• ASQ—Each person or sector has its own.
• ISO 9000—Degree to which a set of inherent
characteristics fulfills requirements.
• All of the above.
2
Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Dale H. Besterfield Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
Definitions (Continued)
Quality Control--Use of techniques to achieve and
sustain the quality.
Quality Improvement--Use of tools and techniques
to continually improve the product, service, or
process.
Statistical Quality Control—Use of statistics to control
the quality.

Definitions (Continued)
Quality Assurance--Planned or systematic
actions necessary to provide adequate
confidence that the product or service
will satisfy given requirements.
Process--Set of interrelated activities that
uses specific inputs to produce specific
outputs. Includes both internal and
external customers and suppliers.

Quality Improvement Tools
 The previous textbook outline slide
provides the tools covered.
 Tools covered briefly in this chapter are:
FMEA, QFD, ISO 9000, ISO 14000,
Benchmarking, TPM, Quality by Design,
Products Liability, IT
5
Failure Mode & Effect Analysis
(FMEA)
 Identifies foreseeable failure modes and plans
for elimination.
 Group of activities to:
 Recognize and evaluate potential failures,
 Identify actions that could eliminate or reduce
them,
 Document the process.
 Two types – design and process.

Quality Function Deployment (QFD)
 Identifies and sets priorities for process
improvement.
 Multifunction team uses ‘voice of the
customer’ to achieve results throughout the
organization.
 It reduces start-up costs and design changes
that lead to increased customer satisfaction.

QFD (Continued)
 Answers the following questions:
1. What do customers want?
2. Are all wants equally important?
3. Will delivering perceived needs yield a
competitive advantage?
4. How can we change the product,
service, or process?
5. How does a change affect customer
perception?

QFD (continued)
6. How does a change affect technical
descriptors?
7. What is the relationship between parts
deployment, process planning, and
production planning?

ISO 9000 (QMS)
 ISO Stands for International Organization for
Standards.
 QMS stands for Quality Management System.
 The standard, recognized by over 100
countries, is divided into three parts.
 Fundaments and vocabulary,
 Requirements, and
 Improvement guidance.

ISO 9000 (Continued)
 Five clauses of the requirement’s part are:
 Continual improvement
 Management Responsibility
 Resource Management
 Product Realization
 Measurement, Analysis, and Improvement
 Related to customer requirements and
satisfaction.

ISO 14000 (EMS)
 International standard for an environ-
mental management system (EMS).
 Describes the requirements for registration
and/or self-declaration.
 Requirements based on the process--not on
the products or services.
 Continual improvement for environmental
protection.

ISO 14000 (Continued)
 The four sections are:
 Environment policy,
 Planning, implementation, & operations,
 Checking and corrective action,
 Management review.

Benchmarking
 Benchmarking was developed by Xerox in
1979. The idea is to find another company
that is doing a particular process better than
your company, and then, using that
information to improve the process.
 Constant testing of industry’s best practices.

Total Productive Maintenance
 Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)is a
technique that utilizes the entire work
force to obtain the optimum use of
equipment.
 The technical skills in TPM are: daily
equipment checking, machine inspection,
fine-tuning machinery, lubrication, trouble-
shooting, and repair.

Quality by Design
 Quality by Design is the practice of using a
multidisciplinary team to conduct product or
service conception, design, and production
planning at one time.
 The major benefits are faster product
development, shorter time to market, better
quality, less work-in-process, fewer engineering
change orders, and increased productivity

Products Liability
 Consumers are initiating lawsuits in record numbers
as a result of injury, death, and property damage
from faulty product or service design or faulty
workmanship.
 Reasons for injuries:
 Behavior or knowledge of the user.
 Environment where the product is used.
 Design and production of the item.

Information Technology
 Information Technology is defined as
computer technology (either hardware or
software) for processing and storing
information, as well as communications
technology for transmitting information.

Quality
Improvement
Chapter 2- Lean Enterprise

Besterfield, Quality Improvement, 9e
Historical Review
 Ford Motor Company –1920.
 Gilbreth’s concept of motion efficiency.
 Taylor’s principals of scientific
management.
 Shingo’s one minute die change.
 Toyota visits Detroit
 Toyota Production System
20
Lean Fundamentals
 Types of waste
 Categories of waste
 Workplace organization
 Concept of flow
 Inventory control
 Visual management
 Kaizen
 Value stream
21
Types of Waste
 Non-value added and unnecessary for
the system to function.
 Non-value added and necessary for
the system to function.
 Non-value added due to variation in
quality, cost, or delivery.
 Non-value added due to overstressing
people, equipment, or system.
22
Categories of Waste
 Overproduction—Producing more, earlier, or
faster then required by the next process.
 Waiting—Any idle time or delay waiting for
materials.
 Transportation—Any movement of material.
 Defects—Products or services that do not
conform to specifications.
 Inventory—Any inventory in the value stream.
 Motion—Any motion of a person’s body.
 Extra Processing—Processing that does not add
value.
23
Workplace Organization—5S’s
 Sort—Divide items into three piles: necessary,
belong to another process, and unknown.
 Straighten—Arrange remaining items to reduce
or eliminate motion.
 Shine—Practice good housekeeping.
 Standardize—Document the process.
 Sustain—Maintain by charts, checklists, and
audits.
 Sometimes Safety
24
Concept of Flow
 Continuous with a minimum of variation.
 This utopian situation requires one-piece flow. It
 Reduces time between order and delivery,
 Prevents wait time and delays,
 Reduces labor & space to store and move mat’l,
 Reveals any defects & problems early in the process,
 Reduces damage,
 Provides production flexibility,
 Reveals non-value activity.
25
Concept of Flow (Continued)
 Forces employees to concentrate on the
process.
 Equipment needs to be flexible & make
changeovers quickly.
 Cell technology is applicable.
26
Inventory Control
 JIT—Right material arrives at the right
time in the right amount.
 Items are pulled through the system be
the internal or external customer.
 Kanban is used as a signal to replenish
items.
 Taki (beat) time, which is the rate of
production based on customer demand.
 IT system controls the entire logistics
from raw mat’l to consumer purchase.
27
Visual Management
 A picture is worth a thousand words.
 Visual displays are used to inform people
about customers, projects, performance,
goals, etc.
 Signals are used to alert people about
problems.
28
Kaizen
 Management encourages the continual
activity of small process improvements
by operators.
 Example--Black to white weld booth.
 Kaizen Blitz is a highly focused action-
oriented 3-5 day improvement workshop
by a multifunction team to improve a
specific process.
 Example—Managers, lawyers, regulators,
technicians, & end users are tasked to
reduce time for coal mining permits.
29
Value Stream
 The specific flow of activities required to
design, order, produce, and deliver a
product or service to customer(s).
 May be more than one value stream in
an organization.
 Ideally it will only include value-added
activities.
30
Value Stream (Continued)
 All operations are:
 Capable of meeting quality requirements.
 Available with no downtime.
 Efficient to eliminate unnecessary use of energy
and materials.
 Able to meet customer demand.
31
Value Stream Map (VSM)
 VSM graphically describes the sequence and
movement of the activities.
 First develop map of current state.
 Next develop map of ideal state with only value-
added activities.
 Difference provides opportunties for
improvement.
 VMS in next slide and icons in following one.
 Theory of constraints (TOC)—one operation
limits the throughput of the system at any one
time. 32
33
Implementing Lean
1. Establish cross-function team.
2. Train in lean fundamentals.
3. Construct VSM for current and ideal.
4. Analyze maps for best place to start.
5. Train people in lean and simple SPC tools.
6. Apply SS and Kaizen.
7. Use Kaizen blitz where appropriate.
8. Expand to other areas.
9. Standardize the improvements.
35
Benefits
 Tyco Flow Control: On time delivery—94%;
Lead time—150 days to 56 days; Movement
reduced by 68%; Machining capacity increased
by 200%; Cycle time balanced; Incoming
inspection reduced from 16 days to 1.
 Toyota success.
 Veridan Homes: Drafting time reduced by one
hour; Inspection time by 50%; Cycle time 32 to
15 days
36
Benefits (Continued)
 U of Scranton students: Reduced inquiry
response time from 13 days to one;
Eliminate faculty involvement; Reduce
application time from 88 days to less
than one day.
 Marion IL Medial enter passed an
accreditation audit.
37
Quality
Improvement
Chapter 3- Six Sigma

