THIRD QUARTER NOTES IN GRADE 10 SCIENCE

BIOLOGY
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe the parts of the male reproductive system and their
functions.

The male reproductive system is composed of different parts that work together to produce, nourish, and
transport sex cells.

What are the parts of the male reproductive system? What are their individual functions?

Learn about it!

The Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system is comprised of the testes, prostate gland, urethra, penis, and sperm ducts.

Testes or Testicles

Each male reproductive system has two testes. They are held in place by the scrotum. Their function is to
produce male sex cells called sperm cells. They are also responsible in producing male sex hormones such as
testosterone.

Prostate Gland

The function of the prostate gland is to secrete prostate fluid. The mixture of sperm and prostate fluid is
called semen.

The muscles of the prostate gland help propel semen through the urethra and into the female reproductive
organ during ejaculation.

Learn about it!

Urethra

Urethra is the tube that transports and discharges urine and semen outside the body. It is connected to the
urinary bladder and sperm duct.

Penis

The penis is the external part of the male reproductive system. It contains the urethra which allows it to pass
the urine and semen out of the body.

Sperm Ducts

Sperm ducts are composed of the vas deferens and seminal vesicles. The vas deferens is a tube that sperm
cells pass through before entering the urethra. On the other hand, seminal vesicles secrete fluid that makes
the sperm cells more mobile, increasing the chances of fertilization.
What do you think?
What is the role of male hormones in reproduction?

Key Point
The male reproductive system includes the testes, prostate glands, urethra, penis, and sperm ducts.

THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Learn about it!

Parts of the Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system includes internal and external parts. The internal reproductive system is
composed of the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. On the other hand, the main external parts of
the female reproductive system include the labia majora, labia minora, and clitoris.

Internal Reproductive Organs

Vagina

The vagina is an elastic, muscular canal that connects the external reproductive system to the cervix. It is
made up of connective, fibrous, and epithelial tissues. It normally has a length of 10 to 15 centimeters. The
primary function of the vagina is to receive penis and sperm during sexual contact and to pass blood during
menstruation. It is also the passageway of the baby during delivery. Hence, it is also called the birth canal.

Uterus

The uterus is a hollow muscular organ that lies between the urinary bladder and the rectum. It has a very soft
lining that holds the fertilized egg and nurtures it until it becomes a fetus.

At the lower portion of the uterus is the cervix, a muscle that holds the fetus during pregnancy. The cervix
expands once the baby is ready to be born.

Fallopian tubes

The fallopian tubes are narrow 10-cm tubes from which the eggs travel from the ovaries to the uterus. Their
primary function is to transport the egg cell.

Ovaries

The ovary is the female gonad that contains the egg cells. It produces female sex
hormones, estrogen and progesterone.
Learn about it!
External Reproductive Organs

Labia Majora

Labia majora encloses and protects all the external reproductive organs. It contains sweat and oil-secreting
glands.

Labia Minora

Labia minora surrounds the openings of the vagina and urethra.

Clitoris

The clitoris is a small, sensitive protrusion at which the two labia minora meet.

Explore!
Research on how a fertilized egg develops into a baby inside the female reproductive system. What are the
stages of pregnancy? How do the different parts of the female reproductive system play a role in each stage?

What do you think?

What are the roles of the female reproductive system aside from nurturing a growing baby?

Key Points
 The female reproductive system includes external and internal parts.

 The internal reproductive system is composed of vagina, uterus, fallopian tube, and ovaries.

 The external reproductive system includes the labia majora, labia minora, and clitoris.

Which of the following hormones are produced by the ovaries?

Which of the following statements is true about female reproductive organs and their functions?

Which of the following statements is true about the fallopian tube?

Which of the following are the functions of the vagina?

What is the role of labia majora?

Which of the following are true about the uterus?

What happens to the cervix when the baby is ready to be born?

THE ROLE OF HORMONES INVOLVED IN THE FEMALE AND MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to identify the different hormones involved in the reproductive
system of males and females.

Hormones are substances that are produced by the endocrine glands to control and regulate cell or organ
activities. There are certain hormones that are essential in the development of secondary sex characteristics in
both males and females.

What are the hormones involved in the human reproductive system?

Learn about it!

Female Hormones

Female hormones that regulate reproduction are estrogen and progesterone.

Estrogen

Estrogen is the primary female sex hormone. It is a type of steroid that is responsible for the development of
breasts, uterus, and vagina. Steroid is an organic compound with four rings attached in a specific
configuration.

Estrogen is the hormone responsible for the broadening of the hips, growth of pubic and axillary hair, and
increase in adipose tissues. It also participates in the preparation of the female's body for pregnancy and
during pregnancy.

Progesterone

Progesterone is also classified as a steroid. It is known as the pregnancy maintainer. During pregnancy, high
levels of progesterone keep the endometrium (uterus lining) intact. Thus, menstruation does not occur.

Example
Estrogen and progesterone control the menstrual cycle in females. When these hormones have low levels, a
layer of the endometrium called functional layer is completely shed during menstruation.This layer is
discharged through the cervix and vagina. After menstruation, estrogen and progesterone levels increase.

Learn about it!

Male Hormone

The primary male sex hormone is called testosterone.

Testosterone

Testosterone is a steroid produced by the interstitial cells of the testes. It is the hormone responsible for the
development of a males' secondary sex characteristics. It is also essential for the production of sperm cells.
The production of testosterone is controlled by the release of the luteinizing hormone from the pituitary
gland.

Try it!
What happens when there is a lack of production or excessive production of the sex hormones in males and
females?

What do you think?

Do males produce estrogen and progesterone? And do females produce testosterone?

Key Points
 Hormones are essential in the development of secondary sex characteristics in both males and
females.

 Estrogen and progesterone are female sex hormones while testosterone is the primary male sex
hormone.

Which of the following are substances that are produced by the endocrine glands to control and regulate cell or organ activities?

Which of the following is the primary sex hormone in males?

Which of the following hormones is responsible for the development of breasts, uterus, and vagina?

Which of the following hormones is also known as the pregnancy maintainer?

What is the process of discharging blood vessel-rich tissues from the uterus lining every 28 days?

Which of the following controls the release of testosterone in males?

Which of the following statement is true during pregnancy?

Which of the following statement are true about estrogen?

Which of the following statements are true about progesterone?

Which of the following describes a steroid?

The Male Reproductive System

The Female Reproductive System
The Role of Hormones Involved in the Female and Male Reproductive System
Regulating Processes (Female Reproductive Organ)
 Regulating Processes (Homeostasis and the Central Nervous System
The Role of Neurons in Transmitting Electrochemical Impulses

REGULATING PROCESSES (FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN)

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe the mechanisms involved in the regulation of
processes inside the female reproductive system.

What are the hormones involved in regulating the processes in the female reproductive system?

Learn about it!

