REVIEW ON TILLAGE AND FERTILIZER APPLICATION ON

SORGHUM PRODUCTION IN ETHIOPIA

By
Eyerus Mamuye

ID NO:-DBUR/2007/09

Advisor:-Tafese Altaye (Msc.)

A SENIOR SEMINAR PAPER SUBMITTED TO DEPARTMENT OF PLANT

SCIENCE, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURBCE,
DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE COURSE

SENIOR SEMINAR (Plsc3104)

January, 2019

DBU, Ethiopia
 List of abbreviations
SSF sub-seharan farm

DM dry mater

USA uinaytid state of America

CP curved protein

CSA cultivated area and sorghum accounted

ZT Zero tillage

LA leaf area

i.
TABLE CONTENTS PAGE

List of abbreviations………………………………………………i

1. INTRODUCTION ---------------------------------------------------------------------1

1.1. Background and Justification

1.2 Objective of the review --------------------------------------------------------------4

2. LITRATURE REVIEW ----------------------------------------------------------------5

2.1 Botany /taxonomy of sorghum ……………………………………………5

2.2 Uses of sorghum……………………………………………………6

2.2.1 Physiological characteristics of sorghum------------------------------------------------7

2.2.2 Drought tolerance -------------------------------------------------------------------------7

2.2.3 Cold tolerance --------------------------------------------------------------8

2.2.4 Nutrient efficiency……………………………………………………8

2.3 Effect of tillage and fertilizer on production ---------------------------------9

2.3.1 Nitrogen requirement -------------------------------------------------------------11

2.3.2 Phosphorous requirement ----------------------------------------------------------12

2.3.3 Potassium requirement--------------------------------------------------------------12

3 Conclusions -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------13

4 References……………………………………………………………………...14
 1.INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background and Justification

Sorghum (sorghum bicolor (L). MoechI) is one of the major traditional food crops of Ethiopia
ranks third in the area coverage following teff and maize. About 41% of the sub-Saharan farm
(SSF) farming land is in the semi-arid region. Only 2% of the arable land is irrigated, which
indicates that rain fed agriculture is the main source of crop production for the increasing
population in this region. However, rain fed agriculture is not coping for unreliable rainfall and
recurrent droughts that lead to subsequent production failure (Zougmore et al 2002).the effect of
rainfall on soil erosion and the associated nutrient losses is expressed by the widespread of poor
soil fertility and crust prone soils of cultivated land (Breman et.al, 2001). In such environmental
condition sorghum (sorghum bicolor L Moenchi) is a major food crop in Ethiopia with
approximately 297,000ha production per annum and in northern Ethiopia it accounted for
255,000ha y-1(Wortmann et al 2006).

Sorghum is one of the leading traditional food crops in Ethiopia comprising 15%-20% of total
cereal production in the country. It is the third major cereal crop next to teff and maize in
consumption and cultivated area and sorghum accounted for about 14.5% of total cultivated area
(CSA,2000 ;Wortmann et al 2006). However its average yield per unit is not more than 1.0-
(CSA, 2000), which is below the world average of 2.3 t ha -1(Benti, 1993).though sorghum yield
is constrained by different factors; it is the dominant crop in the semi-arid areas. Two major
factor that characterize agriculture in Ethiopia include i) the erratic climate condition with
frequent periods of water shortage (Tewodros Mesfin et al 2009) and ii) the presence of larger
areas of low fertile and crust prone soils (Morin;1993, Breman et al; 2001).
 1.

This situation is particularly worsened by continuous cultivation with low or no input

application, overgrazing and trampling by cattle (Mando, 1997). The effects of these factors have
resulted in severe human-induced land degradation (Sanchez et al, 1997; Wortmann and Ssali,
2001; Pendek et al, 2004). Which is the major cause for crop production failure to meet the
demand of population growth (Davidson et al, 2003)

Several studies have been conducted to understand soil degradation process in Ethiopia (Holden
and Shiferaw, 2002). Among the soil degradation process, nutrient depletion, surface sealing
/crusting and soil erosion are the most prominent ones (Morin,1993 ;Holden and Shiferaw ,
2002). In order to limit further degradation and the associated production losses, assessing the
impact of potential agronomic practices such as tillage and fertilizer practices on crop production
is thus too crucial.

Integrated soil and crop management practices should be addressed simultaneously in order to
reduce run off and soil erosion associated with nutrient loss, increase water infiltration, and
nutrient availability for crop production (Breman et al 2010). Micro basins created by tillage can
reduce run off and increase infiltration and there by water available for crop production
(Gebreyesus Birhane et al, 2006; Gebreyesus Birhane Tesfahunegnh and Wortmann, 2008). Tie
ridging is a form of tillage which consists of ridging the soil typically to heights of 0.20 to 0.30
m and is blocked with earth ties spaced considering slope of land, soil infiltration rate, and
expected rainfall.

