1

SOLID STATE
Sr. Term Definition
No.
1. Crystalline solid A homogenous solid in which the constituent
particles like atoms, ions or molecules are
arranged in a definite repeating pattern
throughout the solid is called crystalline
solid.
2. Amorphous solid A substance which appears like solid but does
not have perfectly ordered crystalline
structure and no regular arrangement of
constituent particles in structure is called
amorphous solid.
3. Anisotropy The ability of crystalline solids to change their
physical properties when measured in
different directions is called anisotropy.
4. Isotropy The ability of amorphous solids to exhibit
identical physical properties even though
measured in different directions is called
isotropy.
5. Isomorphous When two or more crystalline substances
have the same crystalline structure, they are
said to be isomorphous.
6. Isomorphism A phenomenon in which two or more
crystalline substances show same crystalline
structure is called isomorphism.
7. Polymorphous A single substance which crystallizes in two
or more forms under different conditions of
solidification is called polymorphous.
8. Polymorphism A phenomenon in which when a single
substance crystallizes in two or more forms
under different conditions of solidification is
called polymorphism.
9. Allotropes When a substance exists in two or more
forms then they are called allotropes.

2
10. Glass Glass is an optically transparent material
produced by fusing together silicon dioxide
(SiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O), boron oxide
(B2O3) and transition metal oxides which are
added to impart color to the glass.
11. Crystallites Due to short range order of regular pattern in
amorphous solids, these small parts behave
like crystalline solid. These small parts are
called crystallites.
12. Molecular solids The crystalline solids in which the constituent
particles are molecules of the same
compound.
13. Ionic solids The crystalline solids in which the constituent
particles are positively charged smaller
cations and negatively charged larger anions.
14. Metallic solids The crystalline solids in which the constituent
particles are positively charged metal ions.
15. Covalent solids The crystalline solids in which the constituent
particles are non-metal atoms linked to
adjacent atoms by forming a giant-three
dimensional structure.
16. Giant solid Covalent solid formed by covalent bonds
between neighboring constituent atoms of
non-metallic solid is called a giant solid.
17. Crystal A crystal is a solid composed of molecules,
atoms or ions arranged in an orderly
repetitive array having a three dimensional
pattern with a characteristic shape and
geometry throughout.
18. Unit cell A unit cell is the smallest repeating structural
unit of a crystalline solid which when
repeated in different directions produces the
crystalline solid (lattice).
19. Crystal lattice A regular arrangement of the constituent
particles of a crystalline solid having similar
environment in three dimensional spaces is
called crystal lattice or space lattice.
3
20. Lattice point A position occupied by a crystal constituent
particle like an atom, ion or a molecule in the
crystal lattice is called lattice point or lattice
site.
21. Lattice Lattice means a structure made of strips
which cross each other diagonally.
22. Primitive unit cells The unit cells in which the constituent
particles like atoms, ions or molecules are
present only at the corners of the unit cell
are called primitive unit cells.
23. Non-primitive Or Centered The unit cells in which the constituent
unit cells particles are present at corners as well as at
some other positions in the unit cell are
called non-primitive or centered unit cells.
24. Body centered unit cell A unit cell in which the constituent particles
are present at the corners as well as at its
body centre is called body centered unit cell.
25. Face centered unit cell A unit cell in which the constituent particles
are present at the corners as well as the
centre of each face is called face centered
unit cell or cubic close packed unit cell.
26. End centered unit cell A unit cell in which the constituent particles
are present at the corners as well as the
centers of the two opposite faces is called
end centered unit cell.
27. Faces Crystal lattice is bound by a number of
perfect flat surfaces which are known as
faces.
28. Edges An edge is formed by the intersection of two
adjacent faces or planes in the crystal lattice.
29. Interfacial angle An angle between any two faces of a crystal
is known as interfacial angle and denoted by
α, β & γ.
30. Packing in the crystalline The arrangement of the constituent particles
solid like atoms, ions or molecules at various
positions of lattice points within the unit cell
of the crystal lattice is called packing in the
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 crystalline solid.
31. Packing fraction The fraction of the total space in unit cell
occupied by the constituent particles is called
packing fraction.
32. Packing efficiency It is the percentage of total space in the unit
cell occupied by the constituent particles like
atoms, ions or molecules of the crystal.
33. Void space A vacant space or a space not occupied by
the constituent particles in the unit cell is
called a void space.
34. Coordination number The number of the closest neighboring
constituent particles like atoms, ions or
molecules which are in contact with a
particular particle or an atom in the crystal
lattice is called coordination number.
35. Interstitial void The vacant space left in between the closest
packed arrangement of constituent particles
is called interstitial void or interstitial site.
36. Tetrahedral void The vacant space or void among four
constituent particles having tetrahedral
arrangement in the crystal lattice is called
tetrahedral void.
37. Octahedral void The vacant space or void at the centre of six
spheres (or atoms) which are placed
octahedrally is called octahedral void.
38. Radius ratio The ratio of radius of cation (r+) to the radius
of anion (r-) is known as radius ratio of the
ionic solid and represented as
Radius ratio = ( r+ / r+ )
39. Point defect The defect or imperfection produced in the
arrangement of a point like constituent
particle, e.g. an atom or an ion or a molecule
in the crystalline structure is called point
defect.
40. Impurity defect This defect arises when a cation from its
regular site in ionic crystal lattice is replaced
by different cations.
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41. Interstitial defect In this, an ion in the ionic solid leaves a
regular lattice site and occupies a place
between the regular lattice points or
interstitial points. This defect is called
Frenkel or interstitial defect.
42. Interstitial compounds The transition metals generally
accommodate small non-metallic atoms like
H, B, C and N in the interstitial voids between
the metal atoms and the compounds thus
formed are called interstitial compounds.
43. Valence band The atomic orbitals with filled electrons from
the inner shells form valence bands, where
there are no free mobile electrons since they
are involved in bonding.
44. Conduction band Atomic orbitals which are partially filled or
empty on overlapping form closely placed
molecular orbitals giving conduction bands
where electrons are delocalized and can
conduct , heat and electricity.
45. Semiconductors The substances like silicon, germanium which
have poor electrical conductance at low
temperature but the conductance increases
with the increase in temperature are called
semiconductors.
46. n-type semiconductors n-type semiconductor is an extrinsic
semiconductor obtained by doping silicon
with external electron rich impurity like fifth
group element.
47. p-type semiconductors p-type semiconductor is an extrinsic
semiconductor obtained by doping Silicon
with external electron deficient impurity like
third group element.
48. Diamagnetism If an atom or a molecule of the substance
contains all electrons paired, spinning
clockwise and anticlockwise, their magnetic
moments and magnetic properties get
cancelled. Hence they oppose and repel the
6
 applied magnetic field. This phenomenon is
called diamagnetism and the substance is
said to be diamagnetic.
49. Paramagnetism If an atom or a molecule contains one or
more unpaired electrons spinning in same
direction, clockwise or anticlockwise, then
the substance is associated with net
magnetic moment and magnetic properties.
They experience a net force of attraction
when placed in magnetic field. This
phenomenon is called Paramagnetism and
the substance is said to be paramagnetic.
50. Ferromagnetism The substances which possess unpaired
electrons and high paramagnetic character
and when placed in a magnetic field are
strongly attracted and show permanent
magnetic moment even when the external
magnetic field is removed are said to be
ferromagnetic and the phenomenon is called
ferromagnetism.
NOTES:
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7
 SOLUTIONS AND COLLIGATIVE
PROPERTIES
Sr. Term Definition
No.
1. Solutions Solutions are the mixtures of two or more
compounds.
2. Coarse mixture When the sizes of the particles of the
compounds of the solution are large (more
than 10-6m), then the solution mixture is a
coarse mixture.
3. Colloidal solution When the sizes of particles of the
components are less than 10-9m but more
than 10-6m, then the solution mixture is
called colloidal solution or colloidal
dispersion (sol).
4. True solution When the sizes of particles of the
components are of the order of 10-10m, then
the solution is called a true solution.
5. Homogenous solution A solution in which solute and solvent form
uniform homogeneous one phase due to
attraction between their molecules/particles
is called homogenous solution.
6. Heterogeneous solution A solution consisting of two or more phases
is called a heterogeneous solution.
7. Solvent The component in which solution formation
takes place and which constitutes larger
proportion of a solution is called a solvent.
8. Solute In a solution the component which dissolves
and constitutes smaller proportion of a
solution is called a solute.
9. Gaseous solution A solution in which a gas is used as a solvent
is called a gaseous solution.
10. Liquid solution A solution in which a liquid is used as a
solvent is called a liquid solution.