Hormones play a role in the feedback mechanism of the body. A feedback mechanism is a process that uses
the condition of one component to regulate the function of the other. For example, the increase of a certain
hormone in the body causes either an increase or decrease in the levels of another hormone.

In females, the menstrual cycle is an example of how the hormones affect the feedback mechanism within the
reproductive system. About every 28 days, there is a discharge from the uterus
called menstruation or period. The menstrual cycle is counted from the first day of one period to the first
day of the next period. This cycle is controlled by different hormones in the body.

Learn about it!

Phases of the Menstrual Cycle

The menstrual cycle can be divided into four phases, namely, menstrual phase, follicular phase, ovulation
phase, and luteal phase.

Menstrual Phase

During the menstrual phase, the uterus sheds blood vessel-rich tissues. The levels of estrogen and
progesterone in this phase are low. These low levels signal the pituitary gland to produce FSH.

Follicular Phase

The release of FSH begins the process of maturing a follicle in the follicular phase. A follicle is one of the small
ovarian sacs containing an immature ovum. During this phase, LH increases causing the egg inside the follicle
to complete its first stage of development. The follicle then produces more estrogen to prepare the uterus for
pregnancy.

Ovulation Phase
The continuous increase in estrogen level triggers a sudden surge in LH, which then causes the release of the
egg from the follicle. This release of the egg is called ovulation. The empty follicle then turns into a corpus
luteum, a gland that secretes progesterone and estrogen necessary to maintain pregnancy.

Luteal Phase

If fertilization doesn’t happen, estrogen and progesterone levels drop, the corpus luteum begins to
degenerate, the uterus lining breaks down, and menstruation begins.

What do you think?

What happens to the production of hormones as a person grows old?

Key Points
 The hormones responsible for regulating the menstrual cycle are the follicle-stimulating
hormones and luteinizing hormones.

 The menstrual cycle is an example on how hormones regulate the female reproductive system.

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe how the nervous system coordinates and regulates
feedback mechanisms to maintain homeostasis.

How does the nervous system regulate body functions?

Learn about it!

The nervous system is the organ system that coordinates voluntary and involuntary actions and transmits
signals to and from different parts of the body. It can be divided into two subsystems, the central and
peripheral nervous systems. The basic parts of the central nervous system include the brain and spinal cord.
On the other hand, the peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves and ganglia on the outside of the
brain and spinal cord.
Homeostasis

Homeostasis is a property of a system in which some variables

are regulated in order to have a stable condition. Examples of
homeostasis include the regulation of pH in the blood or the
regulation of body temperature. In organisms, homeostasis
keeps the body functioning well even when there are changes in
the environment.
All homeostatic mechanisms have at least three interdependent
components for the regulation of a certain variable. The
components are the receptor, control center, and effector.

 The receptor is a sensing component that monitors

changes in the external or internal environment. For
example, peripheral chemoreceptors detect changes in the
pH of the blood.

 The control center receives messages from the receptors

and initiates the response to maintain homeostasis. For
example, hypothalamus is the control center for
maintaining body temperature, blood pressure, and heart
rate.

 The effector is an organ or tissue that receives the

messages from the control center and brings about
changes needed to maintain homeostasis. For example,
when the blood pressure becomes too low, the kidney acts
as an effector that retains water.

Learn about it!

The Nervous System and Homeostasis

The nervous system maintains homeostasis by regulating and controlling different parts of the body. The
control centers for homeostasis are often found in the central nervous system. For example, the
hypothalamus is a part of the brain that is involved in regulating hunger, sleep rhythms, and secretion of
hormones.

The nervous system maintains homeostasis through a negative feedback mechanism. Negative feedback
mechanism means the output or activity of an organ or organ system is reduced to maintain homeostasis.
For example, baroreceptors are receptors in the blood vessels that detect irregularities in blood pressure.
These receptors send signals to the control center, the hypothalamus. The control center then sends signals to
the effectors, which can be the heart, blood vessels, and kidneys, to regulate blood pressure.
If the blood pressure is too high, then the heart would decrease its pump rate, the blood vessels will increase
in diameter (vasodilation), and the kidneys would retain less water. These changes would result in the
decrease of blood pressure to the normal range. On the other hand, when the blood pressure is too low, then
the heart rate increases, vasoconstriction occurs in the blood vessels, and the kidney increases water
retention.

Example
Another important example of negative feedback mechanism is temperature control. When there is a
temperature change, the nerve cells in the body act as sensors and relay the signal to the hypothalamus. The
hypothalamus then signals effectors, such as sweat glands, muscles, and blood vessels, to regulate the body
temperature. If it is too hot, then sweat glands produce more sweat to cool the skin and vasodilation of blood
vessels occurs to allow the body to give off more heat. If the temperature is too low, then muscles will shiver
to generate heat, and vasoconstriction of blood vessels occurs to retain heat in the body.

Explore!
Research on how the central nervous system controls the body processes during hunger or starvation. Can
humans survive several days without eating? Why or why not?

What do you think?

How does the nervous system control sleep rhythms?

Key Points
 The nervous system is the organ system that coordinates voluntary and involuntary actions and
transmits signals to and from different parts of the body.

 Homeostasis is a property of a system in which some variables are regulated in order to have a stable
condition.

 All homeostatic mechanisms have at least three interdependent components for the regulation of a
certain variable. The components are the receptor, control center, and effector.

 The nervous system maintains homeostasis through a negative feedback mechanism.

 Negative feedback mechanism means the output or activity of an organ or organ system is reduced
to maintain homeostasis.

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe the role of neurons in transmitting electrochemical
impulses in the body.

In the previous lesson, you have learned that the Central Nervous System (CNS) regulates body processes to
maintain the body in stable condition. They do this by sending signals to the effectors, which are the organs or
tissues that bring about the changes needed to maintain homeostasis.
How do the nervous system send signals to the effectors?

Learn about it!

When the Central Nervous System (CNS) receives sensory impulses from receptors indicating any changes in
the external or internal environment, CNS sends out signals to the effectors to bring about changes needed to
maintain homeostasis. They send the signals through the nerves which make up the Peripheral Nervous
System (PNS). The nerves connect the CNS to the body organs through nerve impulses. The nerve impulses
sent to the effectors are called motor impulses.

A nerve impulse is a signal transmitted along the nerve fiber. The nerve fiber, which consists of an axon and
myelin sheath, is a threadlike extension of a neuron. The nerve impulse travels along the nerve fiber due to
the movement of ions through the neuron's plasma membrane.

Learn about it!

Neuron's Ion Channels

The membrane of the neuron actively creates and maintains an electrical potential difference between the
inside and outside. The active transport of potassium (K+) ions into the cell and sodium (Na+) ions out of the cell
across the cell membrane creates a resting potential.

The ions are transported through Na+/ K+ channels. These channels allow the potassium and sodium ions to
pass through the membrane.

