r INTRODUCTION

In previous chapters,you saw how to anaTyzevarious

types of circuits using Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's
laws. Some types of circuits are difficult to analyze
using only those basic laws and require additional
methods in order to simplify the analysis.
The theorems and conversionsin this chapter
make analysis easier for certain types of circuits.

CIRCUIT These methods do not replace Ohm's law and Kirch-

hoff's laws, but they are normally used in conjunction

THEOREMSAND with the laws in certain situations.

Becauseall electric circuits are driven by either
voltage sourcesor current sources,it is important to
CONVERSIONS understandhow to work with these elements.The
superpositiontheorem will help you to deal with cir-
cuits that have multiple sources.Thevenin's and Nor-
B-1 The VoltageSource ton's theoremsprovide methods for reducing a circuit
8-2 The CurrentSource to a simple equivalent form for easeof analysis.The
maximum power transfer theorem is used in applica-
B-3 SourceConversions
tions where it is important for a given circuit to pro-
B-4 The Superposition
Theorem vide maximum power to a load. An example of this is
B-5 Thevenin'sTheorem an audio amplifier that provides maximum power to a
B-6 Norton'sTheorem speaker.Delta-to-wye and wye-to-delta conversions
8-7 Maximum PowerTransfer are sometimesuseful when analyzing bridge circuits
Theorem that are commonly found in systemsthat measure
physical parameterssuch as temperature,pressure,
8-B Delta-to-Wye(A-to-Y)and
and strain.
Wye-to-Delta(Y-to-A) In the TECH TIP assignmentin Section 8-9,
Conversions you will be working with a temperaturemeasurement
B-9 TechnologyTheoryinto Practice and control circuit that uses a Wheatstonebridge,
which you studied in Chapter 7. You will utilize
Electronics (EWB)
Workbench Thevenin's theorem as well as other techniquesin the
and
evaluationof this circuir.
PSpiceTutorialsavailableat
http://www.prenhall.com/floyd
TECHnology
Theorv

CHAPTER
OBfECTTVES
Describethe characteristicsof a voltage source tr Apply Norton's theorem to simplify a circuit
Describethe characteristicsof a current source tr Apply the maximum power transfer theorem
Performsourceconversions tr Perform A-to-Y and Y-to-A conversions
Applythe superpositiontheorem to circuit analysis
ApplyThevenin'stheorem to simplify a circuit for
analysis

ICAL NOTD

Charles Thevenin was born in Paris. France. in

. He graduated from the Ecole Polytechnique in
and, in 1878, joined the Corps of Telegraph Engi-
where he initially worked on the development of
underground telegraph lines. During his
Thevenin became increasinslv interested in the
of measurements in electrical circuits. As a
of studying Kirchhoff's laws, which were essen-
derived from Ohm's law, he developed his now
theoremwhich made calculations involvins com-
circuitspossible.
262 I CIRCUITTHEOREMS
AND CONVERSIONS

8_1 r THE VOTTAGESOURCE

The voltage source is the principal type of energy source in electronic applications, so
it is important to anderstand its chqracteristics. The voltage soarce ideally provides
constant voltage to a load even when the load resistance vqries.

After completing this section, you should be able to

I Describe the characteristics of a voltage source
. Compare a practical voltage source to an ideal source
. Discuss the effect of loading on a practical voltage
source

Figure 8-1(a) is the familiar symbol for an ideal dc voltage source. The voltage across
its terminals, A and B, remains fixed regardlessof the value of load resistancethat may
be connectedacrossits output. Figure 8-l(b) shows a load resistor,R1, connected.All of
the source voltage, v5, is dropped across R;. Ideally, R; can be changed to any value
except zero, and the voltage will remain fixed. The ideal voltage source has an internal
resistanceof zero.