8
11. Solid solution A solution in which a solid is used as a solvent
is called a solid solution.
12. Binary solution A solution containing two components is
called a binary solution.
13. Ternary solution A solution containing three components is
called a ternary solution.
14. Quaternary solution A solution containing four components is
called a quaternary solution.
15. Concentration of a solution The concentration of a solution is defined as
the amount of a solute dissolved in a specific
amount of solvent, generally per unit volume
of the solvent.
16. Percentage by mass The mass of a solute (in gram or kilogram)
present in 100g (or kg) of a solution is called
as percentage by mass. It is denoted by per
cent w/w (or % w/w).
17. Percentage by volume It is defined as the number of parts by
volume of (liquid) solute per 100 parts by
volume of solution. It is denoted by percent
v/v (or % v/v).
18. Mole fraction The mole fraction of any component of a
solution is defined as the ratio of number of
moles of that component present in the
solution to the total number of moles of all
the components of the solution.
19. Molarity Molarity is defined as the number of moles
of a solute present in 1 dm3 of the solution.
20. Molality Molality is defined as the number of moles of
a solute dissolved in 1 kg of a solvent.
21. Normality Normality is defined as the number of gram
equivalents of the solute present in one dm3
of a solution.
22. Saturated solution Saturated solution is defined as the solution
that contains just amount of dissolved solute
required for establishing equilibrium
between dissolved solute and undissolved
solute.
9
23. Unsaturated solution A solution containing less amount of a solute
than required to form a saturated solution is
called unsaturated solution.
24. Supersaturated solution A solution containing excess amount of a
solute than required to form saturated
solution is called supersaturated solution.
25. Solubility The maximum amount of a solute required to
be dissolved in a given amount of a solvent to
form a saturated solution at a constant
temperature is called solubility of a solute.
26. Henry’s law Henry’s law states that the solubility of a gas
in a liquid at constant temperature is
proportional to the pressure of the gas above
the solution.
27. Amalgam An alloy of metal or metals with mercury is
called an amalgam.
28. Colligative property The property of a solution which depends on
the total number of particles of the solute
present in the solution and does not depend
on the nature or chemical composition of
solute particle is called Colligative property
of the solution.
29. Vapor pressure The pressure exerted by the vapor of a liquid
when it is in equilibrium with the liquid (or
solid) phase at a constant temperature is
called the vapor pressure of the liquid (or
solid).
30. Raoult’s law Raoult’s law states that, at constant
temperature, the partial vapor pressure of
any volatile component of a solution is equal
to the product of vapor pressure of the pure
component and the mole fraction of that
component in the solution.
31. Boiling point of liquid The boiling point of a liquid is defined as the
temperature at which the vapor pressure of
the liquid becomes equal to the external
pressure i.e. the atmospheric pressure.
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32. Ebullioscopy The experimental method to determine
molecular mass of a non-molecular solute by
measuring the boiling points of a pure
solvent and a solution of known
concentration is called ebullioscopy.
33. Freezing point of a liquid The freezing point of a liquid is defined as
the temperature at which the solid coexists
in the equilibrium with the liquid and the
vapor pressure of the liquid and the solid are
equal.
34. Molal depression constant Molal depression constant is defined as the
depression in freezing point, produced by
dissolving one mole of a solute in 1 kg of a
solvent.
35. Cryoscopy The experimental method to determine the
molecular mass of non-volatile solute by
measuring the freezing points of a pure
solvent and a solution of known
concentration is called cryoscopy.
36. Permeable membrane A membrane which allows free transfer of
the solute molecules from a solution of a
higher concentration to a solution of a lower
concentration through it is called a
permeable membrane.
37. Semipermeable membrane A membrane which allows free passage of
only solvent molecules but not the solute
molecules from a solution of a lower
concentration to a solution of higher
concentration through it, is called a
Semipermeable membrane.
38. Osmosis Osmosis is defined as a spontaneous
unidirectional flow of solvent molecules from
a pure solvent or a dilute solution to the
more concentrated solution through a
Semipermeable membrane.
39. Osmotic pressure The osmotic pressure is defined as the excess
mechanical pressure required to be applied
11
 to a solution separated by a Semipermeable
membrane from pure solvent or a dilute
solution to prevent the osmosis or free
passage of the solvent molecules at a given
temperature.
40. Isotonic solutions The solutions having the same osmotic
pressure at a given temperature are called
isotonic solutions.
41. Hypertonic solutions When two solutions have different osmotic
pressures, then the solution having higher
osmotic pressure is said to be hypertonic
solution with respect to the other solution.
42. Hypotonic solutions When two solutions have different osmotic
pressures, then the solution having lower
osmotic pressure is said to be hypotonic
solution with respect to the other solution.
43. Van’t Hoff-Boyle’s law Van’t Hoff-Boyle’s law states that, at
constant temperature, the osmotic pressure
of a dilute solution is directly proportional to
its molar concentration or inversely
proportional to the volume of the solution.
44. Van’t Hoff-Charles law Van’t Hoff-Charles law states that
concentration of a solution remaining
constant, the osmotic pressure of a dilute
solution is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature.
45. Van’t Hoff general solution The equation expressing the relationship
equation between the osmotic pressure (π), the
concentration of the solution ( C ) and the
absolute temperature T is called the Van’t
Hoff general solution equation.
46. Reverse osmosis The phenomenon of the passage of solvent
like water under high pressure from the
concentrated aqueous solution like sea water
into pure water through a Semipermeable
membrane is called reverse osmosis.
47. Van’t Hoff-Avogadro’s law Van’t Hoff-Avogadro’s law states that, At
12
 given temperature, equal volumes of the
solutions having the same osmotic pressure
contain equal number of solute particles.
OR
The equal volumes of solutions containing an
equimolecular amount of the solutes exert
the same osmotic pressure at a given
temperature.
48. Abnormal Colligative When the experimentally measured
property Colligative property of a solution is different
from that calculated theoretically by the
Van’t Hoff equation or the laws of osmosis,
then the solution is said to have abnormal
Colligative property.
49. Abnormal osmotic When the experimentally observed osmotic
pressure pressure is different than theoretically
calculated value by Van’t Hoff’s equation
then it is called abnormal osmotic pressure.
50. Abnormal molecular When the observed molecular masses
masses obtained from their colligative properties of
the substances are different than the
theoretical or normal values calculated from
their molecular formulae, then they are
called abnormal molecular masses.
51. Van’t Hoff factor Van’t Hoff factor is defined as the ratio of
the observed colligative property of the
solution to the theoretically calculated
colligative property of the solution without
considering molecular change.
NOTES:
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13
 CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND
ENERGETICS
Sr. Term Definition
No.
1. Energy The energy of a system is defined as its
capacity to perform the work.
2. Thermodynamics Thermodynamics is defined as the branch of
science which deals with the study of
interconversion of different forms of energy
and the quantitative relationship between
them taking place in physical and chemical
processes.
3. System The portion of the universe under
thermodynamic properties is called a system.
4. Surroundings The remaining portion of the universe other
than under thermodynamics study, i.e., the
system is called the surroundings.
5. Boundary The wall or interface separating the system
from its surrounding from its surrounding is
called a boundary.
6. Open system Open system is defined as a system which
can exchange both matter and energy with
its surroundings.
7. Closed system Closed system is defined as a system which
can exchange only energy but not the matter
with its surroundings.
8. Isolated system Isolated system is defined as a system which
can neither exchange energy nor matter with
its surroundings.
9. Homogenous system A system consisting of only one uniform
phase is called a homogeneous system.
The Heterogeneous system A system consisting of two or more phases
10. separated by interfacial boundaries is called a
heterogeneous system.

14
11. Thermodynamics The thermodynamics properties of a
properties macroscopic system are the variables on
which the properties of a system depend.
12. Extensive property Extensive property is defined as a property
of a system whose magnitude depends on
the amount of matter present in the system.
13. Intensive property Intensive property is defined as a property of
a system whose magnitude is independent of
the amount of matter present in the system.
14. State variables The measurable thermodynamic properties
of a system like pressure, temperature,
volume, etc are called state variables.
15. State function State function is defined as any property of a
system, which depends on current state or
only on the initial state and final state of the
system but is independent of the path
followed by the system during the
thermodynamic process.
16. Thermodynamic A system is said to have attained a state of
equilibrium thermodynamic equilibrium if there is no
change in any thermodynamic functions or
state functions like energy, pressure, volume,
etc with time.
17. Thermal equilibrium A system is said to be in thermal equilibrium
with the surroundings, when a system and its
surroundings are at the same temperature
and there is no exchange of heat energy
between them.
18. Chemical equilibrium A system is said to be in chemical
equilibrium when the chemical composition
of the system does not change with time.
19. Mechanical equilibrium A system is said to be in mechanical
equilibrium when there is no movement of
matter in any part of the system with respect
to its surroundings.
20. Thermodynamic process Thermodynamic process is defined as an
operation or a transition by which a state of a
15
 system changes from initial equilibrium state
to final equilibrium state.
21. Isothermal process Isothermal process is defined as a process in
which the temperature of the system
remains constant throughout the change of a
state of the system.
22. Isobaric process Isobaric process is defined as a process
which is carried out at constant pressure.
23. Isochoric process Isochoric process is defined as a process
which is carried out at constant volume of
the system.
24. Adiabatic process Adiabatic process is defined as a process in
which there is no exchange of heat energy
between the system and its surroundings.
25. Reversible process A process carried out in such a manner that
at every stage, the driving force is only
infinitesimally greater than the opposing
force and it can be reversed by an
infinitesimal increase in force and the system
exists in equilibrium with its surroundings
throughout, is called a reversible process.
26. Irreversible process Irreversible process is defined as the
unidirectional process which proceeds in a
definite direction and cannot be reversed at
any stage and in which driving force and
opposing force differ in a large magnitude. It
is also called a spontaneous process.
27. Work Work is one of the ways by which a system
can exchange energy with its surrounding by
changing the state of the system.
28. Pressure-volume work The work done due to the volume change
during expansion or compression of a gas
against an external opposing pressure is
called pressure-volume work.
29. Maximum work The process carried out at a constant
Or isothermal reversible temperature in the reversible manner by
process changing the state of a system through
16
 infinitesimally small steps in which driving
force in infinitesimally greater than opposing
force giving maximum work is called an
isothermal reversible process or maximum
work.
30. Isothermal irreversible A process in which the volume of a gas
process changes suddenly against a constant external
pressure at constant temperature is called
isothermal irreversible process.
31. One Litre-atmosphere (1 L The unit of one L atm or litre-atmosphere is
atm OR 1 lit. atm) defined as the amount of work obtained,
when the volume of a gaseous system
changes by one litre against a constant
pressure of one atmosphere.
32. 1 Calorie The unit of one calorie is defined as the
quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of one gram of (pure) water by
1oC.
33. 1 erg The unit of one erg is defined as the amount
of work obtained when a force of one dyne
acts through a distance of one centimeter.
34. 1 joule The unit of one joule is defined as the
amount of work obtained when a force of
one Newton acts through a distance of one
meter denoted by J.
35. Internal energy Internal energy is defined as the total energy
constituting potential energy and kinetic
energy of the molecules present in the
system.
36. Potential energy Potential energy is defined as the energy
associated with molecular constitution
involving intermolecular and intramolecular
forces.
37. Kinetic energy Kinetic energy is defined as the energy
arising due to different types of kinetic
motions of the molecules in the system.
38. First law of Energy can neither be created nor be
17
 thermodynamics destroyed; however, it may be converted
from one form into another.
39. Corollary of first law of The total amount of work or mechanical
thermodynamics energy absorbed by a system is quantitatively
converted into heat energy and vice-versa.
40. Enthalpy Enthalpy is defined as the total energy of a
system consisting of internal energy (U) and
pressure-volume (P x V) type of energy, i.e.,
enthalpy represents the sum of internal
energy U and product PV energy. It is
denoted by H.
41. Enthalpy of phase The enthalpy change (ΔH) or amount of the
transition heat absorbed or evolved during phase
transition of definite amount of substance at
constant pressure and temperature is called
enthalpy of transition.
42. Enthalpy of fusion (ΔfusH) The enthalpy change or amount of heat
absorbed that accompanies the fusion of one
mole of a solid at constant temperature and
pressure is called enthalpy of fusion.
43. Enthalpy of freezing The enthalpy change or the amount of heat
(ΔfreezH) released that accompanies the solidification
of one mole of a liquid at constant
temperature and pressure is called enthalpy
of freezing.
44. Enthalpy of vaporization The enthalpy change or amount of heat
(ΔvapH) absorbed that accompanies the vaporization
of one mole of a liquid at constant
temperature and pressure is called heat of
vaporization or evaporation.
45. Enthalpy of sublimation The enthalpy change or the amount of heat
(ΔsubH) absorbed that accompanies the sublimation
of one mole of a solid directly into its vapor
at constant temperature and pressure is
called enthalpy of sublimation.
46. Heat of condensation of The enthalpy change or amount of heat
vapor (ΔcondH) evolved that accompanies the condensation
18
 of one mole of vapor of a substance into a
liquid at constant temperature and pressure
is called heat of condensation of vapor.
47. Enthalpy of atomization The enthalpy change or amount of heat
(ΔatoH) absorbed accompanying the dissociation of
the molecules in one mole of a gaseous
substance into free gaseous atoms at
constant temperature and pressure is called
enthalpy of atomization.
48. Enthalpy of ionization The enthalpy change or amount of heat
(ΔionH) absorbed accompanying the removal of one
electron from each atom or ion in one mole
of gaseous atoms or ions is called enthalpy of
ionization.
49. First ionization enthalpy The enthalpy change accompanying the
removal of one electron from each gaseous
atom in one mole is called first ionization
enthalpy.
50. Second ionization enthalpy The enthalpy change accompanying the
removal of one electron from each gaseous
univalent positive ion in one mole is called
second ionization enthalpy.
51. Electron gain enthalpy Electron gain enthalpy is defined as the
(ΔegH) enthalpy change, when mole of gaseous
atoms of an element accepts electrons to
form gaseous ion.
52. Enthalpy of solution Enthalpy of solution is defined as the
(ΔsolnH) enthalpy change when one mole of a
substance is dissolved in a large excess of a
solvent, so that further dilution will not
change the enthalpy at constant temperature
and pressure.
53. Enthalpy of dilution Enthalpy of dilution is defined as the
enthalpy change that occurs when a solution
of one concentration is diluted to form the
solution of another concentration at given
temperature and pressure.
19
54. Crystal lattice energy Crystal lattice energy is defined as the
enthalpy change or energy released
accompanying the formation of one mole of
the crystalline solid from its constituent ions
in the gaseous state at constant
temperature.
55. Born-Haber cycle The sequence of actions involved in the
formation of (1 mole) ionic compound in its
standard state from its constituent elements
in their states at constant temperature and
pressure is called Born-Haber cycle.
56. Hydration enthalpy (ΔhydH) Hydration enthalpy of an ion is defined as
of an ion the enthalpy change or amount of heat
evolved when one mole of gaseous ions
dissolve in water by hydration to give
infinitely dilute solution at constant
temperature and pressure.
57. Thermochemistry Thermodynamic study of heat changes
during the chemical reactions is called
Thermochemistry.
58. Enthalpy or Heat of The enthalpy of a chemical reaction is the
reaction difference between the sum of the
enthalpies of products and that of the
reactants with every substance in a definite
physical state and in the amounts
represented by the coefficients in the
balanced equation.
59. Endothermic reaction A reaction which takes place with the
absorption of heat and increase in enthalpy is
called endothermic reaction.
60. Exothermic reaction A reaction which takes place with the
evolution of heat and decrease in enthalpy is
called exothermic reaction.
61. Exothermic process A process taking place with the evolution of
heat is called exothermic process.
62. Endothermic process A process taking place with the absorption of
heat is called endothermic process.
20
63. Thermochemical equation Thermochemical equation is defined as a
balanced chemical equation along with the
corresponding heat of reaction (ΔH) and
physical states of all reactants and all
products appropriately mentioned.
64. Standard enthalpy of Standard enthalpy of formation
formation Or Standard heat of formation (ΔfHo) is
Or Standard heat of defined as the enthalpy change (ΔHo) when
formation (ΔfHo) one mole of a pure compound is formed in its
standard state from its constituent elements
in their standard states at constant
temperature (298K) and pressure (1 atm).
65. Standard enthalpy of Standard enthalpy of combustion
combustion Or Standard heat of combustion is defined
Or Standard heat of as the enthalpy change when one mole of a
combustion substance in the standard state undergoes
complete combustion in the sufficient
amount of oxygen at constant temperature
(298K) and pressure (1 atm).
66. Standard heat Standard heat or Enthalpy of neutralization
Or Enthalpy of (ΔNHo) is defined as the enthalpy change
neutralization (ΔNHo) when one mole of H+ (or one gram equivalent
of an acid) is completely neutralized by one
mole of OH- (or 1 gram equivalent of a base)
in a dilute aqueous solution forming one
mole of unionized liquid water at constant
temperature (298K) and pressure (1atm).
67. Bond enthalpy The enthalpy change or amount of heat
required to break one mole of particular
covalent bonds of gaseous molecules forming
free gaseous atoms or radicals at constant
temperature (298K) and pressure (1 atm) is
called bond enthalpy or bond energy.
68. Bond dissociation enthalpy Bond dissociation enthalpy is defined as the
enthalpy change or amount of heat required
to break one mole of a particular bond of a
particular polyatomic gaseous molecules