Learn about it!

The Nerve Impulse

A nerve impulse is triggered by a stimulus arriving at a receptor cell or nerve ending. The stimulus causes the
sodium channels to open. Sodium ions flow into the cell disrupting the balance of the charges. When sodium
ions flood into the cell, the membrane is momentarily depolarized. The neighboring sodium channels open
causing the depolarization to move along the membrane.

The cell then moves out potassium ions to reverse the charge and reestablish proper concentrations of
sodium and potassium ions inside and outside of the cell.

Learn about it!

How do neurons pass signals to other neurons?

Neurons pass electrical or chemical signals to other nerve cells through a synapse. The synapse serves as a
bridge between two neurons. A presynaptic neuron carries the impulse along the axon, which comes into
contact with the dendrites of another neuron, the post synaptic neuron. The neurons do not touch, but a tiny
gap called the synaptic cleft about 20-nm wide exists. The signals are passed in the synapse
through neurotransmitters or chemical messengers.

How do neurons pass signals to effector target cells?

At a synapse, the signal-passing (presynaptic) neuron, comes into a close apposition with the plasma
membrane of the target (postsynaptic) cell. Both the presynaptic and postsynaptic sites have structures that
link their membranes together to carry out the signaling process.

For example, a synapse called neuromuscular junction is formed between a motor neuron and a muscle
fiber. The motor neuron transmits signal to the muscle fiber causing muscle contraction.

What do you think?

What is the importance of neurons in the body? What could be the possible causes why neurons would stop
working?

Key Points
 The nerve impulses sent to the effectors are called motor impulses.

 Nerves which connect the body to the CNS make up the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS). A nerve
impulse is a signal transmitted along the nerve fiber. It is a momentary reversal in the electrical
potential difference in the membrane of the fibers.

 The nerve fiber, which consists of an axon and myelin sheath, is a threadlike extension of a neuron.

 The nerve impulse is triggered by a stimulus arriving at a receptor cell or nerve ending.
  Neurons pass electrical or chemical signals to target cells through a synapse.

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to differentiate DNA from RNA and explain the transcription
process.

What are nucleic acids? What are their properties and functions?

Learn about it!

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids, discovered by Friedrich Miescher in 1869, are biomolecules that are made up of repeating units
of nucleotides. Nucleotides are compounds with three components, a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and
a nitrogenous base. The nucleotides are linked through phosphodiester bonds.

Learn about it!

If the sugar is ribose, then the nucleotides make up the ribonucleic acid (RNA). On the other hand, if the
sugar is deoxyribose, then the nucleotides make up the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Both DNA and RNA
have nitrogenous bases. The five common nitrogenous bases are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine(C),
thymine (T), and uracil (U).
Aside from the type of sugar, RNA and DNA differ in other ways. RNA is single stranded while DNA is double
stranded. Also, RNA has a base uracil while DNA has the base thymine.

Functions of Nucleic Acids

DNA contains the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of organisms. This genetic
information is converted by the RNA into amino acid sequences of proteins. RNA has three types, messenger
RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA). The mRNA carries the genetic sequence
information between the DNA and ribosomes. In ribosomes, proteins are synthesized. The rRNA catalyzes the
peptide bond formation while the tRNA serve as the carrier molecules of the amino acids that make up the
protein.

Learn about it!

Transcription: DNA to RNA

Transcription is the first step of gene expression. In transcription, a particular segment of the DNA sequence
is read by an enzyme called RNA polymerase. This enzyme produces a complementary RNA strand called
a primary transcript.

Transcription proceeds in the following steps:

1. RNA polymerase binds to the promoter DNA.

2. RNA polymerase breaks the hydrogen bonds between complementary DNA nucleotides.

3. RNA polymerase adds matching NTPs (nucleoside triphosphate) to the complementary nucleotides of
one DNA strand.

4. The RNA strand is formed.

5. Hydrogen bonds in the untwisted RNA-DNA helix break, freeing the RNA strand.

6. If the cell has a nucleus, then RNA can be further processed through capping and splicing.

7. The RNA may stay in the nucleus or move out to the cytoplasm.
What do you think?
What are the roles of the nucleic acids, DNA and RNA, to genetic inheritance and protein synthesis?

Key Points
 Nucleic acids are biomolecules that are made up of repeating units of nucleotides.

 Nucleotides are compounds with three components, a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base.

 DNA contains the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of organisms.

 RNA has three types, messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA).

 Transcription is the first step of gene expression.

 In transcription, a particular segment of the DNA sequence is read by an enzyme called RNA
polymerase.

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain the process of protein synthesis.

In the previous lesson, you have learned about transcription as the first step of gene expression. In
transcription, a segment of the DNA is copied into mRNA. In this lesson, you will learn how the sequence of the
base in the mRNA is translated into amino acids of proteins.

What are proteins? What are the steps in their synthesis?

Learn about it!

Proteins

Proteins are biomolecules composed of amino acid units. Amino acids are organic molecules that have a
central carbon atom bonded to four different groups — an amino group (−NH2), an acidic carboxyl group
(−COOH), a hydrogen atom, and a variable side chain, R. The side chain can range from a single hydrogen
atom to complex ring structures.

In a protein, the amino acids are linked via a peptide bond. This peptide bond is formed between an amino
group of one amino acid and an acid carboxyl group of another amino acid. A chain of two or more amino
acids linked together by peptide bonds is called a peptide.

Learn about it!

DNA and RNA in Protein Synthesis
The genetic code of DNA determines which proteins are produced. Although the DNA contains the information
for the protein synthesis, it is the RNA that carries out the instructions encoded in the DNA. There are three
kinds of RNA molecules that perform different but coordinated roles in the synthesis of proteins.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the genetic information copied from the DNA in the form of three-base
codes. Each code specifies a particular amino acid.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) picks up the amino acids from the cytoplasm and brings them on the surface of the
ribosomes. Note that each type of amino acid has its own type of tRNA.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is present in the ribosomes to catayze the assembly of amino acids into proteins. It
binds tRNA and other molecules needed for protein synthesis.

Learn about it!

Translation: RNA to Protein

After transcription, the mRNA leaves the nucleus through the nuclear membrane and passes to the ribosomes
in the cytoplasm. This mRNA, also called the coding strand, is used in translation. Translation is the synthesis
of a protein directed by the base sequence of an mRNA. The tRNA reads the three-base sequence (called
a codon) in mRNA and links the amino acids. For example, the AUG (arginine, uracil, guanine) codon is
translated as the amino acid methionine.