Historical Review
 1980’s at Motorola, which won the Baldrige
National Quality Award in 1988
 Significant improvement in quality.
 Mid 1990’s other companies such as General
Electric and Allied Signal obtained similar results.
 Six Sigma is both a quality management
philosophy and a methodology that focuses on
reducing variation, measuring defects, and
improving quality of products, processes and
services.
39
Statistical Aspects
 Sigma, σ, is the Greek symbol for population
standard deviation, which is the best measure
of variation. If we can reduce variation to the
point that the specifications are at ±6σ, then
99.9999998% of the items are satisfactory. The
nonconformance rate is .002 ppm. See Fig.3-1
and Table 3-1
 According to the philosophy processes shift
±1.5σ, which gives a conformance rate of
99.9996600% or a nonconformance rate of 3.4
ppm. See Fig. 3-2 and Table 3-2.
40
Figure 3-1 Non-conformance rate when process is centered
SPECIFICATION PERCENT NONCONFORMAN PROCESS

CE
LIMIT CONFORMANCE RATE CAPABILITY
±1s 68.7 317,300 0.33
±2s 95.45 485,500 0.67
±3s 99.73 2,700 1.00
±4s 99.9937 63 1.33
±5s 99.999943 0.57 1.67
±6s 99.9999998 0.002 2.00
TABLE 3-1 Nonconformance Rate When the Process Is Centered
41
Figure 3-2 Non-conformance rate when process is off center ±1.5σ
SPECIFICATION PERCENT NONCONFORMAN PROCESS

CE
LIMIT CONFORMANCE RATE (PPM) CAPABILITY (CPK)
±1s 30.23 697,700 –0.167
±2s 69.13 308,700 0.167
±3s 93.32 66,810 0.500
±4s 99.3790 6,210 0.834
±5s 99.97670 2,330 1.167
±6s 99.9996600 3.4 1.500

Table 3-2 Non-conformance rate when process is off center ±1.5σ
42
Statistical Aspects (Continued)
Actually the nonconformance rate is much closer
to .002 ppm, because:
 Process shift of 1.5 was envisioned in 1990.
 Shift will not always be at 1.5. It will move
back and forth.
 Control charts will correct, so shift will only be
at 1.5 about 5% of the time.
 Use of improved technology will keep the
process centered.
43
Improvement Methodology
 DMAIC stand for Define, Measure, Analyze,
Improve, Control.
 Not a new concept, but no other methodology
included tools and techniques.
 Each phase requires a progress report to
management.
 Motorola developed MAIC and GE added the D
44
Define
 Consists of project charter, process map, and
the voice of the customer.
Project Charter
 Documents problem statement, project
management, and progress toward goals.
 Problem Statement describes the current state.
 Important and why.
 Contribute to attaining goals.
 Defined clearly using objective measures.
 May use Affinity Diagram and Pareto analysis.
45
Define – Project Charter
(Continued)
 Project Management vested in quality council or
other management authority authorizes the
project, available resources, and operational
guidelines.
 Team may consist of a natural work group or a
multifunction group. An upstream and a
downstream representative is a good idea.
 Goals and Progress can be stated in terms of
quality, safety, satisfaction, financial, and
environment for internal and external customers
and suppliers. As well as a timeline for progress.
46
Define
Process Map
 Process Map can be a VSM or an SIPOC
process model as shown in Fig. 3-3.
 Discuss inputs, process, and output.
 Outcomes are the goals.
 Conditions can be policies, constraints, or
regulations.
 Process should have at least one owner.
 All functional areas have processes.
47
Define – Process Map
(Continued)
FIGURE 3-3 SIPOC Process Model