21
 forming free gaseous atoms and radicals at
constant temperature and pressure.
69. Law of constant heat Law of constant heat summation states that,
summation the heat of a reaction or the enthalpy change
in a chemical reaction depends upon initial
state of reactants and final state of products
and independent of the path by which the
reaction is brought about.
OR
Heat of reaction is same whether it is carried
out in one step or several steps.
70. Spontaneous process Spontaneous process is defined as a process
that takes place on its own or without the
intervention of the external agency or
influence.
71. Non-spontaneous process Non-spontaneous process is defined as a
process which does not take place on its own
but takes place only with the intervention of
external agency or influence.
72. Entropy Entropy is defined as entropy change (ΔS) of
a system in a process which is equal to the
amount of heat transferred in a reversible
manner (qrev) divided by the absolute
temperature (T), at which the heat is
absorbed.
73. Second law of The second law of thermodynamics states
thermodynamics that the total entropy of the system and its
surroundings increases in a spontaneous
process.
74. Gibbs free energy Gibbs free energy, G is defined as, G= H-TS
where H is the enthalpy, S is the entropy of
the system at absolute temperature T.
75. Third law of Third law of thermodynamics states that the
thermodynamics entropy of a pure, perfectly ordered
crystalline substance is zero at absolute zero
temperature (0 K).
76. Standard molar entropy The absolute entropy of one mole of a pure
22
 substance at 1atm and 25oC is called
standard molar entropy of the substance
and denoted by So.
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23
 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Sr. Term Definition
No.
1. Electrochemistry Electrochemistry is the branch of physical
chemistry which involves the study of the
interrelation between chemical changes and
electrical energy and also concerned with the
electrical properties of electrolytic solutions
such as resistance and conductance.
2. Redox reaction A redox reaction consists of two step
reactions, one is of loss of electrons by one
species (oxidation) and second step is the
gain of electrons by another species
(reduction).
3. Oxidation The process of loss of electrons by a species
or increase in the oxidation number of the
species is called oxidation.
4. Reduction The process of gain of electrons by a species
or decrease in the oxidation number of the
species is called reduction.
5. Oxidizing agent (oxidant) Oxidizing agent or oxidant is a species which
accepts electrons and itself gets reduced and
increases the oxidation number of other
species.
6. Reducing agent (reductant) Reducing agent or reductant is a species
which donates electrons and itself gets
oxidized and decreases the oxidation number
of other species.
7. Electric conduction The transfer of charge or electrons from one
point to another is called electric conduction.
8. Electric conductors The substances that allow the flow of
electricity or electric charge transfer through
them are called the electric conductors.
9. Electronic conductors The electric conductors through which the
conduction of electricity takes place by a

24
 direct flow of electrons under the influence
of applied potential are called electronic
conductors.
10. Electrolytic conductors The conductors in which the conduction of
electricity takes place by the migration of
positive ions (cations) and negative ions
(anions) of the electrolyte are called
electrolytic conductors.
11. Electrical conductance The reciprocal of the electrical resistance of a
solution is called the conductance.
12. Resistivity (Specific Resistivity is the resistance of a conductor
resistance) that is 1m in length and 1m2 in cross section
area in SI units.
13. Specific conductance The reciprocal of specific resistance or
resistivity is called specific conductance or
conductivity.
14. Molar conductivity Molar conductivity is defined as a
conductance of a volume of the solution
containing ions from one mole of an
electrolyte when placed between two
parallel plate electrodes 1cm apart and of
large area, sufficient to accommodate the
whole solution between them, at constant
temperature. It is denoted by ᴧm.
15. Kohlrausch’s law of Kohlrausch’s law states that at infinite
independent migration of dilution of the solution, each ion of an
ions electrolyte migrates independently of its co-
ions and contributes independently to the
total molar conductivity of the electrolyte,
irrespective of the nature of other ions
present in the solution.
16. Conductivity cell A cell or a device used to measure the
conductance of a solution is called a
conductivity cell.
17. Electrochemical cell A device used to study chemical reactions
electrically or inter-relation between
chemical reactions and electrical energy is
25
 called electrochemical cell.
18. Electrochemical reactions The reactions which take place in
electrochemical cells during charge transfer
are called electrochemical reactions.
19. Electrode The arrangement consisting of a metal rod
dipping in an aqueous solution or molten
electrolyte containing ions and conduct
electric current due t oxidation or reduction
half reaction occurring on its surface is called
an electrode.
20. Anode An electrode of an electrochemical cell, at
which oxidation half reaction occurs due to
the loss of electrons from some species, is
called an anode.
21. Cathode An electrode of an electrochemical cell, at
which reduction half reaction occurs due to
the loss of electrons from some species, is
called a cathode.
22. Electrolytic cell An electrochemical cell in which a non-
spontaneous chemical reaction is forced to
occur by passing direct electric current into
the solution from the external source and
where electrical energy is converted into
chemical energy is called an electrolytic cell.
23. Voltaic or Galvanic cell An electrochemical cell in which a
spontaneous chemical reaction occurs
producing electricity and where a chemical
energy is converted into an electrical energy
is called voltaic or galvanic cell.
24. Electrolysis The process of a non-spontaneous chemical
decomposition of an electrolyte by the
passage of an electric current through its
aqueous solution or fused mass and in which
electrical energy is converted into chemical
energy is called electrolysis.
25. Coulomb Coulomb is defined as a quantity of
electricity passing through an electric circuit
26
 when one ampere current flows for one
second.
26. Ampere Ampere is defined as strength of an electric
current obtained when one coulomb of
electricity is passed through a circuit for one
second.
27. Volt Volt is defined as the potential difference
between two points of an electric conductor
required to send a current of one ampere
through a resistance of one ohm.
28. Joule Joule is defined as the (electrical) work done
per second by an electric current of one
ampere flowing through a resistance of one
ohm.
29. Ohm Ohm is the resistance of an electrical
conductor across which when potential
difference of 1 volt is applied, a current of
one ampere is obtained.
30. Faraday’s first law of Faraday’s first law of electrolysis states that
electrolysis the amount of the substance produced due
to oxidation or reduction at electrode during
electrolysis is directly proportional to the
quantity of electricity that passes through the
electrolytic cell.
31. Faraday’s second law of Faraday’s second law of electrolysis states
electrolysis that when the same quantity of electricity is
passes through different electrolytic cells
containing different electrolytes, arranged in
series, then the amounts of the substances
produced by oxidation or reduction at the
respective electrodes are directly
proportional to their respective chemical
equivalent masses.
32. Faraday Faraday is defined as the quantity of the
electric charge on one mole of electrons.
33. Overvoltage The actual voltage required for the
electrolysis of an electrolyte is greater than
27
 that calculated theoretically (Eth) from the
(standard) potentials. This additional voltage
required is called overvoltage.
34. Electrode potential Electrode potential is defined as the
difference of electrical potential between
metal electrode and the solution around it at
equilibrium at constant temperature.
35. Standard electrode Standard electrode potential is defined as
potential the difference of electrical potential between
metal electrode and the solution around it
equilibrium when all the substances involved
in the electrode reaction are in their standard
states of unit activity or concentration at
constant temperature.
36. Standard oxidation Standard oxidation potential is defined as
potential the difference of electrical potential between
metal electrode and the solution around it at
equilibrium due to oxidation reaction, when
all the substances involved in the oxidation
reaction are in their standard states of unit
activity or concentration at constant
temperature.
37. Standard reduction Standard reduction potential is defined as
potential the difference of electrical potential between
metal electrode and the solution around it at
equilibrium due to reduction reaction are in
their standard states of unit activity or
concentration at constant temperature.
38. Cell potential Cell potential or emf of a cell is defined as
Or emf of a cell the potential difference between two
electrodes, responsible for an external flow
of electrons from the left hand electrode at
higher potential (anode), to the right hand
electrode at lower potential (cathode), when
connected to form an electrochemical or
galvanic cell.
39. Standard cell potential Standard cell potential or Standard emf of