The following table presents the codons that are translated to amino acids. The amino acids are alanine (ALA),
arginine (ARG), asparagine (ASN), aspartic acid (ASP), cysteine (CYS), glutamine (GLN), glutamic acid (GLU),
glycine (GLY), histidine (HIS), isoleucine (ILE), leucine (LEU), lysine (LYS), methionine (MET), phenylalanine (PHE),
proline (PRO), serine (SER), threonine (TTHR), tryptophan (TRP), tyrosine (TYR), and valine (VAL). The codon AUG
is the start codon while the codons UAA, UAG, and UGA are stop codons.
Learn about it!
Translation happens through the following steps:

1. Translation begins with the formation of an initiation complex, comprised of mRNA, initiating amino
acid-tRNA, and small ribosomal subunit.

2. A larger ribosomal subunit joins the initiation complex. The combined ribosomal units (small and large)
is called 70S ribosome. This 70s ribosome has two sites to which amino acid-carrying tRNA bind. One
site is called peptidyl or P site while the other is called acceptor or A site.

3. The initiating tRNA binds to the P site. In prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, protein chains begin with the
amino acid methionine.

4. Another tRNA recognizes the next codon and brings the second amino acid into the A site.

5. The amino acid in the P site is then joined to the amino acid in the A site.

6. The ribosome then advances to the next codon, and the first tRNA is released.
 7. An amino acid-carrying tRNA binds to the A site, and two amino acids in the P site bind to the third
amino acid.

8. The ribosome continues to move along the mRNA, and new amino acids are added to the growing
polypeptide chain.

9. The polypeptide elongation stops when the ribosome reaches a stop codon, a codon that does not
code for an amino acid.

Try it!
Summarize the processes included in protein synthesis.

What do you think?

Errors may occur during the translation process. How are these errors in translation corrected? If they are not
corrected, what would happen to the translated protein?

Key Points
 Proteins are biomolecules composed of amino acid units. Amino acids are organic molecules that
have a central carbon atom bonded to four different groups — an amino group (−NH2), an acidic
carboxyl group (−COOH), a hydrogen atom, and a variable side chain, R.

 The DNA contains the information for the protein synthesis while the RNA carries out the instructions
encoded in the DNA.

 Translation is the synthesis of protein directed by the base sequence of an mRNA.

 The tRNA translates each three-base sequence (called a codon) into an amino acid.

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain genetic mutations.

DNA replication is when a DNA copies itself semi-conservatively producing multiple copies of itself. Errors,
deletions, and duplication of nucleotide sequences can happen during replication. These processes result in
the change in a gene or chromosome, called mutation.

How do mutations occur?

Learn about it!

Mutations occur when there is a disruption in the complimentary base pairing. Therefore, they change the
DNA sequence. This change is sequence can be sudden and spontaneous. Because the DNA sequence is
changed, the amino acids that make up the protein are assembled in a different order. When the incorrect
sequence of amino acids is folded into proteins such as enzymes, the proteins may be defective. Defective
proteins then disrupt metabolic processes.

Recall that during transcription, cytosine is paired with guanine and vice versa. Thymine is paired with
adenine, and adenine is paired with uracil. For example, a segment of a DNA sequence is A T A C A A C G.
During transcription, the resulting RNA sequence is U A U G U U G C.

However, if a mutation causes a change in the 5th nucleotide base, A becomes G, then the resulting RNA
sequence complementary to the DNA is U A U G C U G C.

Learn about it!

Types of Mutations

Substitution occurs when a base is replaced by one of the other three bases.

Deletion occurs when one or more DNA pairs is lost.

Insertion occurs when one or more DNA pairs is added.

Learn about it!

Causes of Mutations

DNA fails to copy accurately.

In molecular biology and genetics, mutations are accidental changes in the DNA sequence. There are times
when the cell divides and makes a copy of its DNA; the copy is not perfect, so it is called a mutant. The small
difference from the original DNA sequence is a mutation.

External factors may cause mutations.

Mutations can also be caused by exposure of living cells to radiation or toxic chemicals. These agents may
cause DNA molecules to break down. When the cell repairs the DNA, there are times when the repaired one is
different from the original one. Hence, a mutation has occurred.

Example
Sickle cell anaemia results from a defective haemoglobin molecule. There is a change of one amino acid.
Valine (specified by codon CAT) is replaced by glutamic acid (specified by codon CTT).

When the oxygen content of the blood is reduced during respiration, defective red blood cells start to distort
into sickle shape and clump together in long fibers. These cells are insoluble in blood plasma, so they block
the transport of unaffected cells in capillaries.

Try it!
Using the Internet, research one case of gene mutation and describe the consequences of such mutation.

What do you think?

What are examples of chemicals that may cause DNA molecules to break down?

Key Points
 Mutations occur when there is a disruption in the complimentary base. They damage chromosomes
which result in defective or missing enzymes.

 Mutations can happen by insertion, deletion, and substitution of base pairs in a DNA sequence.

 Mutations may occur when DNA fails to copy accurately and when external factors such as toxic
chemicals and radiation break down the DNA.

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain how fossil records, comparative anatomy, and genetic
information provide evidence of evolution.

Life on earth is undergoing a long process of change as suggested by the theory of evolution. These changes
result in the vast number of diverse life forms existing today.

What are the different evidence of evolution?

Learn about it!

There are a number of sources that provide evidence for evolution. These sources include fossil records of
change in earlier species, anatomical similarities of related life forms, and recorded genetic changes in
organisms over many generations.

Fossil Records

Fossils are the remains or imprints of plants and animals found in sedimentary rock deposits. They are
commonly found as an ossified form or as an impression in rocks in a form of a mold, a cast, or an imprint.

A fossil record is derived from the discovered fossils all over the world. It shows the history of life as
documented by fossils. By studying fossil records, scientists have been able to conclude that organisms are
becoming more complex as the earth ages. Multicellular organisms, such as amphibians, reptiles, and
mammals, were preceded by earlier simple-structured organisms such as bacteria and mollusks. The fossil
records are pieces of evidence that fit the predictions of the evolutionary theory.

Example
In 1997, geologists found that whales have a fossil record that provides remarkably complete evidence of the
transformation of a land mammal ancestor into a sea creature.
Based on fossil records, Pakicetus are the ancestors of modern whales. They are land animals with long skulls
and large carnivorous teeth. Their skulls strongly resemble those of the living whales and are unlike those of
any other mammal. The fossil of Pakicetus is from about 50 million years ago.

Learn about it!

Comparative Anatomy

Body parts and structures are evidence of evolution. Some organisms may possess similarities in body
structures that may suggest indirect relationship with other organisms. There are three types of structures
that provide evidence of evolution. They are homologous, analogous, and vestigial structures.

Homologous structures

Homologous structures are body parts of different organisms with similar forms but different functions.
These structures suggest descendance from a common ancestry. For example, limbs of vertebrates share the
same arrangement of bones, but they are serving different functions. The upper limbs of bats are for flying
while those of humans are used for grasping. In dogs, upper limbs are used for walking and running.