48
Define
Voice of the Customer
 Provides info. that leads to those problems
that have the greatest impact.
 Problems identified from many inputs:
 Field failures, complaints, returns, etc.
 Scrap, rework, sorting, 100% test.
 Suggestions.
 Study of user needs.
 Performance of competitors.
 Comments of key people and organizations.
 Surveys and focus groups.
 Brainstorming by work groups.
49
Measure
 Measure consists of understand the process,
validate the data accuracy, and determine
the process capability.
 This information is used to review the define
phase, establish a baseline, and obtain a
better knowledge of the process.
Understand the Process
 VSM provides info. on waste or SIPOC to
provide a graphic description of the process.
 It is rare for all members of the team to
understand the process. 50
Measure – Understand the
Process (Continued)
 Target performance measures for inputs and
outputs are determined.
 Can‘t improve it, if you can’t measure it.
 Team will:
 Determine measures with respect to customer
requirements.
 Determine data to manage the process.
 Establish feedback with customers and suppliers.
 Establish measures for quality, cost, waste, and
timeliness.
51
Process (Continued)
 Gathering data helps confirm that a problem
exists, enables working with facts, establishes
a baseline, and determines the effectiveness
of a solution.
 Develop a plan to learn more about the
problem, uses for the data, amount of data
needed, possible conclusions, and resulting
actions.
52
Process (Continued)
 Data and information include:
 Customer – complaints, surveys, competitors
 Design – function, drawings, specifications,
costs, reviews, maintainability, field data
 Process – routings, equipment, operators,
materials, supplies, components
 Statistical – average, median, range, standard
deviation, skewness, kurtosis, distribution
 Quality – SPC, process capability, acceptance
sampling, life testing, inspection,
53
Process (Continued)
 Supplier – on-time delivery, process variation,
technical competence
 Data mining – use computer to search large
amounts of data
Validate the Data Accuracy
 All devices calibrated, GR&R – Chapter 7
Determine Process Capability
 Compares process variation to
specifications – Chapter 6
54
Analyze
 Phase consists of process analysis, cause
investigation, charter updating.
 Pinpoint and verify causes affecting problem.
Process Analysis
 Review VSM, calculate takt time,
identify non-value added, determine
bottlenecks.
 Review measure phase data.
55
Analyze (Continued)
Cause Investigation
 Identify all potential causes.
 Tools are brainstorming, cause and
effect diagram, why why, tree diagram,
and interrelationship diagram – Ch. 12
 Seek causes not solutions.
 Reduce list by multivoting, Pareto
analysis, and stratification.
56
Analyze – Cause Investigation
(Continued)
 Verify most likely or root cause(s)
 Examine against problem statement
 Recheck all data
 Use scatter diagram, experimental design,
Taguchi’s Quality Engineering
 Calculations that show reduction in non-value
added activities
Charter Review
Review problem statement, team membership,
schedule, resources needed, and goals.
57
Improve
 This phase selects optimal solution, tests a
pilot, and implements solution.
 Objective – improved process to meet goals
Optimal Solution
 Team uses brainstorming to be creative and
innovative in selecting possible solution.
 Three types of creativity: create new
process – highest type; combine processes;
modify existing process.
 Select optimal solution
58
Improve – Optimal Solution
(Continued)
 Evaluate to determine, which has greatest
chance for success and pros & cons.
 Criteria – costs, feasibility, effect, resistance
to change, consequences, and training. Also
short and long term solutions considered.
 VSM is revised to reflect optimal solution.
Pilot Testing
 Train participants. Verify that goals are met.
59
Improve
Implementation
 This phase -- develops the plan, obtains
approval, and implements.
 Plan must describe the why, how, when,
who, and where it will be done.
 Depending on the improvement
complexity an oral or written report may
be required. Approval by the quality
council may also be required.
60
Improve – Impementation
(Continued)
 If not already involved advise and consent
of upstream and downstream activities
should be obtained.
 Measuring monitoring activity determines
what measurements and resources needed;
who is responsible; and where, how, and
when taken.
 Table 3-3 in text provides and action plan
to help
61
Control
 This phase consists of evaluating the
process, standardizing the procedures, and
final actions.
 It’s objective is to evaluate the effectiveness
of the improvement.
Evaluating the Process
 Team should meet periodically to evaluate
the improvement. May need to repeat some
phases.
 Tools--SPC, capability, & combination map
62
Control
Standardize the Procedure
 Requires process control, process certification,
and operator certification.
 Process control is an updating of the
monitoring activity. Prevents backsliding.
 Process certification or peripherals include the
system, environment, and supervision.
 The system includes shutdown authority, TPM,
alarm signals, self & foolproof inspection
63
Control – Standardize the
Procedure (Continued)
 Environment includes controls on
water/air, dust/chemical, temp/humidity,
storage/inventory, and electrostatic.
 Supervision includes coach—not boss,
clear instructions, suggestions, feedback.
 Operator certification includes
competency, cross training, process
improvement ideas.
64
Control -- Final Actions
 Celebrate success.
 Process owner
 Lessons learned are reported to the
appropriate authority.
 Appropriate authority will review for
application of lessons learned to other
processes within the organization.
65
Additional Comments
 Modifications to DMAIC
 Recognize at beginning
 Standardize and Integrate at the end
 Replicate for multiple facilities
 Six Sigma works because it gives
bottom line results; trains leaders;
reduces variation, improves quality,
increases customer satisfaction, and
uses statistical techniques.
66
Additional Comments –
(Continued)
 Continuous improvement requires everyone
to continually seek ways to improve the
processes.
 Establish the system to continually review
the continuous improvement culture.
 Track changing customer requirements
 Orderly approach yields the greatest results.
67
Quality
Improvement
Chapter 4- Statistical
Process Control
Statistical Process Control
A methodology for monitoring a process
to identify special causes of variation
and signal the need to take corrective
action when appropriate
69
The Pareto Principle
Vilfredo Pareto was an economist who is credited
with establishing what is now widely known as the
Pareto Principle or 80/20 rule. When he discovered
the principle, it established that 80% of the land in
Italy was owned by 20% of the population. Later,
he discovered that the pareto principle was valid in
other parts of his life, such as gardening: 80% of his
garden peas were produced by 20% of the peapods.
70
The Pareto Principle
Some Sample 80/20 Rule Applications
 80% of process defects arise from 20% of
the process issues.
 20% of your sales force produces 80% of
your company revenues.
 80% of delays in schedule arise from 20%
of the possible causes of the delays.
 80% of customer complaints arise from 20%
of your products or services.
(The above examples are rough estimates.)
71
The Pareto Diagram
 Graph that ranks data classifications in
descending order from left to right
 Pareto diagrams are used to identify the most
important problems
 Advantage: Provide a visual impact of those
vital few characteristics that need attention
 Resources are then directed to take the
necessary corrective action
72
The Pareto Diagram
 Helps a team focus on causes that have the
greatest impact
 Displays the relative importance of problems
in a simple visual format
 Helps prevent “shifting the problem” where
the solution removes some causes but
worsens others
73
Constructing a Pareto Diagram
Steps:
1. Determine the method of classifying the
data: by problem, cause, type of
nonconformity, etc
2. Decide if dollars (best), weighted frequency,
or frequency is to be used to rank the
characteristics
3. Collect data for an appropriate time interval
74
Constructing a Pareto Diagram
Steps cont’d:
4. Summarize the data and rank order
categories from largest to smallest
5. Compute the cumulative percentage if it is
to be used
6. Construct the diagram and find the vital few
75
76
Cause-and-Effect Diagram
 It was developed by Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa in 1943
 Picture composed of lines and symbols designed
to represent a meaningful relationship between
an effect and its causes
 Effect (characteristics that need improvement)
on the right and causes on the left
77
People Materials Work Methods
Primary
Cause
C E
a f
u f
s
Quality
Characteristic e
e Secondary Cause
c
s t
Environment Equipment Measurement
Figure 4.3 Cause-and-Effect Diagram
78
 Enables a team to focus on the content of a
problem, not on the history of the problem or
differing personal interests of team members
 Creates a snapshot of collective knowledge and
consensus of a team; builds support for solutions
 Focuses the team on causes, not symptoms
 Used to investigate either a “bad” effect and to
take action to correct the causes or a “good”
effect and to learn those causes responsible
79
Steps in the construction of a
Cause-and-Effect Diagram:
1. Identify the effect or quality problem
2. Determine the major causes
3. Determine all the minor causes. Request a
brainstorming session
4. Once the diagram is complete, evaluate it to
determine the most likely causes
5. Develop solutions
80
Advantages:
1. Analyzing actual conditions for the purpose of
product or service quality improvement
2. Elimination of conditions causing
nonconforming product or service and
customer complaints
3. Standardization of existing and proposed
operations
4. Education and training in decision-making
81
Types of Diagrams:
1. The dispersion-analysis type.
 Each major branch is filled in completely
before starting work on any of the other
branches. The objective is to analyze the
causes of dispersion or variability
82
Types of Diagrams:
2. The process-analysis type.
 In order to construct it, it is necessary to
write each step of the production process.
The advantage of this type of diagram is
the ease of construction and its simplicity,
since it follows the production sequence
83
Check Sheets
 The main purpose is to ensure that the data
are collected carefully and accurately by
operating personel for process control and
problem solving
 The form of the check sheet is individualized
for each situation and is designed by the
project team
 Check sheets are designed to show location
84
Check Sheets
 Creates easy-to-understand data
 Builds, with each observation, a clearer picture
of the facts
 Forces agreement on the definition of each
condition or event of interest
 Patterns in the data become obvious quickly
 Creativity plays a major role in the design of a
check sheet
85
Check Sheets
Figure 3-5 Check Sheet for paint non-conformities