28
 Or Standard emf of the cell the cell is defined as the difference between
the standard reduction potential of cathode
Eocathode (right hand electrode) and the
standard potential of anode, Eoanode (left hand
electrode) at the constant temperature.
40. Primary voltaic cells Primary voltaic cells are the voltaic cells in
which the electrical energy or cell potentials
are developed within the cells due to
oxidation and reduction at the reversible
electrodes.
41. Secondary voltaic cells Secondary voltaic cells are the voltaic cells in
which the electrical energy or cell potentials
are not developed within the cell but
electrical energy can be stored or cell
potentials can be regenerated by passing
electricity from the external source of
electricity.
42. Fuel cell A galvanic cell in which the thermal energy of
combustion of fuels is directly converted into
electrical energy is called fuel cell.
43. Corrosion Corrosion is defined as the destruction of the
metal surface due to electrochemical redox
process with the components of atmosphere
and environment, like oxidation by oxygen in
the presence of moisture, forming undesired
compounds like oxides, sulphides, etc. on the
metal surface.
44. Galvanizing The coating of a surface of a metal like iron
by zinc by electroplating process is called
galvanizing.
45. Passivation A process in which the metal surface is made
inactive or passive towards oxidation
reaction is called Passivation.

29
 CHEMICAL KINETICS
Sr. Term Definition
No.
1. Chemical kinetics Chemical kinetics is a branch of physical
chemistry which involves the study of the
rates and mechanisms of chemical reactions
and the influence of various factors like
temperature, pressure, catalyst, etc., on the
rates of reactions.
2. Rate of a reaction The rate of a reaction is defined as the
change in the concentration of the reactants
or products per unit time.
3. Average rate of a chemical It is expressed as a finite change in
reaction concentration (-ΔC) of the reactant divided
by the time interval (Δt) for the change in
concentration.
4. Instantaneous rate of a Instantaneous rate of a reaction is defined
reaction as a rate of a reaction at a specific instant
during a course of the reaction.
5. Rate law Rate law is defined as an experimentally
which expresses the rate of a chemical
reaction in terms of molar concentrations of
the reactants which influence the rate of the
reaction.
6. Rate constant The rate constant of a chemical reaction is
defined as the rate of the chemical reaction
when the concentration (or active masses) of
each reactant has unit value, i.e., 1mol dm-3
in the case of solution and the pressure is 1
atm in case of gases.
7. Order of a reaction The order of a reaction is defined as the
number of molecules (or atoms) whose
concentrations influence the rate of the
chemical reaction.
8. Integrated rate laws The equations which are obtained by

30
 integrating the differential rate laws and
which provide direct relationship between
the concentrations of the reactants and time
are called integrated rate laws.
9. Half-life of a reaction The time required to reduced the
concentration of the reactant to half of its
initial value is called the half-life period or
the half-life of the reaction.
10. Zero order reaction A reaction in which the rate of the reaction
does not depend on the concentration of any
reactant taking part in the reaction is called
zero order reaction.
11. Pseudo first order reaction A reaction which has higher order true rate
law but experimentally found to behave as
first order is called pseudo first order
reaction.
12. Elementary reaction Elementary reaction is defined as the
reaction which takes place in a single step
and cannot be divided further into simpler
chemical reactions.
13. Molecularity The Molecularity of an elementary reaction
is defined as the number of molecules which
take part in a chemical reaction.
14. Complex reaction A reaction which follows a simple rate law
but takes place in a series of steps or
elementary reactions is called a complex
reaction.
15. Rate determining step The slowest step in the reaction mechanism
which involves many steps is called rate
determining step.
16. Reaction intermediate The additional species other than the
reactants or products formed in the
mechanism during progress of the reaction is
called reaction intermediate.
17. Transition state or The configuration of atoms formed from
Activated complex reactant molecules and which is at the peak
of barrier in energy compared to reactants
31
 and products is called transition state or
activated complex.
18. Activation energy The energy required to form activated
complex or transition state from the reactant
molecules is called activation energy.
19. Reaction intermediate Additional species other than reactants and
products formed during the mechanism of
the reaction is called reaction intermediate.
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32
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND
PROCESSES OF ISOLATION OF
ELEMENTS
Sr. Term Definition
No.
1. Minerals The naturally occurring chemical substances
in the earth’s crust containing metal in free
state or in combined form and obtainable
from mining are called minerals.
2. Ores The minerals containing a high percentage of
metals from which metals can be profitably
extracted are called ores.
3. Metallurgy The process of extraction of metal in a pure
state from its ore is called metallurgy.
4. Pyrometallurgy Pyrometallurgy is the process of extraction
of metals from metal oxide from
concentrated ore by reduction with a
suitable reducing agent at high temperature.
5. Hydrometallurgy Hydrometallurgy is the process of extraction
of metals by converting their ores into
aqueous solutions of metal compounds and
reducing them by suitable reducing agents.
6. Electrometallurgy Electrometallurgy is a process of extraction
of highly electropositive metals like Na, K, Al,
etc. by electrolysis of fused compounds of
the metals where metal ions are reduced at
cathode forming metals.
7. Gangue The earthly and undesired impurities of
various substances like sand (SiO2), metal
oxides, etc. present in the ore are called
gangue or matrix.
8. Concentration A process of removal of gangue or unwanted
impurities from the ore is called

33
 concentration of an ore.
9. Leaching Leaching is a chemical process used in the
concentration of an ore by extracting soluble
material from an insoluble solid by dissolving
in a suitable solvent. This method is used in
the concentration process of ores of Al, Ag,
Au, etc.
10. Roasting Roasting is a process of strongly heating a
concentrated ore in the excess of air below
melting point of metal, to convert it into
oxide form.
11. Calcination Calcination is a process in which the ore of
metal is heated to a high temperature below
the melting point of metal in absence of air
or limited supply of air.
12. Smelting The process of extraction of a metal from its
ore by heating and melting at high
temperature is called smelting.
13. Flux A flux is a chemical substance which is added
to the concentrated ore during smelting in
order to remove the gangue or impurities by
chemical reaction forming a fusible mass
called slag.
14. Slag Slag is a waste product formed by
combination of a flux and gangue during the
extraction of metals by smelting process.
15. Ellingham diagram A graphical representation, describing the
variation in standard Gibbs free energy
change (ΔGo) with the temperature for the
formation of oxides of elements with one
mole of oxygen at one atmosphere is called
Ellingham diagram.
16. Refining of metals The purification of impure or crude metals by
removing metallic and non-metallic
impurities is known as refining of metals.

34
 P-BLOCK ELEMENTS
Sr. Term Definition
No.
1. p-Block elements The elements in which the last electron
enters p-orbitals of the atoms are called p-
block elements.
2. Representative elements The elements belonging to s-blocks and p-
blocks in the periodic table are called
representative elements.
3. Nesseler’s reagent Nesseler’s reagent is an alkaline solution of
K2HgI4 obtained by mixing the solutions of
HgI2 and KI in excess.
4. Aqua fortis Nitric acid of 98% concentration is called
aqua fortis (strong water) since it attacks all
metals.
5. Fuming nitric acid Nitric acid containing dissolved nitrogen
dioxide (NO2) is known as fuming nitric acid.
6. Aqua regia Aqua regia is a mixture of one part of
concentrated HNO3 and three parts of
concentrated HCl.
7. Chalcogens The first four elements of group 16, namely
oxygen (O), sulphur (S), selenium (Se) and
tellurium (Te) are called Chalcogens.
8. Oxides The oxides are binary compounds in which
one element is oxygen and another may be a
metal or non-metal.
9. Acidic oxides The oxide, which on reaction with water
forms an acid, is called an acidic oxide.
10. Basic oxides The oxide, which on reaction with water
forms a base is called basic oxide.
11. Amphoteric oxide The oxide, which shows both acidic and basic
characteristics, is called an Amphoteric
oxide.
12. Neutral oxide The oxide which behaves neither acidic nor
basic is called a neutral oxide.
35
13. Ozone An allotropic form of oxygen having formula
O3 is called ozone.
14. Ozone umbrella The stratospheric pool of ozone which is a
layer above earth’s surface and protects from
harmful high energetic ultraviolet (UV) rays is
called ozone umbrella or ozonosphere.
15. Oil of vitriol Suplhuric acid, H2SO4 was known as oil of
vitriol in ancient days.
16. Hydrochloric acid An aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride is
called hydrochloric acid.
17. Interhalogen compounds The compounds obtained from two different
halogens are called Interhalogen
compounds.
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36
 d-AND f-BLOCK ELEMENTS
Sr. Term Definition
No.
1. d-block elements d-block elements defined as the elements in
which the differentiating electron enters d-
orbital of the penultimate shell i.e. (n-1) d-
orbital where ‘n’ is the last shell.
2. Transition elements The transition elements are the elements
which in the ground state or in any of their
common oxidation states have incompletely
filled (n-1) d-orbitals. They have only one or
more unpaired electrons in the d-orbital.
3. Ferrates The compounds of iron in which the
oxidation state of Fe is +6, are called ferrates.
4. Alnico Alnico is an alloy of Al (12%), Ni (20%), Co
(50%) and remaining 18% Fe.
5. Baeyer’s reagent Alkaline KMnO4 solution used in the
detection of unsaturation or the presence of
double bonds in olefins is called Baeyer’s
reagent.
6. Lanthanides or The series of fourteen elements from 58Ce to
Lanthanide series 71Lu in which a differentiating electron enters
4 f sub-shell and follows lanthanum is called
lanthanide series and the elements are
called lanthanides.
7. Lanthanide contradiction The gradual decrease in atomic and ionic
radii of lanthanides with the increase in
atomic number is called lanthanide
contradiction.
8. Mischmetal Mischmetal is a pyrophoric alloy of
lanthanides consisting of La, Fe and traces of
S, C, Ca and Al.
9. Chemical twins A pair of elements having similar properties
due to similar atomic radii are called
chemical twins and they are d-block