Analogous structures

Analogous structures are body parts that may look similar in appearance and function, but they differ in
origin. For example, wings of birds, bats, and insects are used for the same function, which is flying. They also
look similar. However, the wing does not reflect evolutionary closeness among the birds, bats, and insects.

Vestigial structures

Vestigial structures are organs present in an organism, but they are not performing any particular function.
Examples are the tail bone and appendix in humans. These structures predict the organism’s evolutionary
past suggesting common ancestry with species that have similar structures, but are still functioning.

Example
Whales share homologous structures with other vertebrates. The arms of humans, the wings of bats, and the
flippers of whales have the same types of bones – radius, ulna, and humerus. These structures indicate that
they have a shared common ancient vertebrate ancestor.
Whales also have vestigial structures. They have retained their vestigial hind limb, which is disconnected from
the spine. This vestigial structure is considered to be a remnant of their time on land.

Learn about it!

Genetic Information

Genetics provides more complex evidence of evolution. Comparison of DNAs of related organisms shows a
large percentage of similarities. For example, humans have approximately 96% of their genes similar with
those of chimpanzees, and 90% are in common with cats. These percentages do not prove that humans
evolved from chimpanzees or cats. However, they mean that humans, chimpanzees, and cats may have
shared a common ancestor in the past. The differences between the genes correspond to how long ago did
the genetic lines between the organisms have changed.

In addition, there is a universal genetic message – the triplets of DNA nitrogen-base sequences that code for
specific amino acids. This genetic message is the same in all organisms on earth. Therefore, it supports the
idea that there is a common ancestor for all life forms.

Example
According to genetic research, the whales' closest living relative is not a sea creature, but is a land mammal –
the hippopotamus. The whale and hippopotamus have the closest genetic match. This means that they
evolved from a common ancestor that lived roughly about 54 million years ago.

A closer look at the two animals show that they have shared characteristics. They both give birth to live young,
and they nurse their young underwater. Both also share specialized aquatic adaptations including lack of hair
and sebaceous glands.

What do you think?

Humans and mice share around 85 percent of protein-coding genomes. What does this genetic similarity
mean? What are the implications of this genetic similarity?

Key Point
The pieces of evidence of evolution include fossil records, comparative anatomy, and genetic information.

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe fossils as evidence of evolution.

Most of the evidence of evolution comes from fossil records. These records provide information on the types
of plants and animals that lived on Earth in the past.

How do the fossil records provide evidence of evolution? What are the types of fossil evidence?

Learn about it!

Fossils are remains or imprints of organisms in sedimentary rocks. Plants, animals, and even bacteria can
form fossils. Scientists dig and study these fossils to understand the diverse life forms that existed on earth.
They compare these fossils to currently existing organisms and to other fossils.

There are many types of fossil evidence that were left behind by organisms. These types include trace fossils,
molds and casts, replacement fossils, and permineralized fossils.

Trace fossils are indirect evidence left by organisms. For example, fossilized feces, burrows, and footprints
are considered trace fossils. They are not evidence of actual structure of the organism, but they are evidence
that the organism had existed.
Molds are impressions of entire organisms that have been left behind in rocks such as sandstone, shale, and
volcanic ash. Casts are molds filled with sediment over time.

Replacement fossils are mineral crystals that serve as detailed replicas of organisms. They form when water
slowly dissolves the original hard parts of the organism and replaces them with mineral crystals. Calcite, silica,
and pyrite are the most common replacement minerals.

Permineralized fossils are preserved organism with deposits of minerals. These minerals infiltrated the
microscopic pores and cavities in bone, wood, or shell.

Learn about it!

Fossilization

Only few living organisms become fossils because upon death, they are either completely consumed or
dispersed by scavengers. If the organism remains undisturbed, they can undergo fossilization.

Fossilization, or the formation of fossils, can happen in different ways. The most common ways are
compression and permineralization.

Compression forms molds and casts. It involves the preservation of organisms in rock. It occurs when the
organism becomes buried in sediment. When the sediments around the organism harden and become rock, a
mold is formed. When the mold is filled with sediments, it becomes a cast.

Permineralization happens when the organism is buried. Mineral-rich groundwater fill the empty spaces
within the organism. Minerals precipitate, occupying the empty spaces.

Example
Fossils can be formed trough permineralization. For example, when a hominid, an erect bipedal primate,
collapses and dies on shore, the soft tissue decays until only the skeleton is left. Some of the hominid's
footprints may also be left in the mud. The water level rises and sediments cover the hominid's bones and
footprints. Permineralization may preserve the skeleton, and after some time, erosion may occur and expose
a geologic column revealing the skeleton and foot prints. These skeleton and prints are examined by a
physical anthropologist.
Learn about it!
Information from Fossil Records

Fossil records are analyzed to understand how life forms changed over the years. What have scientists found
from fossil records?

Characteristics of Earlier Organisms

Fossils provide information about earlier life forms. Scientists can reconstruct body shapes from mineralized
bones. They can also infer gender, physical capabilities, life expectancies, and growth patterns of those
organisms based on their fossils. For example, by studying the bones, inferences about the shape and size of
muscles can be made. These inferences can then be used to understand the organism's mode of locomotion.

Gradual Change of Organisms

Scientists have found out that organisms have changed significantly over time. Only fossils of single-celled
organisms are found in rocks that are more than a billion years old. Then fossils of ancient fish with jawbones
have been dated to be 500 million years ago. As rocks become more and more recent, fossils look increasingly
like the animals living on earth today.
Transition of Habitats

Scientists have found out from fossil records that some sea animals have ancestors that were once land
animals. For example, whales are believed to have evolved from land animals called Pakicetus.

Tip
Though fossil records provide information on organisms that lived on earth, they still do not represent all of
the organisms once found on earth. Some organisms may have decayed before fossilization could begin.
Others may have had soft body parts that were less likely to fossilize. Therefore, fossil records can only
provide a piece of the earth's history.

What do you think?

What information from fossil records cannot be extracted from other evidence of evolution?

Key Points
 Fossils are remains or imprints of organisms in sedimentary rocks.

 There are many types of fossil evidence that were left behind by organisms. These types include trace
fossils, molds, casts, replacement fossils, and permineralized fossils.

 Fossilization, or the formation of fossils, can happen in different ways. The most common ways are
compression and permineralization.

 Through fossil analyses, scientists have found out the characteristics of earlier organisms, the gradual
change in complexity of organisms, and their change in habitats.

Objective
A the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe how genetic drift affects genetic diversity.

Genetic drift is the change in allele frequencies due to chance. What is its effect on genetic diversity?

Learn about it!

Allele Frequency

An allele is a variant form of a gene. Humans, for example, have two alleles in each genetic locus on a
chromosome. One allele is inherited from each parent. The alleles contribute to the organisms' physical
characteristics.