27
Figure 3-6 Check Sheet for swimming pool
28
Check Sheets
Plastic Mold

Process Flow Diagram
 It is a schematic diagram that shows the flow
of the product or service as it moves through
the various processing stations or operations
 Makes it easy to visualize the entire system,
identify potential trouble spots, and locate
activities
 Compares and contrasts actual versus ideal
flow of a process
89
90
 Serves as a training tool
 Uses standardized symbols
 Shows unexpected complexity, problem
areas, redundancy, unnecessary loops, and
where simplification may be possible
91
 Allows a team to reach agreement on process
steps and identify activities that may impact
performance
 Improvements to the process can be
accomplished by eliminating steps, combining
steps, or making frequently occurring steps
more efficient
92
Scatter Diagram
The simplest way to determine if a cause
and-effect relationship exists between two
variables. Details are in Chapter 5.
93
Scatter Diagram
The simplest way to determine if a cause
and-effect relationship exists between two
variables
Figure 5-19 Scatter Diagram

94
Scatter Diagram
 Supplies the data to confirm a hypothesis that
two variables are related
 Provides both a visual and statistical means
to test the strength of a relationship
 Provides a good follow-up to cause and effect
diagrams
 Scatter diagram patterns
95
FIGURE 5-20 Scatter Diagram Patterns

Scatter Diagram
Steps:
1. Data are collected as ordered pairs (x, y)
2. The horizontal and vertical scales are
constructed with the higher values on the right
for the x-axis and on the top for the y-axis
3. Plot the data
4. Once the diagram is complete, the relationship
or correlation between the two variables can be
evaluated
97
Straight Line Fit
m
 xy  [(  x )(  y ) / n
 x  [( x ) / n]
2 2
a   y / n  m(  x / n )
y  a  mx
Where m=slope of the line and a is the intercept on the y axis
98
FIGURE 5-18 Probability Plots of Data from Table 5-13
99
Histogram
Graphically shows the process capability and,
if desired, the relationship to the
specifications and the nominal
Figure 3-11 Histogram for Hole Location

100
Histogram
 Displays large amounts of data that are difficult
to interpret in tabular form
 Shows centering, variation, and shape
 Illustrates the underlying distribution of the
data
 Provides useful information for predicting future
performance
 Helps to answer the question “Is the process
capable of meeting requirements?
101
Control Charts
 Focuses attention on detecting and
monitoring process variation over time
 Distinguishes special from common causes of
variation
 Serves as a tool for on-going control
 Provides a common language for discussion
process performance
 Details in Chapters 6,7, & 9
102
Control Chart
103
Quality Improvement
Chapter 5- Fundamentals
of Statistics
Introduction
Definition of Statistics:
1. A collection of quantitative data pertaining to
to a subject or group.Examples are blood
pressure statistics etc.
2. The science that deals with the collection,
tabulation, analysis, interpretation, and
presentation of quantitative data
105
Introduction (Continued)
Two phases of statistics:
 Descriptive Statistics:
Describes the characteristics of a product or
process using information collected on it.
 Inferential Statistics (Inductive):
Draws conclusions on unknown process
parameters based on information contained
in a sample.
Uses probability
106
Collection of Data
Types of Data:
Attribute:
Discrete data. Data values can only be
integers. Counted data or attribute data.
Examples include:
 How many of the products are defective?
 How often are the machines repaired?
 How many people are absent each day?
107
Collection of Data (Continued)
Types of Data:
Attribute:
Discrete data. Data values can only be
integers. Counted data or attribute data.
Examples include:
 How many days did it rain last month?
 What kind of performance was achieved?
 Number of defects, defectives
108
Precision and Accuracy
(Continued)
Figure 4-1 Difference between accuracy and precision
109
Describing Data
Data is described by Frequency Distribution,
Measures of Central Tendency, and Measures of
Dispersion
Frequency Distribution
Three types--Categorical, Ungrouped, & Grouped
Categorical frequency distributions
 Data that can be placed in specific categories,
such as nominal- or ordinal-level data.
 Examples - political affiliation, blood type, etc.
110
Categorical
2-8 Example :Blood Type Frequency
Distribution
C lass Frequency Percent
A 5 20
B 7 28
O 9 36
AB 4 16
111
Ungrouped
2-9Ungrouped frequency distributions
 Ungrouped frequency distributions - can be
used for data that can be enumerated and
when the range of values in the data set is not
large.
 Examples - number of miles your instructors
have to travel from home to campus, number
of girls in a 4-child family etc.
112
Ungrouped
2-10 Example :Number of Miles Traveled
Class Frequency
5 24
10 16
15 10
113
Grouped
2-11 Grouped frequency distributions
 Can be used when the range of values in the
data set is very large. The data must be
grouped into classes that are more than one
unit in width.
 Examples - the life of boat batteries in hours.
114
Grouped
2-12 Example:Lifetimes of Boat Batteries
Class Class Frequency Cumulative

limits Boundaries frequency
24 - 30 23.5 - 37.5 4 4
38 - 51 37.5 - 51.5 14 18
52 - 65 51.5 - 65.5 7 25
115
Frequency Distributions
Number non Frequency Relative Cumulative Relative
conforming Frequency Frequency Frequency
0 15 0.29 15 0.29
1 20 0.38 35 0.67
2 8 0.15 43 0.83
3 5 0.10 48 0.92
4 3 0.06 51 0.98
5 1 0.02 52 1.00
Table 5-3 Different Frequency Distributions of Data Given in Table 5-1