FIGUREB-1
Ideal dc voltagesource.

vq rL__
(a) Unloaded (b) Loaded

In reality, no voltage source is ideal. That is, all voltage sourceshave some inher-
ent internal resistanceas a result of their physical and,/orchemical makeup, which can
be representedby a resistor in series with an ideal source, as shown in Figure g-2(a).
Rs is the internal source resistanceand Vs is the source voltage. With no load, the out-
put voltage (voltage from A to B) is Vs. This voltage is sometimes called the open cir-
cuit voltage.

FIGUREB-2 Voltage source

Practical voltagesource.

(a) Unloaded (b) Loaded

Loadingof the VoltageSource

When a load resistor is connectedacrossthe output terminals, as shown in Figure 8-2O),
all ofthe sourcevoltage does not appearacrossR1. Some ofthe voltage is dropped across
Rs becauseRs and R1 are in series.
If R5 is very small compared to R., the source approachesideal becausealmost all
of the source voltage, v5, appearsacross the larger resistance,R'. very little voltage is
 SOURCE .
THEVOLTAGE 263

dropped across the internal resistance,Rs. If Rr changes, most of the source voltage
remains across the output as long as R; is much larger than R5. As a result, very little
change occurs in the output voltage. The larger R1 is, compared to Rr, the less change
there is in the output voltage.
Example 8-1 illustrates the effect of changesin R; on the output voltage when R;
is much greater than Rs. Example 8-2 shows the effect of smaller load resistances.

EXAMPLE B-1 Calculate the voltage output of the sourcein Figure 8-3 for the following values of R;:
100 O, 560 O, and 1.0kQ.

FICUREB-3 Rs

10f,)
vs
i00v

Solution For R1 = 100 O, the voltage output is

=(= 1'. )u,

vour =
" f+:*)roo
v =eo.e
v
\Rr+R./ \110""/
For R1 = 560 fl,

v^,*= /s6oo\r oov = 98.2

v
\570f)/
ForR.: 1.0kA,

v o u r/=1000
( f f ioJ\.' o^^0 v = e e . O v
Notice that the output voltage is within lUVo of the source voltage, V5, for all
three values of R1 becauseR; is at least ten times R5.

Related Problem Determine V6s1 in Figure 8-3 if Rs = 50 O and R; = 10 kQ.

EXAMPLE B-2 Determine Vsua for Rr = 10 fl and for Rr = 1.0 O in Figure 8-3.

Solution For R; = 10 fl, the voltage output is

vor. I R' \" / to9)roo v = sov

r=\Rs+Rr/"t=\zotr7

For R1 = 1.0 A,
/ 10 c)\
vour=(\ffiJt*v=e.Oev
Related Prohlem What is V6ur with no load resistor in Figure 8-3?
264 ! C I R C U I T H E O R E MASN D C O N V E R S I O N S

Notice in Example 8-2 that the output voltage decreasessignificantly as R1 is

smaller compared to R5. This example illustrates the requirement that R. must be
larger than R5 in order to maintain the output voltage near its open circuit value.

SECTIONB-1 1. What is the symbol for the ideal voltage source?

REVIEW ) Sketcha practical voltagesource.
3. What is the internal resistanceof the ideal voltagesource?
4. What effect does the load have on the output voltage of the practical voltage
source?

B-2 r THE CU R R E N T
S OU R C E
The current source is another type of energy source that ideally provides a constant
current to u loqd even when the resistance of the loqd varies. The concept of the car.
rent source is important in certain types of transistor circuits.

After completing this section, you should be uble to

I Describe the characteristics of a current source
. Compare a practical current source to an ideal source
. Discuss the effect of loading on a practical current source

Figure 8-4(a) shows a symbol for the ideal current source. The arrow indicates
direction of current, and 15is the value of the source current. An ideal current source
duces a constant value of current through a load, regardlessof the value of the load. Thi
concept is illustrated in Figure 8-4(b), where a load resistor is connected to the curent
source between terminals A and B. The ideal current source has an inflnitely large inter-
nal parallel resistance.

FIGURE8-4
Ideal current source.