Allele frequency is the relative frequency of a specific allele on a genetic locus in a population. For example,
individuals can have haemoglobin alleles A and S. If you draw blood samples from 100 individuals who
comprise the population, you may find that 40 individuals have only type A, 20 have type S, and 40 have both
types A and S. The frequency of allele A is equal to the sum of all A alleles divided by the total number of
haemoglobin alleles.

The field of population genetics studies the different factors that may lead to changes in the distribution and
frequencies of alleles, or in other words, to evolution. One of the factors that may change allele frequency is
genetic drift.

Learn about it!

Genetic Drift

Genetic drift is the random manner in which an allele can be favored or lost in a given population. It results in
changes in allele frequencies because it changes the probability that the allele will be passed on to succeeding
generations.

Genetic drift results in a relatively smaller gene pool. A small gene pool means there are not many varieties of
alleles that can be passed on to future generations. Therefore, genetic drift decreases the population’s genetic
diversity and their chance of survival during selection pressures, such as climate change or shift in resource
availability.

Genetic drift usually occurs in small populations. This small population may have once been part of a larger
population but became separated from it. Through time, genetic drift will cause this small population to have
different allele frequencies than the larger population it originated from.

Learn about it!

Genetic drift in small populations can best be described by the bottleneck effect and the founder effect.

Bottleneck Effect
The bottleneck effect is used to describe any event that reduces the population in a nonselective manner.
Examples of events are natural disasters such as earthquakes, typhoons, flood and drought, and man-made
events such as hunting of animals and slash-and-burn of forests. In the bottleneck effect, there is a random
chance that favorable genes will be retained. Whichever genes survive will determine the survival of the
population.

Founder Effect

The founder effect occurs when a few individuals of a species colonize a new habitat and form the genetic
base for a new population. Therefore, succeeding generations can only draw their genetic variation from this
small founding population. If any member of the founders happens to carry a gene that can aid in the survival
of the population in that environment and this gene gets passed on to the next generation, then the new
population will have a greater chance of survival. However, if any founding member happens to carry a
genetically linked disease and the gene gets passed on, then the small population could eventually die out.

Example
Northern elephant seals have reduced genetic diversity due to hunting during the 1890s. Humans hunted and
killed seals reducing their population to 20 at the end of the 19th century. The seals population has since
rebounded to over 30 000. However, their genes have reflected the bottleneck effect of hunting. They have
less genetic diversity compared to southern elephant seals that were not intensely hunted.
Try it!
Give at least three examples of genetic drift.

What do you think?

How can genetic drift affect the diversity of species in an ecosystem?

Key Points
 An allele is a variant form of a gene.

 Allele frequency is the relative frequency of a specific allele on a genetic locus in a population.

 Genetic drift is the random manner in which an allele can be favored or lost in a given population. It
results in changes in allele frequencies because it changes the probability that the allele will be passed
on to succeeding generations.

 Genetic drift greatly affects the genetic diversity within a given species, and there is no guarantee of
whether the good or bad genes will be retained or lost.

 The bottleneck effect is used to describe any event that reduces the population in a nonselective
manner.

 The founder effect occurs when a few individuals of a species colonize a new habitat and form the
genetic base for a new population.

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain how species diversity increases the probability of
adaptation and survival of organisms in changing environments.

How does species diversity increase the chances of adaptation of organisms in changing
environments?

Learn about it!

Organisms produce more offspring than their environment can support. Some of these organisms die due to
selection pressures, such as disease, food shortage, or predation. Selection pressures determine which
individuals can adapt, survive, and reproduce.

Adaptation

An adaptation occurs due to a genetic change or mutation. This genetic change can help an organism survive
better in its environment compared to others without the mutation. The mutated gene is passed on to
offspring from parents. As this gene is passed to the next generations, it becomes a typical part of the
organism.
Adaptations can be structural or behavioral. Structural adaptation is the genetic change altering the physical
part of the organism to make it better suited to the environment. For example, plants have adapted to life in
the desert. They evolved to have thick stems and leaves that can store water to adapt to the dry and hot
environment. On the other hand, behavioral adaptation affects the way an organism acts. For example,
migration is a behavioral adaptation that involves animals, such as birds, to move from one location to
another for better climate or more source of food. There were genetic changes that occurred in the ancestors
of these animals that have led to this behavior.

Learn about it!

Speciation

Speciation happens when an organism develops an adaptation or set of adaptations that produce new
species. Allopatric speciation is a type of speciation that happens due to physical isolation. For example, a
population of one species can evolve into several species if the population is divided into groups, and the
groups become isolated from each other. In each isolated group, mutations will randomly occur. Each group
will also experience different selection pressures that would determine the individuals that can survive due to
selective advantage. After a long period, the isolated groups will evolve to be different from each other. Even
when they come together, they can no longer interbreed so they are now different species.

Example
One example of speciation happened in Galapagos finch. In the Galapagos archipelago, finches live on
different islands separated by an ocean. Over millions of years, the finches developed beaks adapted to the
type of food they eat. Some finches have developed large, blunt beaks that are used to crack nut shells and
seeds. Other finches have long, thin beaks for probing into cactus flowers. Because they were isolated, they
have developed into different species with different characteristics.

Learn about it!

Species Diversity and Adaptation

Species diversity is a way for populations to adapt to their changing environments. When there is greater
diversity among the same species, there are greater chances that some of the individuals in the population
had mutations that produced alleles that are best suited for the changing environment. These individuals will
adapt and survive to produce offspring bearing that allele. The population continues to exist because of the
success of these individuals.

In contrast, very little diversity within species will result in less chances of survival. Reproduction is less likely to
be successful, and if inbreeding occurs, offspring are more likely to have problems. In addition, there are
fewer chances that there are individuals bearing alleles that have selective advantage when selection pressure
arrives.

Example
Little to no species diversity makes agricultural crops highly susceptible to disease. When a disease-causing
bacteria successfully attacks a certain crop, it can wipe out an entire plantation. In 1840s, Ireland depended on
potatoes for food. There was no species diversity in their grown potatoes so when Phytophthora
infestans attacked the potato plants, vast majority of potato crop was destroyed causing a million people
starve to death.

Explore!
Research on organisms that are able to adapt based on the changes in their environment. Identify the reasons
why they were able to adapt.

What do you think?

What happens when an organism fails to adapt? Explain using examples.

Key Points
 An adaptation occurs due to a genetic change or mutation that can help an organism survive better in
its environment compared to others without the mutation.

 Structural adaptation is the genetic change altering the physical part of the organism
while behavioral adaptationaffects the way an organism acts.

 Speciation happens when an organism develops an adaptation or set of adaptations that produce
new species.
  When there is greater diversity among the same species, there are greater chances that some of the
individuals in the population had mutations that produced alleles that are best suited for the changing
environment.

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain the influence of biodiversity on the stability of
ecosystems.

What is biodiversity? How does it influence the stability of an ecosystem?

Learn about it!