116
Frequency Histogram
Frequency Histogram
25
20
Frequency
15
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Number Nonconforming
117
Relative Frequency Histogram
Relative Frequency Histogram
0.45
0.40
0.35
Relative Frequency
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5
118
Cumulative Frequency Histogram
Cumulative Frequency Histogram
60
Cumulative Frequency
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
119
Relative Cumulative Frequency
Histogram
120
Constructing a Histogram
The Fast Way
Step 1: Find range of distribution, largest -
smallest values
Step 2: Choose number of classes, 5 to 20
Step 3: Determine width of classes, one
decimal place more than the data, class width =
range/number of classes # classes  n
Step 4: Determine class boundaries
Step 5: Draw frequency histogram
121
Constructing a Histogram
Number of groups or cells
 If no. of observations < 100 – 5 to 9 cells
 Between 100-500 – 8 to 17 cells
 Greater than 500 – 15 to 20 cells
122
Other Types of
Frequency Distribution Graphs
 Bar Graph
 Polygon of Data
 Cumulative Frequency Distribution or Ogive
123
Bar Graph and Polygon of Data
124
Cumulative Frequency
125
Characteristics of Frequency
Distribution Graphs
Figure 5-6 Characteristics of frequency distributions 126

FIGURE 5-7 Differences Due to Location, Spread, and Shape
127
Analysis of Histograms
Figure 4-7 Differences due to location, spread, and shape
128
Analysis of Histograms
Figure 5-8 Histogram of Wash Concentration
129
Measures of Central Tendency
The three measures in common use are the:
 Average
 Median
 Mode
130
Average
There are three different techniques available

for calculating the average three measures in
common use are the:
 Ungrouped data
 Grouped data
 Weighted average
131
Average-Ungrouped Data
n
Xi
X 
i 1 n
132
Average-Grouped Data
h
fi X i
X 
i 1 n
f1 X 1  f 2 X 2 ...  f h X h .

f1  f 2 ...  f h
h = number of cells fi=frequency
Xi=midpoint
133
Average-Weighted Average
Used when a number of averages are
combined with different frequencies
i1 i i
n
w X
Xw  n
w
i 1
i
134
Median-Grouped Data
n 
2  cf m

M d  Lm  i
fm
 
 
Lm=lower boundary of the cell with the median
N=total number of observations
Cfm=cumulative frequency of all cells below m
Fm=frequency of median cell
i=cell interval
135
Example Problem
Boundaries Midpoint Frequency Computation
23.6-26.5 25.0 4 100
26.6-29.5 28.0 36 1008
29.6-32.5 31.0 51 1581
32.6-35.5 34.0 63 2142
35.6-38.5 37.0 58 2146
38.6-41.5 40.0 52 2080
41.6-44.5 43.0 34 1462
44.6-47.5 46.0 16 736
47.6-50.5 49.0 6 294
Total 320 11549
Table 4-7 Frequency Distribution of the Life of 320 tires in 1000 km

136
Median-Grouped Data
n 
 2  cf m 
M d  Lm  i
fm
 
 
Using data from Table 4-7
 320 
 2  154 
Md  35.6    3  35.9
58
 
 
137
Mode
The Mode is the value that occurs with the
greatest frequency.
It is possible to have no modes in a series or

numbers or to have more than one mode.
138
Relationship Among the
Measures of Central Tendency
Figure 5-9 Relationship among average, median and mode
139
Measures of Dispersion
 Range
 Standard Deviation
 Variance
140
Measures of Dispersion-Range
The range is the simplest and easiest to
calculate of the measures of dispersion.
Range = R = Xh - Xl
 Largest value - Smallest value in data
set
141
Measures of Dispersion-Standard
Deviation
Sample Standard Deviation:

n
( Xi  X ) 2
S i 1
n 1
2
 
n
i 1 Xi   
n 2
Xi  / n
S i 1 
n 1
142
Standard Deviation
Ungrouped Technique
n  i 1 Xi  (  i 1 Xi )
n 2 n 2
S
n(n  1)
143
Standard Deviation
Grouped Technique
h
n i 1 ( fi X )  (  fi X i )
h 2 2
i
s i 1
n(n  1)
144
Relationship Between the
 As n increases, accuracy of R decreases
 Use R when there is small amount of data or data
is too scattered
 If n> 10 use standard deviation
 A smaller standard deviation means better quality
145
Relationship Between the
Figure 5-10 Comparison of two distributions with equal average and range 146
Other Measures
There are three other measures that are
frequently used to analyze a collection of data:
 Skewness
 Kurtosis
 Coefficient of Variation
147
Skewness
Skewness is the lack of symmetry of the data.
For grouped data:

h
f i ( X i  X ) / n 3
a3  i 1
3
s
148
Skewness
Figure 5-11 Left (negative) and right (positive) skewness distributions
149
Kurtosis
Kurtosis provides information regrading the shape
of the population distribution (the peakedness or
heaviness of the tails of a distribution).
For grouped data:

h
f i ( X i  X ) / n 4
a4  i 1
4
s
150
Kurtosis
Figure 5-12 Leptokurtic and Platykurtic distributions
151
Coefficient of Variation
Correlation variation (CV) is a measure of how
much variation exists in relation to the mean.
s(100%)
CV 
X
152
Population and Sample
 Population
 Set of all items that possess a
characteristic of interest
 Sample
 Subset of a population
153
Comparison of Sample and
Population
Statistic Parameter
X —average μ(Xo) —mean
s—sample standard deviation σ(so) —standard deviation
154
Parameter and Statistic
Parameter is a characteristic of a population, i.o.w. it
describes a population
 Example: average weight of the population, e.g.
50,000 cans made in a month.
Statistic is a characteristic of a sample, used to
make inferences on the population parameters that
are typically unknown, called an estimator
 Example: average weight of a sample of 500 cans
from that month’s output, an estimate of the average
weight of the 50,000 cans.
155
The Normal Curve
Characteristics of the normal curve:
 It is symmetrical -- Half the cases are to one
side of the center; the other half is on the
other side.
 The distribution is single peaked, not bimodal
or multi-modal
 Also known as the Gaussian distribution
 Mean is best measure of central tendency
156
The Normal Curve
Characteristics:
Most of the cases will fall in the center portion of
the curve and as values of the variable become
more extreme they become less frequent, with
"outliers" at the "tail" of the distribution few in
number. It is one of many frequency distributions.
157
Standard Normal Distribution
The standard normal distribution is a normal
distribution with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation
of 1. Normal distributions can be transformed to
standard normal distributions by the formula:
X i 
Z
s
158
FIGURE 5-14 Standardized Normal Distribution with μ = 0 and σ = 1
159
FIGURE 5-17 Percent of Items Included between certain
values of the standard deviation
160
Relationship between the Mean
and Standard Deviation
161
Mean and Standard Deviation
Same mean but different standard deviation
162
Mean and Standard Deviation
Same mean but different standard deviation
163
Tests for Normality
 Histogram
 Skewness
 Kurtosis
164
Tests for Normality
Histogram:
Shape
 Symmetrical
The larger the sampler size, the better the
judgment of normality. A minimum sample size of
50 is recommended
165
Tests for Normality
Skewness (a3) and Kurtosis (a4)”
 Skewed to the left or to the right (a3=0 for a
normal distribution)
 The data are peaked as the normal
distribution (a4=3 for a normal distribution)
 The larger the sample size, the better the
judgment of normality (sample size of 100 is
recommended)
166
Tests for Normality
Probability Plots
 Order the data from the smallest to the largest
 Rank the observations (starting from 1 for the
lowest observation)
 Calculate the plotting position
100(i  0.5)
PP 
n
Where i = rank PP=plotting position n=sample size
167
Probability Plots
Procedure cont’d:
 Order the data
 Rank the observations
 Calculate the plotting position
 Label the data scale
 Plot the points
 Attempt to fit by eye a “best line”
 Determine normality
168
FIGURE 5-18 Probability Plots of Data from Table 5-13
169
Quality
Improvement
Chapter 6- Control
Charts for Variables