37
 elements of 5th and 6th period or 4d-series
and 5d-series respectively.
10. Rare earths Lanthanides or 4f-blocks are called rare
earths.
11. Actinides The series of fourteen elements from 90Th to
103Lr which follow actinium (89Ac) and in
which differentiating electrons are
progressively filled in 5f-orbitals in
penultimate shell are called actinides.
12. Transuranic elements The man-made elements heavier than
Uranium (Z=92) in the Actinide series are
called Transuranic elements.
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38
 COORDINATION COMPOUNDS
Sr. Term Definition
No.
1. Simple salts Simple salts are crystalline compounds
soluble in water and in solution they ionize
producing ions and exhibit their properties.
2. Double salts Double salts are crystalline molecular or
addition compounds containing more than
one salt in simple molecular proportions
soluble in water and in solution they ionize
and exhibit all the properties of the
constituent ions.
3. Coordination or complex Coordination or complex compound is a
compound compound which consists of a central metal
atom or metal ion linked by coordinate
covalent bonds to a number of oppositely
charged ions (anions), or neutral molecules
(ligands) and exhibits the properties different
than the properties of constituents of the
compound.
4. Central metal ion/atom A metal atom or ion in a coordination
compound surrounded by number of
oppositely charged ions or neutral molecules
by coordinate bonds is called a central metal
ion or atom.
5. Complex ion A coordination ionic compound which is an
electrically charged ion carrying positive or
negative charge and formed by coordinate
covalent bonds between central metal atom
or metal ion and number of anions or neutral
molecules surrounding it is called a complex
ion.
6. Ligands The neutral molecules or negatively charged
anions (or rarely positive ions) which are
bonded by coordinate bonds to the central

39
 metal atom or metal ion in a coordination
compound are called ligands or donor
groups.
7. Coordination chemistry The branch of chemistry which deals with the
study of coordination compounds or complex
compounds is known as coordination
chemistry.
8. Inner sphere The first sphere or coordination sphere
satisfying the secondary valence of a metal in
the complex is called inner sphere.
9. Outer sphere The second sphere outside the first
coordination sphere, satisfying the primary
valence of metal atom or ion in the complex
is called outer sphere.
10. Monodentate or A ligand molecule or an ion which has only
unidentate ligand one donor atom with a lone pair of electrons
or one point of attachment forming only one
coordinate bond with metal atom or ion in
the complex is called Monodentate or
unidentate ligand.
11. Polydentate or A ligand molecule or an ion which has two or
multidentate ligand more donor atoms with the lone pairs of
electrons or two or more points of
attachment forming two or more coordinate
bonds with the central metal atom or ion in
the complex is called Polydentate or
multidentate ligand.
12. Ambidentate ligand A ligand molecule or an ion which has two or
more donor atoms, however in the formation
of a complex, only one donor atom is
attached to the metal atom or an ion is called
Ambidentate ligand.
13. Bridging ligand A Monodentate ligand having more than one
lone pairs of electrons, hence can attach to
two or more metal atoms or ions and hence
acts as a bridge between different metal
atoms is called bridging ligand.
40
14. Metal chilates The coordination compounds with
Polydentate ligands involving ring structure
including metal ion are called metal chilates.
15. Chelate ligands The Polydentate ligands which form the
coordination compounds with metal atom or
anion involving ring structure are called
chelate ligands.
16. Chelation The process of forming a metal chelate or a
coordination compound by a Polydentate
ligand and metal ion with a ring is called
chelation.
17. Coordination number The number of ligands which are directly
bonded by coordinate bonds to central metal
atom or ion in a coordination compound is
called coordination number of the metal
atom or ion.
18. Coordination entity A coordination entity is a coordination
compound which constitutes central metal
atom or ion bonded to a fixed number of
molecules or ions by coordinate bonds.
19. Coordination sphere A coordination entity consisting of a central
metal atom or ion and the coordinating
groups like neutral molecules or ions is
written inside the square bracket and is
together called coordination sphere.
20. Counter ions In case of a coordination or complex
compound, the non-ionisable coordination
entity is written inside the square bracket
and ionisable groups are written outside the
bracket and these ionisable groups or ions
are called counter ions.
21. Homoleptic complexes The complexes in which the central metal
atom or ion is attached to one kind of donor
groups are called Homoleptic complexes.
22. Heteroleptic complexes The complexes in which the central metal
atom or ion is attached to more than one
kind of donor groups are called Heteroleptic
41
 complexes.
23. Cationic complexes The complexes in which the coordination
entity is a complex ion which carries a net
positive charge are called cationic
complexes.
24. Anionic complexes The complexes in which the coordination
entity is a complex ion which carries a net
negative charge are called anionic
complexes.
25. Neutral complexes The complexes which carry no net charge are
called neutral complexes.
26. Charge number of a The net charge carried by a complex ion or a
complex ion coordination entity is called its charge
number.
27. Coordination polyhedron The spatial arrangement of ligands directly
attached to the central metal atom or ion in
the complex is known as coordination
polyhedron.
28. Effective atomic number It is the total number of electrons present
around the central metal atom or ion and
calculated as the sum of electrons of metal
atom or ion and the number of electrons
donated by ligands.
29. Isomerism Isomerism is the phenomenon in
coordination compounds having same
molecular formula but different physical and
chemical properties due to different
arrangements of the ligands around the
central metal atom or ion in the space.
30. Isomers The isomers are the coordination compounds
having same molecular formula but different
physical and chemical properties due to the
difference in arrangements of the ligands in
the space.
31. Stereoisomerism The phenomenon of isomerism in the
coordination compounds arising due to
different spatial positions of the ligands in
42
 the space around the central metal atom or
ion is called stereoisomerism.
32. Stereoisomers The coordination compounds having same
molecular formula but different
stereoisomerism due to different spatial
arrangements of the ligand groups in the
space around the central metal atom or ion
are called stereoisomers.
33. Geometrical isomerism The phenomenon of isomerism in the
Heteroleptic coordination compounds with
the same molecular formula but different
spatial arrangement of the ligands in the
space around the central metal atom or ion is
called geometrical isomerism.
34. Geometrical isomers The Heteroleptic coordination compounds
having same molecular formula but different
geometrical isomerism due to different
spatial arrangements of the ligands in the
space around the central metal atom or ion
are called geometrical isomers.
35. Cis-isomer A Heteroleptic coordination compound in
which two similar ligands are arranged
adjacent to each other is called cis-isomer.
36. Trans-isomer A Heteroleptic coordination compound in
which two similar ligands are arranged
diagonally opposite to each other is called
trans-isomer.
37. Optical isomerism The phenomenon of isomerism in which
different coordination compounds having
same molecular formula have different
optical activity is called optical isomerism.
38. Optical isomers Different coordination compounds having
same molecular formula but different optical
activity are called optical isomers.
39. Plane polarized light A monochromatic light having vibrations only
in one plane is called a plane polarized light.
40. Optical activity A phenomenon of rotating a plane of a plane
43
 polarized light by an optically active
substance is called optical activity.
41. Dextrorotatory substance An optically active substance which rotates
the plane of plane polarized light to right
hand side is called dextrorotatory substance.
42. Laevorotatory substance An optically active substance which rotates
the plane of plane polarized light to the left
hand side is called laevorotatory substance.
43. Enantiomers The two forms of the optical active complex
molecule which are mirror images of each
other are called Enantiomers.
44. Ionization isomerism The phenomenon of isomerism in the metal
complexes in which there is an exchange of
ions between coordination sphere and outer
sphere is known as ionization isomerism.
45. Ionization isomers The coordination compounds having same
molecular composition but differ in the
compositions of coordination sphere and
outer sphere and produce different ions on
ionization in the solution are called
ionization isomers.
46. Linkage isomerism The phenomenon of isomerism in which the
coordination compounds have same metal
atom or ion and same ligand but bonded
through different atoms or linkages is known
as linkage isomerism.
47. Linkage isomers The coordination compounds having same
metal atom or ion and ligand but bonded
through different atoms or linkages are called
linkage isomers.
48. Coordination isomerism The phenomenon of isomerism in the ionic
coordination compounds having the same
molecular formula but different complex ions
involving the interchange of ligands between
cationic and anionic entities of different
metal ions is called coordination isomerism.
49. Coordination isomers The ionic coordination compounds having
44
 same molecular formula but different
complex ions due to interchange of ligands
between cationic and anionic entities of
different metal ions are called coordination
isomers.
50. Hydrate isomerism The phenomenon of isomerism in the
coordination compounds arising due to the
exchange of H2O molecules inside the
coordination sphere and outer sphere of the
complex is known as hydrate isomerism.
51. Hydrate isomer The coordination compounds having the
same molecular formula but differ in the
number of H2O molecules inside the
coordination sphere and outer sphere of the
complexes are called hydrate isomers.
52. Crystal field stabilization Crystal field stabilization energy (CFSE) is the
energy (CFSE) change in energy achieved by preferential
filling up of the orbitals by electrons in the
complex of metal atom or ion.
53. Crystal field splitting The splitting of five degenerate d-orbitals of
the transition metal ion into different sets of
orbitals (t2g and eg) having different energies
in the presence of ligands in the complex is
called crystal field splitting.
54. Spectrochemical series The arrangement of various ligands in the
decreasing order of their field strength and
the splitting power of d-orbitals of the metal
atom or ion in the complex is called
Spectrochemical series.
55. Pairing energy (P) The energy required to pair two electrons
against the electron-electron repulsion in the
same orbital of a metal atom or ion in the
complex is called pairing energy (P).
56. High spin complex (HS) The complex which has greater number of
unpaired electrons and hence higher value of
resultant spin and magnetic moment is called
high spin (or spin free) or HS complex.
45
57. Low spin complex (LS) The complex which has the least number of
unpaired electrons or all electrons paired and
hence the lowest (or no) resultant spin or
magnetic moment is called low spin (or spin
paired) or LS complex.
58. Homoleptic carbonyls The coordination compounds containing
carbonyl ligands only are known as
Homoleptic carbonyls.
59. Stability of a complex A stability of a complex implies the stable
existence of a complex with the same
molecular formula and retaining all its
properties and not undergoing dissociation
or a change.
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46
 HALOGEN DERIVATIVES OF ALKANES
AND ARENES
Sr. Term Definition
No.
1. Halogen derivatives of The compounds formed by the replacement
alkanes of one or more hydrogen atoms in alkanes by
halogen atoms are called halogen derivatives
of alkanes.
2. Monohalogen derivative Monohalogen derivative is a halogen
(or alkyl halide) derivative of an alkane in which one
hydrogen atom is replaced by one halogen
atom and it is also called alkyl halide.
3. Polyhalogen derivatives Polyhalogen derivatives are the halogen
derivatives in which more than one hydrogen
atoms of an alkane are substituted by
corresponding number of halogen atoms.
4. Dihalogen derivatives The compounds formed by the substitution
of two hydrogen atoms of an alkane by two
halogen atoms are called dihalogen
derivatives.
5. Trihalogen derivatives The compounds formed by the substitution
of three hydrogen atoms of an alkane by
three halogen atoms are called Trihalogen
derivatives.
6. Tetrahalogen derivatives The compounds formed by the substitution
of four hydrogen atoms of an alkanes by four
halogen atoms are called Tetrahalogen
derivatives.
o
7. Primary (1 ) alkyl halides Alkyl halides in which a halogen atom is
bonded to a primary carbon atom are called
primary (1o) alkyl halides.
8. Secondary (2o) alkyl halides Alkyl halides in which a halogen atom is
bonded to a secondary carbon atom are
called secondary (2o) alkyl halides.