Planting of crops can be either in the furrows or in the ridges based on the expected soil
moisture required for a particular crop (Gebreyesus Birhane et al.., 2009, Gebreyesus Birhane
Tesfahun and Wortmann, 2008; TewodrosMesfin et al... 2009).

The beneficial effects of tillage such as tied ridging on crop yield vary due to differences in
amount and distribution of rainfall, soil type, slope, landscape position, crop type, time of ridging
,and the condition where rainfall events to result in significant runoff(Gebreyesus Birhane et al.2
006).
 2.

Tied ridging increased sorghum grain yield and soil water by more than 40% and 25%,
respectively, as compared to traditional tillage practice (shilshalo) in northern Ethiopia
(GebreyesusBirhane et al…, 2006).Study also shows that lack of greater response to applied N
and P fertilizer in Ethiopia was probably due to soil water deficit which is the major yield-
limiting factor (Tewodros Mesfin et al, 2009).

According to Tewodros Mesfin et al, (2009),’’profitable crop response to applied nutrients

depends on soil water availability’’. However ,improper use of tied ridging can result in
problems such as ridge-over topping, ridge failure, water logging, and total loss of the crop in
severe storms(Jones and Clark,1987).Despite the above facts , however , so far,, there had been
insufficient published works that evaluate the role of tied ridging and other tillage practices as
part of moisture harvesting techniques integrated with fertilizer at farmers fields using different
local varieties of sorghum in Ethiopia.

3.
 1.2 Objective

The major objective of this review:

 To review effect of tillage and fertilizer application in sorghum

production.
 4.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Botany /taxonomy of sorghum

The genus Sorghum is a member of the tribe Andropogoneae of the grass family (Poaceae)
(USDA-ARS 2012). Sorghum comprises approximately 25 species, and is divided into five
subgenera: Chaetosorghum, Heterosorghum, Parasorghum, Stiposorghum,
and Eusorghum (Garber 1950; De Wet 1978; USDA-ARS 2012).

In addition to S. bicolor, the subgenus Eusorghum contains the ergonomically-important

species Sorghum propinquum (Kunth) Hitchc. And Sorghum halepense L. (Pers.) (derived from
past hybridization between S. bicolor and S. propinquum (Paterson et al.1995). S. bicolor is a
genetically diverse diploid (2n = 2x = 20) (Bark worth 2006; Smith and Frederickson 2000). The
classification of S. bicolor has been controversial and challenging due to high variability within
the species (Wireman and Dahlberg 2007). Snowdon (1936) defined a complex with annual
members of Sorghum Moench subg. Sorghum comprising 7 weedy, 13 wild, and 28 cultivated
species. All of these species, in addition to perennial members, were later grouped within the
single species, S. bicolor (De Wet and Huckabee 1967). A review of the classification and recent
refinements can be found in Wiersema and Dahlberg (2007). In the peer-reviewed literature and
sources of grower information (seed companies, extension publications etc.) terminology use is
inconsistent and it is often challenging to determine the species, subspecies, and race or working
group being referenced.

5.
Currently, S. bicolor has three recognized subspecies: subsp. bicolor,
subsp. verticilliflorum (Steud.) de Wet ex Wiersema & J. Dahlb, and subsp. drummondii (Steud.)
de Wet ex Davidse (Wiersema and Dahlberg 2007).The sub species bicolor includes the
domesticated sorghum used for grain. It is divided based on floral morphology into five
interfertile races (Bicolor, Kafir, Caudatum, Durra, and Guinea) that can produce 10 intermediate
races (Brown et al.2011; Harlan and De Wet 1972; Morris et al. 2013). Wild types
of S. bicolor are included in the subspecies verticilliflorum. Annual weedy derivatives arising
from the hybridization of domesticated sorghum and subspecies verticilliflorum make up the
subspecies drummondii. The intergrades of the subspecies drummondii are highly variable due to
gene segregation and include shatter cane (a feral form) and Sudan grass.

Early Bicolor sorghum is believed to have arisen from the sub species verticilliforum in central
Africa (Dahlberg, 1995). The races, caudatumkafir, guinea, and Durra were created by the
crossing of early bicolor with the wild forms of sorghum. It is believed that the guinea race has
been evolved when the bicolor came in to contact with the wild S. arudinaceum.

2.2 Uses of sorghum

Rooney and Waniska (2000) provide tremendous overview of the uses of food and industry.
Worldwide, sorghum has been used for human food, animal feed, building material and fencing
(House 1985, Dog get 1988). Traditionally, sorghum is used in unfermented and fermented
breads, porridges, couscous rice like products, snacks, and malted alcoholic and nonalcoholic
beverages in many African and Asian countries. Sorghum can be used to produce foods that are
gluten free and is this respect the potential for the new food uses exists for both the USA and
Europe. Broomcorn is a classic example of sorghum in Europe (Basenji and Kisgeci 1996). The
demand of ecological and natural products has led to renewed interest in old fashioned,
biodegradable, wooden-handled brooms, which have had a positive effect on broomcorn
production.
 6.