variation
 The variation concept is a law of nature in
that no two natural items are the same.
 The variation may be quite large and easily
noticeable
 The variation may be very small. It may
appear that items are identical; however,
precision instruments will show difference
 The ability to measure variation is necessary
before it can be controlled
171
Variation
There are three categories of variation in piece
part production:
1. Within-piece variation: Surface
2. Piece-to-piece variation: Among pieces
produced at the same time
3. Time-to-time variation: Difference in product
produced at different times of the day
172
Control Charts
 Variable data
 x-bar and R-charts
 x-bar and s-charts
 Charts for individuals (x-charts)
 Attribute data
 For “defectives” (p-chart, np-chart)
 For “defects” (c-chart, u-chart)
173
Control Charts for Variables
The control chart for variables is a means of
visualizing the variations that occur in the
central tendency and the mean of a set of
observations. It shows whether or not a
process is in a stable state.
174
Control Charts
Figure 5-1 Example of a control chart
175
Control Charts
Figure 6-1 Example of a method of reporting

Quality Improvement, 9e
inspection
© 2013, results
2008 by Pearson
176
Higher Education, Inc
Variable Control Charts
The objectives of the variable control charts are:
1. For quality improvement
2. To determine the process capability
3. For decisions regarding product specifications
4. For current decisions on the production process
5. For current decisions on recently produced items
177
Control Chart Techniques
Procedure for establishing a pair of control charts for
the average Xbar and the range R:
1. Select the quality characteristic
2. Choose the rational subgroup
3. Collect the data
4. Determine the trial center line and control limits
5. Establish the revised central line and control limits
6. Achieve the objective
178
Quality Characteristic
The Quality characteristic must be measurable.
It can expressed in terms of the seven basic units:
1. Length
2. Mass
3. Time
4. Electrical current
5. Temperature
6. Subatance
7. Luminosity
179
Rational Subgroup
A rational subgroup is one in which the variation
within a group is due only to chance causes.
Within-subgroup variation is used to determine the
control limits.
Variation between subgroups is used to evaluate
long-term stability.
180
Rational Subgroup
There are two schemes for selecting the subgroup
samples:
1. Select subgroup samples from product or
service produced at one instant of time or as
close to that instant as possible
2. Select from product or service produced over a
period of time that is representative of all the
products or services
181
Rational Subgroup
The first scheme will have a minimum variation
within a subgroup.
The second scheme will have a minimum variation
among subgroups.
The first scheme is the most commonly used since
it provides a particular time reference for
determining assignable causes.
The second scheme provides better overall results
and will provide a more accurate picture of the
quality.
182
Subgroup Size
 As the subgroup size increases, the control
limits become closer to the central value,
which make the control chart more sensitive
to small variations in the process average
 As the subgroup size increases, the inspection
cost per subgroup increases
 When destructive testing is used and the item
is expensive, a small subgroup size is required
183
Subgroup Size
 From a statistical basis a distribution of
subgroup averages are nearly normal for
groups of 4 or more even when samples are
taken from a non-normal distribution
 When a subgroup size of 10 or more is used,
the s chart should be used instead of the R
chart.
 See Table 6-1 for sample sizes
184
Data Collection
Data collection can be accomplished using the
type of figure shown in Figure 6-2.
It can also be collected using the method in
Table 6-2.
It is necessary to collect a minimum of 25
subgroups of data.
A run chart can be used to analyze the data in
the development stage of a product or prior to
a state of statistical control
185
Run Chart
Figure 6-4 Run Chart for data of Table 6-2

186
Trial Central Lines
Central Lines are obtained using:
g g
X i R i
X  i 1
and R  i 1
g g
where
X  average of subgroup averages
X i  average of the ith subgroup
g  number of subgroups
R  average of subgroup ranges
Ri  range of the ith subgroup
187
Trial Control Limits
Trial control limits are established at ±3 standard
deviatons from the central value
UCLX  X  3s X UCLR  R  3s R
LCLX  X  3s X LCLR  R  3s R
where
UCL=upper control limit
LCL=lower control limit
s X  population standard deviation of the subgroup averages
s R  population standard deviation of the range
188
In practice calculations are simplified by using
the following equations where A2,D3 and D4 are
factors that vary with the subgroupsize and are
found in Table B of the Appendix.
UCLX  X  A2 R UCLR  D4 R
LCLX  X  A2 R LCLR  D3 R
189
Figure 6-5 Xbar and R chart for preliminary data with trial control limits
190
Revised Central Lines
X new 
 XX d
and R new 
 RR d
g  gd g  gd
where
X d  discarded subgroup averages
g d  number of discarded subgroups
Rd  discarded subgroup ranges
191
Standard Values
R0
X 0  X new R0  R new and s 0 
d2
UCLX  X 0  As 0 UCLR  D2s 0
LCLX  X 0  As 0 LCLR  D1s 0
192
Figure 6-6 Trial control limits and revised control limits for Xbar and R charts 193
© 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Quality Improvement, 9e
Achieve the Objective
Figure 5-7 Continuing use of control charts, showing improved quality