47
9. Tertiary (3o) alkyl halides Alkyl halides in which halogen atom is
bonded to a tertiary carbon atom are called
tertiary (3o) alkyl halides.
10. Halogenation A reaction of alkanes with halogens (Cl2, Br2,
I2) in the presence of appropriate conditions
forming halogen derivatives is called
halogenation.
11. Markownikoff’s rule When an unsymmetrical reagent (like Hbr)
adds to an unsymmetrical alkene (CH3-
CH=CH2), the negative part of the reagent (Br-
-
) is attached to the unsaturated carbon atom
which carries lesser number of hydrogen
atoms. Hence, addition of HBr to propene
gives isopropyl bromide as major product
according to Markownikoff’s rule.
12. Anti-Markownikoff’s rule According to this rule in the presence of
(Peroxide effect or peroxide (like Na2O2, benzoyl peroxide) the
Kharasch effect) negative part (Br-) of the reagent (HBr) adds
to unsaturated carbon atom with more
number of H atoms in the unsymmetrical
alkene (CH3-CH=CH2). This effect is called as
peroxide effect/ Kharasch effect or
Kharasch-Mayo effect.
13. Substitution reaction Reactions in which an atom or group of
atoms is replaced by another atom or a
group of atoms respectively are called
substitution reactions.
14. Ammonolysis When an alkyl halide is boiled under pressure
with an excess of alcoholic solution of
ammonia (NH3), corresponding (primary
amine) alkyl amine is formed. This reaction is
known as ammonolysis of alkyl halide.
15. Williamson’s synthesis When an alkyl halide (R-X) is heated with
sodium alkoxide (R-O-Na), an ether is
obtained. In this reaction halide (-X) of alkyl
halide is replaced by an alkoxy group (-OR).
This reaction is known as Williamson’s

48
 synthesis. This method is used to prepare
simple (or symmetrical) ethers and mixed (or
unsymmetrical) ethers.
16. Elimination reaction (or This is a reaction in which two atoms or
dehydrohalogenation groups are removed from the adjacent
reaction) carbon atoms (α-β positions) in the (organic)
molecule forming unsaturated compound.
When an alkyl halide is heated with alcoholic
solution of KOH an alkene is formed due to
removal of H and halogen X atoms from the
adjacent carbon atoms (α-β positions) and
this elimination reaction is called
dehydrohalogenation reaction.
17. Saytzeff’s rule In dehydrohalogenation reaction the
preferred product is that alkene which has
the greater number of alkyl groups attached
to the doubly bonded carbon atoms. Hence
the number of alkyl substituents on doubly
bonded carbon atoms increases, the stability
of the alkene giving its major products.
18. Wurtz reaction When an alkyl halide is treated with metallic
sodium in dry ether, the corresponding
higher alkane is formed. This is called Wurtz
reaction or Wurtz coupling reaction.
19. Coupling reaction A reaction in which alkanes of higher number
of carbon atoms are formed by coupling
together of two alkyl groups is known as
coupling reaction.
20. Grignard reagent An organometallic compound in which the
divalent magnetism is directly linked to an
alkyl group (R-) and a halogen atom (X), and
has general formula R-Mg-X is called
Grignard reagent.
21. Monochromatic light Monochromatic light consists of rays of
single wavelength vibrating in different panes
perpendicular to the direction of propagation
of the light.

49
22. Plane polarized activity A ray of monochromatic light in which
vibrations of the radiation waves take place
in one plane is called plane polarized light.
23. Optical activity The phenomenon of rotation of the plane of
a plane polarized light towards right or
towards left by the molecules of optically
active substance is called optical activity.
24. Optically active substance A substance whose molecules can rotate the
plane of a plane polarized light is called
optically active substance.
25. Optical isomers Stereo isomers which are nonsuperimposable
mirror images of each other and rotate the
plane of a polarized light through the same
angle but in opposite directions are called
optical isomers or Enantiomers.
26. Asymmetric carbon atom A carbon atom which is attached to four
different atoms or groups is called
asymmetric carbon atom.
27. Racemic mixture or A mixture containing equimolar quantities of
Racemate dextro (d) and laevo (l) optical isomers which
is optically inactive due to external
compensation is called a Racemic mixture or
Racemate.
28. Dextrorotatory substance An optically active substance (or isomer)
or d-isomer which rotates the plane of a plane polarized
light to the right hand side (RHS) is called
dextrorotatory substance.
29. Laevorotatory substance or An optically active substance which rotates
l-isomer the plane of a plane polarized light to the left
hand side (LHS) is called laevorotatory
substance.
30. Chirality Any officially active substance which is non-
superimposable with its mirror image is said
to be chiral and this property is known
Chirality.
31. Mechanism of a reaction Mechanism of a reaction is a step by step
description of exactly how the reactants are
50
 transformed into products in as much details
as possible.
32. Nucleophilic substitution The reaction in which an atom or a group of
reaction atoms in the reactant is replaced by an
attacking nucleophile is called a Nucleophilic
substitution reaction.
33. Nucleophilic bimolecular The substitution reaction in which a
reaction (SN2) nucleophile reacts with the substrate and the
rate of the reaction depends on the
concentration of the substrate and the
nucleophile is called a Nucleophilic
bimolecular reaction.
34. SN1 reaction The substitution reaction in which a
nucleophile reacts with the substrate and the
rate of the reaction depends only on the
concentration of the substrate is called
Nucleophilic unimolecular or first order
reaction or SN1 reaction.
35. Heat of reaction The difference between the energies of the
products and the reactant is called heat of
reaction or enthalpy change.
36. Transition state Transition state is the highest energy state in
the course of a reaction, formed by the
reacting species in which simultaneous bond
breaking and bond formation takes place.
37. Activation energy or The difference between the energy of the
Energy of activation transition state and the energy of the
reactants is called activation energy.
38. Intermediate The species formed during the course of a
reaction, which has definite life-time and can
be isolated. It has energy lower than that of
the preceding transition state, but higher
than the reactants or products is called an
intermediate.
39. Energy profile diagram The graph of the potential energy of species
in the reaction verses reaction coordinate
during the course of the reaction is called an
51
 energy profile diagram.
40. Sandmeyer’s reaction The replacement of diazonium group by –Cl
or –Br using cuprous salt is called
Sandmeyer’s reaction.
41. Fittig reaction Aryl halides give analogous compounds when
treated with sodium in dry ether, in which
two aryl groups undergo coupling reaction to
form diphenyl is called Fittig reaction.
42. Wurtz-Fittig reaction When an alkyl halide and an aryl halide is
treated with sodium metal in dry ether the
corresponding alkylarene (alkyl benzene) is
formed. The reaction is known as Wurtz-
Fittig reaction.
43. Finkelstein reaction When alkyl chloride or bromide is treated
with sodium iodide in the presence of dry
acetone, alkyl iodide is obtained. This
reaction is known as Finkelstein reaction.
44. Friedel Craft’s reaction The introduction of alkyl group pr acyl group
in benzene ring is called Friedel Craft’s
reaction.
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52
 ALCOHOLS, PHENOL AND ETHERS
Sr. Term Definition
No.
1. Alcohols Alcohols are the hydroxyl derivatives of
hydrocarbons in which one or more
hydrogen atoms are replaced by hydroxyl
group.
2. Monohydric alcohols Alcohols having only one hydroxyl group in
their molecules are called monohydric
alcohols.
3. Alcohols containing Csp3-OH The alcohols in which the –OH group is
bond attached to a sp3 hybridized carbon atom of
alkyl group are known as alcohols containing
Csp3-OH bond.
4. Allylic alcohols The alcohols in which the –OH group is
attached to a sp3 hybridized carbon atom
next to the carbon-carbon double bond i.e.,
to allylic carbon are known as allylic alcohols.
5. Benzylic alcohols The alcohols in which the –OH group is
attached to a sp3 hybridized carbon atom
next to an aromatic ring are known as
Benzylic alcohols.
6. Alcohols containing Csp2-OH The alcohols in which the –OH group is
bond attached to a sp2 hybridized carbon atom of
alkyl group are known as alcohols containing
Csp2-OH bond. These alcohols are also called
vinylic alcohols.
7. Hydration of alkenes or The addition of a water molecule across the
olefins double bond in an alkene is called hydration
of alkenes or olefins.
8. Dehydration of alcohols Removal of water from an alcohol is called
dehydration of alcohol.
9. Phenols Hydroxy derivatives of aromatic
hydrocarbons in which the hydroxyl group is
directly attached to the aromatic ring are

53
 called phenols.
10. Monohydric phenols Phenols containing one hydroxyl group in
their molecule are called monohydric
phenols.
11. Dihydric phenols Phenols containing two hydroxyl groups in
their molecule are called dihydric phenols.
12. Trihydric phenols Phenols containing two hydroxyl groups in
their molecule are called trihydric phenols.
13. Ethers Ethers are the derivatives of alkanes in which
a hydrogen atom of alkane (R-H) is replaced
by alkoxy group (-O-R) and divalent oxygen
atom is attached to two alkyl groups.
14. Simple or symmetrical The ethers in which both alkyl(or aryl) groups
ether attached to the oxygen atom are same are
called simple ethers.
15. Mixed or unsymmetrical The ethers in which two alkyl (or aryl) groups
ether attached to the oxygen atom are different
are called simple ethers.
16. Metamerism Ethers having the same molecular formula
but different alkyl groups attached on either
side of the oxygen atom are called metamers
of each other. This phenomenon is called
metamerism.
17. Chain isomerism The ethers having the same alkyl groups on
the either side of oxygen atom but different
arrangement of the carbon chain within the
alkyl groups are called chain isomers.
18. Functional isomerism An ether and a monohydric alcohol
containing same numbers of carbon atoms
are functional isomers.
19. Crown ethers The macrocyclic polyethers which are organic
compounds with molecules containing large
rings of carbon and oxygen are called crown
ethers.