Biodiversity

Biodiversity is the degree of the variation of living organisms in a particular environment. It includes diversity
within species and between species of an ecosystem. Examples of areas with great biodiversity are coral reefs
and rainforests.

There are three aspects of biodiversity — genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity. Genetic
diversity refers to the variations in genes between individuals of a species. For example, all frogs are part of
the same species. However, their genes determine their type, such as poison dart frog or ornate horned frog.
There can be many variation in genes, just think about the different colors, sizes, and shapes of frogs.

Species diversity refers to the variety of species in a given ecosystem. For example, a forest ecosystem
contains different species, which include frogs, trees, and fungi.

Ecological biodiversity is the diversity of habitats and natural communities. It includes the variety of ways
species interact with each other and their environment. For example, rainforests can be found in Benguet and
Davao. However, these rainforests have different types of species, topography, and climate. Hence, rainforest
ecosystems may differ from one another.
Learn about it!
Ecosystem Stability

Ecosystems are considered stable when they maintain their structure and function over long periods of time,
despite disturbances. Ecosystem structure includes the diversity and population sizes of species as well as
the physical and geological structures of the ecosystem. On the other hand, ecosystem function refers to the
processes that the ecosystem provides. Examples of these processes include water and nutrient cycling and
biomass productivity.

There are two main components of ecosystem stability, namely, resistance and
resilience. Resistance describes the ability of an ecosystem to avoid disturbance while resilience describes
the speed with which an ecosystem returns to its original state after a disturbance. Ecosystems with high
degree of stability are resistant and resilient.

Learn about it!

Biodiversity is the key to ecosystem stability. The diagram below presents how increasing diversity can
stabilize the function of the ecosystem. Each rectangle represents an animal community with blue and green
species and the total number of individuals represent the productivity of the ecosystem. Note that the
abundance of these species depend on the temperature.
In the community of blue species, the number of species fluctuate depending on temperature. The same is
true for the community of green species. In contrast, the diverse community shows that the decrease in one
species is compensated by the increase in the other species. Therefore, the diverse community maintains its
function or productivity in the presence of the temperature disturbance.

What do you think?

How do human activities affect the stability of an ecosystem?

Key Points
 Biodiversity is the degree of the variation of living organisms in a particular environment.

 There are three aspects of biodiversity — species diversity, genetic diversity, and ecosystem diversity.

 Ecosystems are considered stable when they maintain their structure and function over long periods of
time, despite disturbances.

 Resistance describes the ability of an ecosystem to avoid disturbance while resilience describes the
speed with which an ecosystem returns to its original state after a disturbance.

 Ecosystems with high degree of stability are resistant and resilient.

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain the relationship between population growth and
carrying capacity.

Population dynamics is the branch of life sciences that studies the changes in the size and age composition
of populations.
What are the trends in population growth?

Learn about it!

Population growth

Population growth is the increase in the number of individuals in a population. There are two trends
commonly observed in a population, exponential and logistic growths.

Exponential growth happens when the population grows faster and faster as time goes on. When population
size is plotted against time, a J-shaped curve results. Exponential growth is only possible when infinite
resources are available and there is little to no competition, predation, and disease. This is not the case in the
real world because species compete for limited resources.

Logistic growth is growth that accounts the limited resources, competition, predation, and environmental
factors that can slow down population growth. The plot of population size vs. time is an S-shaped curve with
the first part of the graph similar to exponential growth. This part occurs in environments where there are few
individuals and plentiful resources. However, when the number of individuals becomes large enough, the
resources are depleted, and the growth rate slows down. Eventually, the growth rate levels off as the carrying
capacity is reached.

Learn about it!

Carrying Capacity

The carrying capacity is the maximum population size of a species that the ecosystem can sustain with its
natural resources. It influences the population size as well as birth rates, death rates, and movement of
species.

Overshoot

An overshoot occurs when the consumption of the population exceeds the carrying capacity of the
environment. When an overshoot happens, the existing population cannot be supported, and there are two
fates for the population. First, the population regains balance with the carrying capacity, either by decreasing
the consumption of resources or decreasing the population. Second, the population may collapse or die-off
because of the exhaustion of limited resources.

Example
When yeast, a microscopic fungus, is grown in a test tube, it exhibits logistic growth. Its population increases
until the nutrients are depleted, and the population growth plateaus.

Explore!
Research on historical records of population collapse after an overshoot in growth. Support your information
with a graph.

What do you think?

Population explosion is a sudden, large increase in the size of a population. How is the environment affected
during population explosion? Explain using examples.

Key Points
 Population growth is the increase in the number of individuals in a population.

 Exponential growth happens when the population grows faster and faster as time goes on.

 Logistic growth is growth that accounts the limited resources, competition, predation, and
environmental factors that can slow down population growth.

 The growth rate of a population levels off as the carrying capacity is reached.

 The carrying capacity is the maximum population size of a species that the environment can sustain
with its natural resources.

 An overshoot occurs when the consumption of the population exceeds the carrying capacity of the
environment.

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain how humans benefit from ecosystems.

Humans benefit from ecosystems, where they derive their food, building materials, pharmaceutical products,
and fuel. These benefits are known collectively as ecosystem services.

How are the ecosystem services categorized?

Learn about it!

Ecosystem services are the benefits supplied to human societies by natural ecosystems. They are categorized
into four groups – provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services.
Learn about it!
Provisioning Services

Provisioning services are the goods that ecosystems supply to human societies. They include water from
streams and rivers, timber and medicinal plants from forests, and seafood from oceans.

Regulating Services
Regulating services are the range of important functions ecosystems do to maintain life on the planet. They
include regulation of climate, protection from disasters such as landslides and storm surges, and removal of
pollutants by filtering water and air.

Learn about it!

Cultural Services

Cultural services are those that provide spiritual and recreational benefits. They are non-material, usually
non-consumptive, outputs of ecosystems that affect people's physical and mental states. For example,
beautiful landscapes and coastal formations are used for religious, educational, and ecotourism purposes.

Supporting Services

Supporting services are those that support other services. Unlike regulating and cultural services, they do not
impact humans directly. They include nutrient recycling, soil formation, seed dispersal, and crop pollination.

Example
An example of cultural service is nature serving as inspiration for art, folklore, national symbols, and

architecture. Many paintings, sculptures, stories, symbolism, and infrastructures are influenced by the

aesthetic value of nature.

Explore!
Think about how healthy ecosystems benefit humans. List ten ways you depend on these healthy ecosystems
and classify each benefit as provisioning, regulating, cultural, or supporting service of the ecosystem.

Try it!
Classify the following benefits as provisioning, regulating, cultural, or supporting service.

1. erosion control

2. fresh water

3. fiber for clothing

4. storm protection

5. scenic national park

What do you think?

Why is it important to learn ecosystem services?
Key Points
 Ecosystem services are the benefits supplied to human societies by natural ecosystems. They are
categorized into four groups – provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services.