194
Revised Central Lines
X new 
 XX d
and R new 
 RR d
g  gd g  gd
where
X d  discarded subgroup averages
g d  number of discarded subgroups
Rd  discarded subgroup ranges
195
Sample Standard Deviation
Control Chart
For subgroup sizes >=10, an s chart is more
accurate than an R Chart.Trial control limits are
given by:
 
g g
s
i 1 i
Xi
s X  i 1
g g
UCLX  X  A3 s UCLs  B4 s
LCLX  X  A3 s LCLs  B3 s
196
Revised Limits for s chart
X 0  X new 
X  Xd
g  gd
s0  snew 
s  s d
s0 
s0
g  gd c4
UCLX  X 0  As 0 UCLs  B6s 0
LCLX  X 0  As 0 LCLs  B5s 0
where
sd  discarded subgroup averages
c4 , A, B5 , B6  factors found in Table B
197
State of Control
Process in Control
 When special causes have been eliminated
from the process to the extent that the points
plotted on the control chart remain within the
control limits, the process is in a state of
control
 When a process is in control, there occurs a
natural pattern of variation
198
State of Control
Figure 6-9 Natural pattern of variation of a control chart

199
State of Control
Types of errors:
 Type I, occurs when looking for a special
cause of variation when in reality a common
cause is present
 Type II, occurs when assuming that a common
cause of variation is present when in reality
there is a special cause
200
Patterns in Control Charts
Figure 6-12 Some unnatural runs-process out of control 201

Patterns in Control Charts
Figure 6-13 Simplified rule for out-of-control pattern
202
Out-of-Control Condition
1. Change or jump in level.
2. Trend or steady change in level
3. Recurring cycles
4. Two populations (also called mixture)
5. Mistakes
203
Out-of-Control Patterns
Change or jump inlevel Trend or steady change in level
Recurring cycles Two populations
204
Quality
Improvement
Chapter 9- Control
Charts for Attributes

Attribute
 The term Attribute refers to those quality
characteristics that conform to specifications
or do not conform to specifications.
 Attribute are used:
1. Where measurements are not possible.
2. Where measurements can be made but are
not made because of time, cost, or need.
206
Attribute
 A nonconformity is a departure of a quality
characteristic from its intended level or state
that occurs with a severity sufficient to cause
an associated product or service not to meet
a specification requirement.
 Defect is concerned with satisfying intended
normal, or reasonably foreseeable, usage
requirement.
207
Attribute
 Defect is appropriate for use when evaluation
is in terms of usage.
 Nonconformity is appropriate for conformance
to specifications.
 The term Nonconforming Unit is used to
describe a unit of product or service
containing at least one nonconformity.
208
Attribute
 Defective is analogous to defect and is
appropriate for use when unit of product
or service is evaluated in terms of usage
rather than conformance to specifications.
 Limitations of variable control charts:
These charts cannot be used for quality
characteristics which are attributes.
209
Attribute
Types of Attribute Charts:
1. Nonconforming Units (based on the
Binomial distribution): p chart, np chart.
2. Nonconformities (based on the Poisson
distribution): c chart, u chart.
210
The P Chart
 The P Chart is used for data that consist of the
proportion of the number of occurrences of an
event to the total number of occurrences.
 It is used in quality to report the fraction or
percent nonconforming in a product, quality
characteristic, or group of quality characteristics.
211
The P Chart
Formula:
np
p 
n
 The fraction nonconforming, p, is usually small,
say, 0.10 or less.
 Because the fraction nonconforming is very
small, the subgroup sizes must be quite large
to produce a meaningful chart.
212
The P Chart
 It can be used to control one quality
characteristic, as is done with X bar and R chart,
 Or to control a group of quality characteristics of
the same type or of the same part,
 Or to control the entire product.
 It can be established to measure the quality
produced by a work center, by a department, by a
shift, or by an entire plant.
213
The P Chart
 It is frequently used to report the
performance of an operator, group of
operators, or management as a means of
evaluating their quality performance.
 The subgroup size of the P chart can be
either variable or constant.
214
The P Chart
Objectives of the P Chart:
1. Determine the average quality level: This
information provides the process
capability in terms of attributes.
2. Bring to the attention of management
any changes in the average.
3. Improve the product quality: Ideas for
quality improvement.
215
The P Chart
Objectives of the P Chart cont’d:
4. Evaluate the quality performance of
operating and management personnel.
5. Suggest places to use Xbar and R chart:
They are more sensitive to variation.
6. Determine acceptance criteria of a
product before shipment to the customer.
216
The P Chart
P-Chart Construction for Constant
Subgroup Size
1. Select the quality characteristic(s):
a) Single quality characteristic.
b) Group of quality characteristics.
c) A part.
d) An entire product.
e) A number of products.
f) It can be established for performance control of an
operator, work center, department, shift, plant, or
corporation
217
The P Chart
P Chart Construction for Constant Subgroup Size
cont’d.
2. Determine the subgroup size and method:
 The size of the subgroup is a function of the
proportion nonconforming.
 A minimum size of 50 is suggested as a
starting point.
218
The P Chart
cont’d.
3. Collect the data:
 At least 25 subgroups.
 Different sources (Check sheet).
 For each subgroup the proportion
nonconforming is calculated by the formula
P = np/n
219
The P Chart
4. Calculate the trial central line and the control
limits:
p
 np
n
p (1  p )
UCL  p  3
n
p (1  p )
LCL  p  3
n
220
FIGURE 9-2 A p Chart to Illustrate the Trial Central Line and
Control Limits Using the Data from Table 9-1
221
The P Chart
cont’d.
5. Establish the revised central line and control limits.
pnew  p0 
 np  np d
n  n d
p0 (1  p0
UCL  p0  3
n
p0 (1  p0 )
LCL  p0  3
n
222
FIGURE 9-3 Continuing Use of the p Chart for Representative
Values of the Proportion Nonconforming, p
223
The P Chart
 The P Chart is most effective if it is posted
where operating and quality personnel can
view it.
 The control limits are usually three standard
deviations from the central value. Therefore,
approximately 99% of the plotted points, P,
will fall between the upper and lower control
limits.
224
The P Chart
 A P Chart will also indicate long-range
trends in quality, which will help to
evaluate changes in personnel, methods,
equipment, tooling, materials, and
inspection techniques.
 P-chart is based on the binomial
distribution.
225
FIGURE 9-4 Various Techniques for Presenting p -Chart Information
226
The P Chart
P Chart Construction for Variable Subgroup Size
1. Collect the data.
2. Determine the trial central line and control
limits: Since the subgroup size changes each
day, limits must be calculated for each day.
227
FIGURE 9-5 Preliminary Data, Central
Line, and Trial Control Limits
FIGURE 9-5 Preliminary Data, Central Line, and Trial Control Limits
228
The P Chart
cont’d.
2. As the subgroup size gets larger, the control
limits are closer together.
3. Establish revised central line and control limits:
229
The P Chart
cont’d.
 If Po is known, the process of data collection
and trial control limits is not necessary.
 P is the proportion (fraction) nonconforming
in a single subgroup.
 Pbar is the average proportion (fraction)
nonconforming of many subgroups.
230
The P Chart
cont’d.
 Po is the standard or reference value of the
proportion (fraction) nonconforming based
on the best estimate of PBar.
 Φ is the population proportion (fraction)
nonconforming.
231
The P Chart
Minimizing the Effect of Variable Subgroup Size
1. Control limits for an average subgroup size: By
using an average subgroup size, one limit can
be calculated and placed on the control chart.
nav 
 n
g
p0 (1  p0
UCL  p0  3
nav
p0 (1  p0 )
LCL  p0  3
nav 232
FIGURE 9-7 Chart for May Data Illustrating Use of an
Average Subgroup Size
233
The P Chart
Minimizing the Effect of Variable Subgroup Size cont’d.
Case I: This case occurs when a point (subgroup
fraction nonconforming) falls inside the limits and
its subgroup size is smaller than the average
subgroup size.
Case II: This case occurs when a point (subgroup
fraction nonconforming) falls inside the average
limits and its subgroup size is larger than the
average subgroup size.
234
The P Chart
Minimizing the Effect of Variable Subgroup Size cont’d.
Case III: This case occurs when a point (subgroup
fraction nonconforming) falls outside the limits and
its subgroup size is larger than the average
subgroup size.
Case IV: This case occurs when a point (subgroup
fraction nonconforming) falls outside limits and its
subgroup size is less than the average subgroup
size.
235
FIGURE 9-8 p Chart Illustrating Central Line and Control
Limits for Different Subgroup Sizes
236
The np Chart
Number Nonconforming Chart (np):
 The np chart is easier for operating personnel
to understand than the p chart.
 The limitation that this chart has is that the
subgroup size needs to be constant.
237
The np Chart
Central Line = np0