54
 ALDEHYDES, KETONES AND
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
Sr. Term Definition
No.
1. Carbonyl group A functional group in which a carbon atom is
attached to an oxygen atom by a double
bond and remaining two valencies of carbon
atom are free is called a carbonyl group.
2. Carbonyl compounds The organic compounds containing a
carbonyl group are called carbonyl
compounds.
3. Aldehyde An aldehyde is the first oxidation product of
primary alcohol. The functional group is
formyl or aldehyde group (-CHO) always
present at the terminal carbon of the chain.
4. Ketone A ketone is the first oxidation product of
secondary alcohol. The functional group is a
keto or oxo group not located at the terminal
carbon of the chain.
5. Simple or symmetrical The ketone in which the carbonyl carbon is
ketone attached to two identical alkyl groups is
called a simple or symmetrical ketone.
6. Mixed or unsymmetrical The ketone in which the carbonyl carbon is
ketone attached to two different alkyl groups is
called a mixed or unsymmetrical ketone.
7. Imines Imines are the compounds obtained by the
reactions of carbonyl compounds namely
aldehydes and ketones with primary amines.
8. Oximes Oximes are the compounds obtained by the
reactions of carbonyl compounds namely
aldehydes and ketones with hydroxyl amine
NH2OH.
9. Hydrazones Carbonyl compounds like aldehydes and
ketones react with hydrazine forming

55
 compounds like hydrazones.
10. Phenylhyrdazones The carbonyl compounds like aldehydes and
ketones on reaction with phenylhydrazine
form phenylhydrazones.
11. Clemmensen reduction Aldehydes and ketones on reaction with Zn-
Hg in concentrated HCl forms corresponding
alkanes. This reduction is called Clemmensen
reduction.
12. Wolff-Kishner reduction Hydrazine reduces carbonyl group of
aldehydes or ketones to methylene group.
When aldehyde or ketone is heated with
hydrazine in the presence of base such as
potassium hydroxide and ethylene glycol, an
alkane is obtained due to reduction of
carbonyl compound.
13. Fehling’s solution Fehling’s solution is a complex of cupric ions
with tartaric acid.
14. Fehling’s solution test When an aldehyde is heated with Fehling’s
solution, the deep blue color of the solution
disappears and Cu+2 is reduced a red
precipitate of cuprous oxide, Cu2O is
obtained while aldehyde is oxidized to a
carboxylic acid.
15. Tollen’s reagent Tollen’s reagent is a silver ammonia complex,
[Ag(NH3)2]+OH-.
16. Tollen’s reagent test When an aldehyde is heated with Tollen’s
reagent it is oxidized to acetic acid and silver
ions Ag+ in Tollen’s reagent complex are
reduced to silver Ag giving grayish black
precipitate or deposition of silver on inner
surface of the test tube which shines like a
mirror. Hence this test is also called silver
mirror test.
17. Schiff’s reagent test When an aldehyde is added to Schiff’s
reagent, the colorless solution turns pink or
in magenta color and aldehyde is oxidized to
a carboxylic acid.
56
18. Haloform reaction A ketone containing –COCH3 group is
oxidized by sodium hypohalite results in the
formation of sodium salt of carboxylic acid
having one carbon atom less than that of
ketone and methyl group is converted to
Haloform.
19. Cannizzaro reaction Aldehydes which do not have α-hydrogen
atom, on heating with concentrated alkali
(50% aqueous or ethanolic solution if NaOH
or KOH) undergo self oxidation and reduction
reaction or redox reaction. This self redox
reaction or disproportionation reaction is
called Cannizzaro reaction.
20. Carboxylic acids The organic compounds containing one or
more carboxyl group in their molecule are
called carboxylic acids.
21. Carboxyl group The carboxyl group is a combination of
carbonyl group and hydroxyl group.
22. Monocarboxylic acids These contain one carboxyl group.
23. Dicarboxylic acids These contain two carboxyl groups.
24. Tricarboxylic acids These contain three carboxyl groups.
25. Aliphatic Monocarboxylic The organic compounds in which a hydrogen
acids atom of hydrocarbon is replaced by a
carboxyl group are called aliphatic
Monocarboxylic acids.
26. Aromatic Monocarboxylic Aromatic Monocarboxylic acid is an organic
acids compound in which a carboxyl group is
attached to benzene ring.
27. Carbonation of Grignard Addition reaction of carbon dioxide (O=C=O)
reagent to Grignard reagent, forming a complex and
further formation of carboxylic acid is called
carbonation of Grignard reagent.
28. Fischer esterification When a carboxylic acid is heated with an
alcohol in the presence of concentrated
sulphuric acid or dry hydrogen chloride gas,
an ester is obtained. The reaction is called
Fischer esterification.
57
29. Hell-Vohlard-Zelinsky Carboxylic acid reacts with chlorine or
reaction bromine, in the presence of small amount of
red phosphorus to form α-halo carboxylic
acid. This reaction is called Hell-Vohlard-
Zelinsky reaction.
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58
COMPOUNDS CONTAINING NITROGEN
Sr. Term Definition
No.
1. Amines The alkyl or aryl derivatives of ammonia in
which one, two or all the three hydrogen
atoms attached to nitrogen are replaced by
same or different alkyl or aryl groups are
called amines.
o
2. Primary amines (1 amines) The amines in which only one hydrogen atom
of ammonia is replaced by an alkyl group or
aryl group are called primary amines (1o
amines).
o
3. Secondary amines (2 The amines in which two hydrogen atoms of
amines) ammonia are replaced by two same or
different alky or aryl groups are called
secondary amines (2o amines).
4. Tertiary amines (3o amines) The amines in which three hydrogen atoms
of ammonia are replaced by three same or
different alky or aryl groups are called
tertiary amines (3o amines).
5. Ammonolysis of alkyl When an alkyl halide is boiled under pressure
halides with an excess of alcoholic solution of
ammonia (NH3), corresponding (primary
amine) alkyl amine is formed. This reaction is
known as ammonolysis of alkyl halide.
6. Gabriel phthalimide Phthalimide is reacted with alcoholic KOH to
synthesis form potassium phthalimide. Further
potassium phthalimide is treated with an
ethyl iodide. The product N-ethylphthalimide
is hydrolyzed with dilute HCl to form ethyl
amine. This reaction is known as Gabriel
phthalimide synthesis.
7. Hoffmann degradation of The conversion of amides into amines in the
amides presence of bromine and alkali is known as
Hoffmann degradation of amides.

59
8. Acetylation of amines The reaction in which the H atom attached to
nitrogen in amine is replaced by acetyl group
is called Acetylation of amines.
9. Alkylation of amines The replacement of a hydrogen atom
attached to nitrogen in amines, by alkyl
group is called alkylation of amines.
10. Hoffmann’s Exhaustive The process of converting a primary,
Methylation secondary or tertiary amine into quaternary
ammonium halide by heating them with
excess of methyl iodide is called exhaustive
methylation or Hoffmann’s exhaustive
methylation.
11. Quaternary ammonium The tetra alkyl derivatives of ammonium salts
salts (NH+X-) in which all the four hydrogen atoms
attached to nitrogen are replaced by four,
same or different alky groups are called
quaternary ammonium salts.
12. Hoffmann elimination When tetra alkyl ammonium halide is heated
with moist silver hydroxide, a quaternary
ammonium hydroxide is obtained.
Quaternary ammonium hydroxides are
deliquescent crystalline solids and are basic
in nature. Quaternary ammonium hydroxides
on strong heating undergo β-elimination to
give tertiary amine, alkenes and water, the
reaction is called Hoffmann elimination.
13. Hoffmann’s carbyl amine Aliphatic or aromatic primary amines on
test or isocyanide test heating with chloroform and alcoholic
potassium hydroxide solution form carbyl
amines or isocyanide with extremely
unpleasant smell. Secondary and tertiary
amines do not give this test.
14. Diazonium salts Ar N2+X- is called diazonium salts.
Where Ar is an aromatic ring, X may be an ion
like Cl-, Br-, HSO4-. As compound contains two
nitrogen atoms, hence the name diazonium
salts (di= two, azo= nitrogen and onium from

60
 ammonium).
15. Diazotization Aryl amines react with nitrous acid in cold
condition (273-278K) forms arenediazonium
salts. This conversion of primary aromatic
amine into diazonium salts is called
diazotization.
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61
 BIOMOLECULES
Sr. Term Definition
No.
1. Biomolecules The lifeless, complex organic molecules
which combine in a specific manner to
produce life or control biological reactions
are called Biomolecules.
2. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are optically active
polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy
ketones, or the compounds which on
hydrolysis produce polyhydroxy aldehydes or
polyhydroxy ketones.
3. Monosaccharide The basic unit of all carbohydrates which is a
(Simple carbohydrates) simple carbohydrate and cannot be
hydrolyzed further is known as
monosaccharide.
4. Oligosaccharides The oligosaccharides are the carbohydrates
which on hydrolysis gives two to ten
monosaccharide units.
5. Polysaccharides The polysaccharides are the carbohydrates
which on hydrolysis give a large number of
monosaccharides.
6. Aldoses The monosaccharides which contain
aldehydic group in their structure are called
aldoses.
7. Ketoses The monosaccharides which contain ketonic
group in their structure are called ketoses.
8. Reducing sugars Carbohydrates which reduce Fehling’s
solution to red ppt of Cu2O or Tollen’s
reagent to shining metallic silver are called
reducing sugars.
9. Non-reducing sugars Carbohydrates which do not reduce Fehling’s
solution and Tollen’s reagent are called non-
reducing sugars.
10. Protein Proteins are the biopolymers of a large