2.2.1 Physiological characteristics of sorghum

2.2.2. Drought tolerance

The c4 cereals, like sorghum are originated from the tropics and can tolerate heat and drought
condition more effectively as compared with c3 plants like, wheat, which originated from
temperate regions (Blum et al 1990, Chapman and Carter 1976). Under arid environmental
condition , osmotic adjustment is imperative in the drought resistance of many C4 plants
(Slayter 1963) and may enable sorghum to grow when leaf water potential is low (Craufurd et al
1993). Due to several morphological and physiological properties, sorghum is better drought
resistance in comparison with maize (Purseglove 1972).

Among the properties, first the plant grows slowly until the root system is established, second as
compared with maize, it can produce two time higher secondary roots ,third during drought
stress, silica deposits in the endodermis of the root avoid tissue collapse, forth leaf area is about
half of that of equivalent maize , fifth evapo-transpiration from sorghum is about half as
compared with maize, six leaves contain a thicker cuticle and they in-roll completely under
drought condition.

Sorghum has an advantage of by penetrating the soil faster and to greater depths. Under similar
condition maize root grew to about 1m depth whereas sorghum root penetrated more than 2m,
thus allowing extraction of significantly more water (Squire 1990).

7.
2.2.3. Cold tolerance

Sorghum plant is considered sensitive to cold temperatures at germination and seedling stage of
growth. Under cold temperature, poor emergence and seedling loss results in reduced plant
population and grain yield.

Improvement in cold tolerance during germination and early seedling development can
potentially allow expansion of sorghum cultivation in region of colder climates. Germination,
emergence and seedling growth have been shown to be independently sensitive to cold
temperature (Alegre and Miller 1984). Singh (1995) found that the intensity of cold tolerance in
sorghum differs with the stage of plant growth. The chilling stress induced declines in
photosynthetic capacity of sorghum (Taylor and Rowey 1971). Author also argued that there are
many conditions i.e. cloudy conditions or darkness, where the photosynthetic apparatus of
sorghum may not be influenced by low temperatures.

2.2.4.Nutrient efficiency

Although sorghum plants (c4 ) use N more efficiently than most c3 type crops and are more
tolerant to drought and high temperature stresses compared with corn ( Young and Long 2000),
N deficiency can suppress plant growth and dry matter (DM) accumulation and allocation .
Lower plant biomass production due to N shortage was linked with reduction in both leaf area
(LA) and leaf photosynthetic capacity (Sinclair 1990) and was mainly attributed to smaller LA in
sorghum.

8.
Nitrogen deficiency decreased LA, chlorophyll content of sorghum plants that resulted in lower
DM accumulation (Zhao et al 2005). Lemaitre et al (1996) concluded that the sorghum has
greater ability to satisfy its nitrogen requirement, with better uptake of N from the soil, gives this
species an undeniable agronomic advantage over maize, due to its greater adaptation to growing
condition in limiting in water and nitrogen .Examining the relative aerial/ underground growth
kinetics of two species provide grid for analyzing the balance between the nitrogen supply
characterized by the uptake capacities of roots system and the nitrogen demand which is
determined mainly by the dynamics of the leaf area development. With irrigation and high
nitrogen fertilizer application, maize dry matter accumulation was higher than that of sorghum,
due to earlier development of leaf area in maize, leading to larger quantity of intercepted
radiation (Lemaitre et al 1996). But when nitrogen was limiting, the capacity of sorghum to take
up N from the soil was always higher than that of maize

2.3 Effect of tillage and fertilizer on production

Study show that the extent of sorghum productivity can be constrained by soil water, nitrogen
and phosphorous availability in semi-arid areas. In spite of this fact, farmers in semi-arid areas
are not practicing appropriate tillage practices such as tied –ridging that improved soil water and
availability of N and P nutrients added as fertilizer to soils.

This practices played its role in demonstrating at farmers field the importance of different
tillage and fertilizer treatments in boosting biomass and yield by reducing the problems of soil
water stress and fertility deficits.

9.
Studies revealed that soil moisture deficit for crop production in semi-arid northern Ethiopia is
not mainly associated with the amount of rainfall in the crop season but also affected by type and
time of soil and management practices applied (Gebreyesus Birhane et al.. 2006). It can also be
due to the temporal rainfall variability and rainfall fluctuation, is makes difficult to predict the
regular planting date for sorghum. Even though time of planning was not addressed for a
particular variety in this review, for situation of the semiarid area appropriate moisture harvesting
techniques such as tied-ridging is essential for increasing soil moisture for crop establishment
and during grain filling. The effect of tied-ridging on crop yield can be varied with difference in
amount and distribution of rainfall, variety, fertilizer conditions and the time of ridging
application.