Control Limits = np0  3 np0 (1  p0 )
238
The np Chart
Number Nonconforming Chart (np):
 If the fraction nonconforming po is unknown,
then it must be determine by collecting data,
calculating trial control limits, and obtaining
the best estimate of po.
239
FIGURE 9-9 Number Nonconforming Chart ( np Chart)
240
Control Charts for Count of Non-
conformities
 The nonconformities chart controls the count
of nonconformities within the product or
service.
 An item is classified as a nonconforming unit
whether it has one or many nonconformities.
 Count of nonconformities (c) chart.
 Count of nonconformities per unit (u) chart.
241
conformities
 Since these charts are based on the Poisson
distribution, two conditions must be met:
1. The average count of nonconformities
must be much less than the total possible
count of nonconformities.
2. The occurrences are independent.
242
conformities
Objectives:
1. Determine the average quality level: This
information gives the initial process capability.
2. Bring to the attention of management any
changes in the average.
3. Improve the product quality: Ideas for quality
improvement.
243
conformities
Objectives cont’d.:
4. Evaluate the quality performance of
operating and management personnel.
5. Suggest places to use Xbar and R chart.
6. Determine acceptance criteria of a
product before shipment to the customer.
244
conformities
C Chart construction:
1. Select the quality characteristic(s):
a) Single quality characteristic.
b) Group of quality characteristics.
c) A part.
d) An entire product.
e) A number of products.
f) It can be established for performance control of
an: operator, work center, department, shift, plant,
or corporation
245
conformities
C Chart construction cont’d:
2. Determine the subgroup size and method:
3. Collect the data:
 At least 25 subgroups.
 Different sources.
246
conformities
c-Chart Construction cont’d:
4. Calculate the trial central line and the control

limits:
c
c
g
UCL  c  3 c
LCL  c  3 c
247
FIGURE 9-11 Control Chart for Count of Nonconformities ( c Chart), Using
Preliminary Data
248
conformities
5. Establish the revised central line and control

limits
c new = c 0 = c - cd
g - gd
UCL = c 0 + 3 c 0
LCL = c 0 - 3 c0
249
250
conformities
C chart construction cont’d:
6. Achieve the objectives: The reason for the

control chart is to achieve one or more of the
previously stated objectives.
251
conformities/Unit
Chart for Count of Nonconformities/Unit (u Chart)
u 
c
u 
c
n n
u
UCL  u  3
n
u
LCL  u  3
n
252
FIGURE 9-13 u Chart for Errors on Waybills
253
conformities
Chart for Count of Nonconformities/Unit
(u Chart)
 Scale selected is continuous for the u chart.
For the c chart is discrete.
 Subgroup size for the u chart can vary. For
the c chart is 1.
 The u chart is limited in that we do not
know the location of the nonconformities.
254

QC Students Material

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

QC Students Material

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Quality Improvement

(Formerly titled Quality Control 8th Edition)

Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc

Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc

Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc

Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc

Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc

Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc

Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc

Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc

Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc

Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc

Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc

Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc

Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc

Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc

Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc

PowerPoint presentation to accompany

PowerPoint presentation to accompany

SPECIFICATION PERCENT NONCONFORMAN PROCESS

±6s 99.9999998 0.002 2.00

TABLE 3-1 Nonconformance Rate When the Process Is Centered

SPECIFICATION PERCENT NONCONFORMAN PROCESS

±6s 99.9996600 3.4 1.500

FIGURE 3-3 SIPOC Process Model

Environment Equipment Measurement

Figure 4.3 Cause-and-Effect Diagram

Figure 3-5 Check Sheet for paint non-conformities

Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc

Figure 5-19 Scatter Diagram

Quality Improvement, 9e © 2013, 2008 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc

Figure 3-11 Histogram for Hole Location

Figure 4-1 Difference between accuracy and precision

Class Class Frequency Cumulative

Table 5-3 Different Frequency Distributions of Data Given in Table 5-1

Figure 5-6 Characteristics of frequency distributions 126

Figure 4-7 Differences due to location, spread, and shape

Figure 5-8 Histogram of Wash Concentration

There are three different techniques available

Table 4-7 Frequency Distribution of the Life of 320 tires in 1000 km

It is possible to have no modes in a series or

Figure 5-9 Relationship among average, median and mode

Figure 5-11 Left (negative) and right (positive) skewness distributions

Figure 5-12 Leptokurtic and Platykurtic distributions

PowerPoint presentation to accompany

Figure 5-1 Example of a control chart

Figure 6-1 Example of a method of reporting

Figure 6-4 Run Chart for data of Table 6-2

Figure 5-7 Continuing use of control charts, showing improved quality

Figure 6-9 Natural pattern of variation of a control chart

Figure 6-12 Some unnatural runs-process out of control 201

Figure 6-13 Simplified rule for out-of-control pattern

Change or jump inlevel Trend or steady change in level

Recurring cycles Two populations

PowerPoint presentation to accompany

Central Line = np0

4. Calculate the trial central line and the control

5. Establish the revised central line and control

6. Achieve the objectives: The reason for the

You might also like