62
 number of α-amino acids and they are
naturally occurring polymeric nitrogenous
organic compounds containing 16% nitrogen
and peptide linkages (-CO-NH-).
11. α-amino acids α-amino acids are the derivatives of
carboxylic acids, obtained by replacing α-H
atom by amino group.
12. Essential and non-essential The amino acids, which cannot be
amino acids synthesized in the body and are supplied
through diet are called essential amino acids
The amino acids which are synthesized in the
body are called non-essential amino acids.
13. Acidic amino acids If carboxyl groups are more in number than
amino groups then amino acids are acidic in
nature.
14. Basic amino acids If amino groups are more in number than
carboxyl groups then amino acids are basic in
nature.
15. Neutral amino acids The amino acids having equal number of
amino and carboxyl groups are called neutral
amino acids.
16. Fibrous proteins The proteins, in which the polypeptide chains
lie parallel (side by side) to form fibre-like
structure, are called fibrous proteins.
17. Globular proteins The proteins are folded to form spherical
structure and have intramolecular hydrogen
bonding are called globular proteins.
18. Denaturation of proteins Proteins get easily precipitated. It is an
irreversible change and the process is called
denaturaion of proteins.
19. Enzymes All biological reaction are catalyzed by bio-
catalyst in living organisms called enzymes.
20. Lipids Lipids form naturally occurring Biomolecules
having limited solubility in water and can be
isolated from organism by extraction with
non-polar solvents.
21. Complex lipids Complex lipids are the esters of long chain
63
 fatty acids and can be hydrolyzed.
22. Simple lipids Simple lipids have ester linkages and cannot
be hydrolyzed.
23. Triacyl glycerols Triacyl gylcerols are the trimester of glycerol
with higher fatty acids.
24. Sterols Sterols are free esters of fatty acids.
25. Hormones The secretions of endocrine glands are called
hormones. Hormones are derived from
amino acid derivatives or peptides and
proteins or steroids.
26. Vitamins The organic compounds required in the diet
in small amounts to perform specific
biological functions and proportionate
growth in living beings.
27. Nucleic acids Nucleic acids are Biomolecules which are
found in the nuclei of all living cells in the
form of nucleo proteins or chromosomes.
NOTES:
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64
 POLYMERS
Sr. Term Definition
No.
1. Polymers Polymers are high molecular weight
macromolecules and consist of repeating
units of monomers.
2. Natural [polymers Natural polymers are obtained either from
plants or animals.
3. Semisynthetic polymers The properties of natural polymers are
modified due to some chemical treatment
are called Semisynthetic polymers.
4. Synthetic polymers The polymers obtained from chemical
substances are called synthetic polymers.
5. Linear polymers The polymers made up of long continuous
chains without any branches are called linear
polymers.
6. Branched polymers The polymers consisting of ling and straight
chains with smaller chains as branches are
called branched polymers.
7. Network or cross linked The polymers consisting of linking of chain
polymers polymers by strong covalent bonds leading to
network like structure are called network or
cross linked polymers.
8. Addition polymers The addition of a large number of monomers
like alkenes or alkynes and the polymers are
formed by chain growth polymerization.
9. Condensation polymers The two monomers combine to form α-
polymer by elimination of a small molecule
like water or alcohol.
10. Elastomers The polymers which show elasticity are called
elastomers.
11. Fibres The polymers which consist of strong
intermolecular forces of attraction due to
hydrogen bonding are called fibres.
12. Thermosetting polymers The polymers which do not become soft on
65
 heating under pressure and hence cannot be
remolded or recycled are called
thermosetting polymers.
13. Thermoplastic polymers The polymers which on heating become soft
and on cooling become hard are called
thermoplastic polymers.
14. Addition or Chain Growth The process involving addition of monomer
polymerization units at the reactive end of growing chain
across the double bond is called addition or
chain growth polymerization.
15. Condensation or Step The process in which the product formed in
growth polymerization first step has again two functional groups to
continue and to grow the chain is called as
condensation or step growth
polymerization.
16. Homopolymer A polymer made from identical repeating
unit of one monomer is called
Homopolymer.
17. Heteropolymer A polymer made from more than one kind of
repeating unit of monomers is called
Heteropolymer.
18. Copolymer A polymer made from two or more different
monomer units is called a copolymer.
19. LDPE Low Density Polyethylene
20. HDPE High Density Polyethylene
21. Natural rubber The linear polymer of isoprene (2-methyl-1,3-
butadiene) with elastic properties is called
natural rubber.
22. Vulcanization The process of converting natural rubber to
make more strong and elastic form by using
vulcanizing agent is called vulcanization.
23. Biodegradable polymers The polymers which degrade on their own
after a certain period of time are called
biodegradable polymers.
24. Non-biodegradable The synthetic polymers which do not degrade
polymers in their own even after certain period of time
are called non-biodegradable polymers.
66
 CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE
Sr. Term Definition
No.
1. Drugs The substances which are used for the
purpose of diagnosis, prevention, cure or
relief of a disease are called as Drugs.

2. Chemotherapy The treatment of a disease by using suitable

chemical substances which destroy the target
(usually micro-organisms) without affecting
the host’s tissue is called as Chemotherapy.
3. Enzymes The proteins which perform the role of
biological catalysts are called Enzymes.
4. Receptors The proteins which are very vital for
communication system in the body are called
Receptors.
5. Analgesics The drugs which relieve pain by acting on the
central nervous system without loss of
consciousness or disturbance of nervous
system are called Analgesics.
6. Antipyretics The drugs which are used to bring down the
body temperature during high fever are
called Antipyretics. Ex. Aspirin, Phenacetin
and Paracetamol
7. Aspirin One of the most commonly used drug as
analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic
is known as Aspirin.
8. Tranquilizers The chemical substances used to relieve or
reduce the stress and anxiety leading to
calmness are called as Tranquilizers. Ex.
Equanil, Valium, Chlordiazepoxide,
Meprobamate, Veronal, Serotonin, etc
9. Barbiturates The hypnotic drugs which produce sleep are
called as Barbiturates. They are the
derivatives of barbituric acids, and are also

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 used to control hypertension and depression.
Ex. Veronal, Amytal, Nembutal, Seconal and
Luminal.
10. Antimicrobial Drugs The drugs used to kill or stop the growth of
micro-organisms like fungi, bacteria and virus
are called Antimicrobial drugs. Ex. Salvarsan,
Azodye, Prontosil, Sulphanilamide and
Sulphapyridine
11. Spectrum of action of an The range of bacteria or other
antibiotic microorganisms that are affected by a certain
antibiotic is expressed as its Spectrum of
Action.
12. Narrow spectrum Antibiotics which are effective against either
antibiotics gram-positive or gram-negative bacteria are
known as Narrow Spectrum Antibiotics.
13. Limited spectrum Antibiotics which are effective against a
antibiotics single organism or disease are called Limited
Spectrum Antibiotics.
14. Broad spectrum antibiotics Antibiotics which are effective against a wide
range of gram positive and gram negative
bacteria are known as Broad Spectrum
Antibiotics.
15. Bactericidal antibiotics The Antibiotics that kill bacteria are called as
Bactericidal Antibiotics.
16. Bacteriostatic antibiotics The antibiotic which inhibits the growth of
bacteria is called Bacteriostatic Antibiotics.
17. Antiseptics Drugs which are applied to the living tissues
to kill the bacteria and to stop their growth in
wound, thus preventing its infection are
called Antiseptics.
18. Disinfectants Disinfectants are applied to non-living
objects to kill the micro-organisms, used in
public health sanitation, floors, to sterilize
instruments, etc.
19. Antifertility drugs Chemical substances which are used to
prevent pregnancy in woman are called
Antifertility Drugs. Ex. Norethindrone,
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 Ethynylestradiol (Novestrol).
20. Antacids The chemical substances which neutralize
excess acid in the gastric juices and give relief
from acid indigestion, acidity, heart burns
and gastric ulcers are called Antacids. Ex.
Magnesium hydroxide, Magnesium
carbonate, magnesium trisilicate, Aluminium
hydroxide gel, Aluminium Phosphate, Sodium
bicarbonate, etc
21. Allergy The hypersensitivity of some people to some
drugs, dust, pollen grains, cat fur, a particular
type of food or fabric etc. is called Allergy,
resulting in the release of histamine in body.
22. Antihistamines The drugs which either reduce or inhibit the
action of histamine in the body thereby
preventing allergy are called as
Antihistamines.
23. Food additives Chemicals which are added to food for their
preservation, enhancing their appeal and
adding nutritive value in them are called
Food Additives.
24. Food preservatives The substances which when added to food
are capable of inhibiting, retarding or
arresting the process of fermentation,
acidification or other decomposition of food
by growth of microbes, are called as Food
preservatives. Ex. Sodium benzoate, Sodium
metabisulphate etc.
25. Artificial sweetening Certain chemicals which do not occur in
agents nature but are synthesized in the laboratory,
have sweet taste, but have no food value are
known as Artificial Sweeteners. Ex.
Saccharin, Sodium salt of saccharin,
Aspartame, Sucralose.
26. Antioxidant A substance which when added to food,
retards or prevents oxidative deterioration of
food is known as Antioxidant.
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27. Cleansing agents The chemicals which improve the cleansing
action of water and help in removal of fats
which bind other materials to a surface,
fabric or skin, are called as cleansing agents
(surfactant).
28. Soaps Sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty
acids which contain more than 12 carbon
atoms are called as Soaps. Potassium soaps
are softer than sodium soaps.
29. Detergents The formulated products containing either
sodium salts of alkyl hydrogen sulphates or
sodium salts of long chain alkyl benzene
sulphonic acids are called as Detergents.
30. Biodegradable detergents Detergents having straight hydrocarbon
chains are easily degraded (decomposed) by
micro-organisms and hence are called
Biodegradable detergents.
31. Non-biodegradable Detergents containing branched hydrocarbon
detergents chains are not easily degraded by micro-
organisms and hence are called Non-
biodegradable detergents.
32. Anionic detergents Sodium salts of sulphonated long chain
alcohols or hydrocarbons are called as
Anionic detergents.
33. Cationic detergents Quaternary ammonium salts of amines with
acetates, chlorides or bromides as anions are
called as Cationic detergents.
34. Non-ionic detergents Detergents which are either monoesters of
polyhydric alcohols or polyethers derived
from ethylene oxide are called as Non-ionic
detergents. They have hydrogen bonding
group at the soluble ends of the chain.

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