The effects of soil water deficit during the grain-filling period are reflect by the small grain size
(seed weight) and low grain yield as observe on zero tillage (ZT) and SBP. This may be due to
the low infiltration rate of the soil because infiltration time is too short for soils treat by ZT. In
such conditions, crop can be exposing to moisture stress especially at establishment and grain-
filling stage. It can be conclude that ZT in the study area might not be appropriate tillage system
without pre-soil management that improves the infiltration and water holding capacity of
the soil. Zero tillage (ZT) will have a positive environmental effect globally by sequestering
carbon (Desjardins et al., 2002; Aune et al., 2006). It is also reported that ZT sequesters carbon
because there is a low decomposition rate of soil organic matter and this is associate more with
recycling of organic matter (Desjardins et al., 2002; Aune et al., 2006). For this reason, the effect
of ZT on soil and there by on crop yield should be assessed for long periods in the northern
Ethiopia conditions.
 10.

2.3.1 Nitrogen requirement

Nitrogen is considered to have greater importance in improving the yield and quality of fodder.
Nitrogen application increased CP (crude protein). Application of N up to 120kg ha-1 enhanced
the green forage, dry matter and CP contents in sorghum (Bebawi 1988, Patilet et al 1992). In
Sudan grass and sorghum XSudan grass hybrids, the impact of N fertilization on dry matter
yield varied with time of harvest.
According to Iptas and Brohi (2003) increasing N fertilizer rates from 60-240kg ha-1 had no
significant effect at the first and third cutting, but the highest dry matter yield was obtained with
80kgNha-1 at the second cutting of sorghum x Sudan grass hybrids. N fertilization up to 100 or
150kg ha-1 resulted in more forage and dry matter production (Turgut et al 2005). However,
when the fertilization levels were lower or higher than those levels, the forage and dry matter
yields were decreased. Seed yield also showed similar trends as with forage and dry matter, and
maximized at N fertilization regimes

The grain yield of sorghum increased with higher level of N (Poornimaa et al 2008).the highest
grain yield was recorded was with 150kgN ha-1(2173kgha-1) which was similar to 120kgha-1

(2063kgha-1).the increase in grain yield was 62, 54 and 43 percent higher under 150kgN ha -1,
120kgNha-1 and 90kg ha-1 respectively over control. The increased grain yield at high N levels
might be caused by the boost up of yield attributing characters and nutrient uptake under these
treatments.

11.
2.3.2 Phosphorous requirement

Phosphorous is critical for the early development of young sorghum plant. A phosphorous
deficiency can cause a restricted of root development and delayed flowering and maturity in
sorghum. To take more benefits, phosphorous should be applied as a band at planting so that
seedlings have immediate access to this element. Phosphorous does not have similar significant
effects on fodder yield and quality as nitrogen. It was observed that protein content and yield
were not affected by P205 application (Patel et al 1993).a previous study showed that crude fiber
decreased with increasing N but was not influenced by P application (Patel et al .1994).
2.3.3 Potassium requirement
Potassium requirement is taken up in large amount by sorghum plant. Potassium plays an
important role in water relation with in the plant and vigor, disease resistance and grain quality.
Sorghum takes up 50% of its potassium requirement during the vegetative growth period prior to
floral initiation (Pacific seed, 2007/2008). Adequate supplies of potassium are therefore essential
for establishment of a healthy stand of grain sorghum.

12.
 3. Conclusion

In general the application of appropriate tillage and fertilizer practices are important to increase
crop production in arid and semi-arid areas of Ethiopia. With interaction of effect of tied ridge
after week planting with fertilizer, grain yield increased by 27% for the early planted varieties as
compared to shilshalo and about 45% for the late planted variety as compared to zero tillage,
indicating that there is synergetic effect of soil moisture and soil nutrients on productivity.

The sorghum (sorghum bicolor moenchi) which is a member of the panacea family .Is
indigenous to Africa and is one of the leading traditional food crops in Ethiopia comprising 15%
-20% of the total cereal production in the country. Although commercial needs and uses my
chanse over time .Researches Shaw that sorghum will remain basic staps food for many rural
communities especially in the more drought pron areas of Africa due to its well-developed
primary and secondary root system. Its productivity mainly constrain by soil, water and nutrient
deficits.

The aim of this review is to evaluate the effects of tillage and fertilizer practices on productivity
of sorghum. it can be concluded that productivity and production of sorghum is increased by
appropriate tillage system integrated with appropriate fertilizer application at famers fields using
different varieties of sorghum. Interactions effect of tillage with fertilizer significantly improves
the yield of sorghum varieties.

13.
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