 Provisioning services are the goods that ecosystems supply to human societies.

 Regulating services are the range of important functions ecosystems do to maintain life on the
planet.

 Cultural services are those that provide spiritual and recreational benefits.

 Supporting services are those that support other services.

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain how human activities can affect the environment.

What are the human activities that affect the environment?

Learn about it!

Many human activities affect the environment and cause imbalance of ecosystems. These activities include
deforestation, introduction of invasive species, pollution, and carbon dioxide emissions.

Deforestation

Humans cut down or burn trees to clear the land for farming and building infrastructures. They also use the
wood from trees as fuel or building materials. Replacement of cut trees through replanting is often not done
so the world's forests are steadily decreasing in size.
Deforestation has major consequences to the environment. Habitats of many plants and animals are
destroyed. Likelihood of soil erosion increases causing flood and landslides. In addition, when trees are
burned to clear forests, atmospheric pollution occurs.

Learn about it!

Introduction of Invasive Species

Invasive species are nonnative species that spreads widely in an ecosystem causing local biodiversity to
decline. Approximately 42% of threatened and endangered species are at risk primarily due to invasive
species. How do invasive species harm the environment? They can pose direct threats by preying on native
species, out-competing native species for resources, carrying diseases, and preventing native species from
reproducing.They can also pose indirect threats by changing food webs and changing ecosystem conditions,
such as soil chemistry.

Example
Mealybug (Pseudococcus sp.) is an insect that feeds on plant juices of coconuts. It also acts as a vector of
several plant diseases. It had infested many coconut plantations in Northern Palawan in 1990. It was
accidentally introduced to the area due to the importation of hybrid coconut planting materials.

Learn about it!

Pollution

Pollution is the introduction of harmful substances to the environment. Increasing population and standards
of living causes greater production of wastes, which when not handled properly, lead to pollution. Pollution
can affect land, water, and air.

Land pollution occurs when household rubbish and industrial waste are discharged onto land. These wastes
which often contain harmful substances are dumped in landfills. Also, toxic chemicals in pesticides and
herbicides that are used in agriculture pollute the land and are washed off into rivers, lakes, and seas.

Water pollution is the discharge of toxic substances into bodies of water. When these toxic substances reach
the habitat of aquatic plants and animals, they can cause intoxication and death of organisms.

Air pollution is often caused by combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles and power stations. It causes diseases,
allergies, and damages to organisms.

Example
Air pollution is often concentrated in densely populated cities, especially in developing countries including the
Philippines. Urban air pollution is one of the major causes of lung cancer and other respiratory diseases. In the
Philippines, it causes death to hundreds of people per year.
Learn about it!
Carbon Dioxide Emissions

Energy drives the world's economy. This energy is often derived from fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and gas. By
burning these fuels, humans have added nearly 400 billion tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere for the
past 140 years. Carbon dioxide traps the solar heat in the atmosphere, causing rising temperatures and
changing weather patterns. The graph below presents the correlation between atmospheric carbon dioxide
levels and estimated average temperature.

In addition, some carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is absorbed into the oceans, increasing their acidity by
about 30% for the past 100 years. This increase in acidity affect many oceanic ecosystems by disrupting food
chains involving aquatic plants and animals.

Try it!
List down the things you normally do in school that help minimize the impact of human activities in the
environment.

What do you think?

With continuous efforts, do you think that the environment will be able to revert into its previous state?

Key Point
Human activities affect the environment. These activities include deforestation, introduction of nonnative
species, pollution, and carbon dioxide emission.

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to suggest ways to minimize human impact on the environment.

How can humans minimize their negative impact on the environment?

Learn about it!

Ecological Footprint

The ecological footprint is a measure of the impact of human activities on the environment. It is measured in
terms of the area of land and water resource required to produce goods that humans consume and to
assimilate the generated waste.

Ecological footprint is also the measure of the sustainability of a population's consumption. Sustainability is
the ability of the present generation to meet their needs without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet theirs.

Learn about it!

What are the different ways to reduce ecological footprint?

You can help minimize your ecological footprint in each consumption category – transportation, housing, and
goods.

Use of Cleaner Transport

1. Walk, bike, or take public transport whenever possible. By minimizing the use of private vehicles, you
will help reduce the amount of carbon dioxide emissions.

2. If you need to use private vehicle to go to school, you can try carpooling. You can ask your classmates
to share the car on your trip to school. By having more people use one vehicle, carpooling reduces
each person's travel cost. It also reduces traffic congestion on roads, need for parking spaces, and
carbon emissions.

3. Have your private vehicles checked regularly to keep the emission control systems working at
maximum efficiency. Check the vehicle's air filter monthly, and keep the tires inflated to maximize gas
mileage.
Use of Energy-Saving Materials

1. Use energy-saving lights such as compact fluorescent light (CFL) bulbs and light emitting diodes (LEDs).
These lighting devices are better than the incandescent bulbs which waste a lot of energy.

2. Choose energy-efficient appliances. Check their labels, and compare their power usage.

3. Install and use a clothes line to reduce the energy used in clothes dryers.

4. If possible, use solar panels as energy source.

Learn about it!

Practice of Energy-Saving Habits

1. Unplug your electronic devices when not in use.

2. Defrost your freezer and refrigerator regularly.

3. Open windows to naturally cool your home without the need of air conditioners.

4. During daylight hours, switch off artificial lights, and use windows and skylights to bring in sunlight and
brighten your home.

5. Allow hot foods to cool to room temperature before placing them in the refrigerator.

Reducing Foods and Goods Footprint

1. When going to the grocery stores, bring your own eco-bags to avoid using plastic bags.

2. Buy food that is locally produced. When the farm is closer, the less fuel is needed to transport the food.

3. Plant a garden, and grow your own fresh produce. Growing your own fruits and vegetables reduces the
energy and waste in transport, refrigeration, and packaging.

4. Do not waste food. Buy only those that you will eat.

5. Place biodegradable wastes in a compost. Kitchen scraps and garden cuttings can be used as
fertilizers. Composting reduces the amount of waste thrown in landfills.

Learn about it!

Saving Water

1. Take shorter showers.

2. Check faucets and pipes for leaks.

3. Use a broom, not a water hose, to clean walkways and driveways.

 4. Rinse and clean vegetables in stoppered sink or a pan of clean water.

5. Turn off the sink faucet while scrubbing the dishes and cooking pots.

6. Water your garden using a watering can instead of a hosepipe.

7. Turn off the faucet when soaping your hands or brushing your teeth. Do not keep the water flowing
when not in use.

What do you think?

What are the ways to reduce ecological footprints in school?

Key Points
 The ecological footprint is a measure of the impact of human activities on the environment.

 You can minimize your ecological footprint in each consumption category – transportation, housing,
and goods.