(a) Unloaded (b) Loaded

Transistors act basically as current sources,and for this reason, knowledge of the
current source concept is important. You will find that the equivalent model of a transis-
tor does contain a current source.
Although the ideal cuffent source can be used in most analysis work, no actual
device is ideal. A practical current sourcerepresentationis shown in Figure 8-5. Here the
internal resistanceappearsin parallel with the ideal current source.
If the internal source resistance,R5, is much larger than a load resistor, the practi-
cal source approachesideal. The reasonis illustrated in the practical current source shown
in Figure 8-5. Part of the current, 1r, is through R5, and part is through Rr. ResistorsR5
and R1 act as a current divider. If R5 is much larger than R', most of the current is through
 T OURCE.
T H EC U R R E N S 265

F I G U R EB - 5 Current source
Practical current sourcewith load.

1s
I Rs RL

R. and very little through R5. As long as R. remains much smaller than Rs, the current
through it will stay almost constant,no matter how much R1 changes.
If there is a constant-cuffent source, you can normally assumethat Rs is so much
larger than the load that R5 can be neglected.This simplifies the source to ideal, making
the analysis easier.
Example 8-3 illustrates the effect of changes in R. on the load current when R;
is much smaller than R5. Generally, R; should be at least ten times smaller than R5
(1ORr< Rs).

EXAMPLE
B-3 Calculate the load current (1) in Figure 8-6 for the following values of R.: 100 f),
560 O, and 1.0 kQ.

F I G U R EB - 6

_ l
4 /(s I,"{I
1A loko

Solution For R. = 100 (-), the load current is

1.=f ^-4=\t. =f+9)'k O / o =eeo

mA
\Rr+R./" \10.1
For R. = 560 O,

r," = /-419=\' o = e47

mA
\ 10..56
kf) i
For R. = 1.0kO,

1,=/loko\to=eoemA
\rrto/-'^
Notice that the load current, [, is within l07o of the source current for each
value of R. becauseR; is at least ten times smaller than R5.

Related Problem At what value of R1 in Figure 8-6 will the load current equal
750 mA?
266 T AND CONVERSIONS
CIRCUITTHEOREMS

SECTION8_2 1. What is the symbol for an ideal current source?

REVIEW 7 Sketch the practical current source.
3. What is the internal resistance of the ideal cunent source?
4. What effect does the load have on the load current of the practical current sourcet,i

8-3 r SOURCECONVERSIONS
In circail analysis, it is sometimes useful to convert a voltage source to an equivalent
current soarce. or vice versa.
After completing this section, you should be able to
I Perform source conversions
. Convert a voltage source to a current source
. Convert a current source to a voltage source
. Define terminal equivalency

Convertinga VoltageSourceto a CurrentSource

The source voltage, V5, divided by the internal source resistance,R5, gives the value
the equivalent source current.

1,=*

The value of R5 is the samefor both the voltage and current sources.As illustrated in Fi
ure 8-7, the directional arrow for the current points from minus to plus. The equi
current source is in parallel with R5.

(a) Voltage source (b) Current source

F I G U R EB - 7
Conversionof volnge sourceto equivahnt cunent source.

Equivalency of two sourcesmeans that for any given load resistanceconnected

the two sources,the same load voltage and load current are produced by both
This concept is called terminal equivalency.
You can show that the voltase source and the current source in Fieure 8-7
equivalent by connecting a load resistor to each, as shown in Figure 8-8, and then
lating the load current. For the voltage source,the load current is

vs
,,r_
_
Rr+Ra
 I 267
S O U R C EC O N V E R S I O N S

ys t - %
RS Rs+R.

(a) Loaded voltage source (b) Loaded cunent sourca

F I G U R EB - B
Equivalentsourceswith loads.

For the current source,

r- , = ( R ' \ _ ! " = v '

\Rs + RL/Rs R, + R.
As you see,both expressionsfor ITne the same.These equations show that the sources
are equivalent as far as the load or terminals A and B are concerned.

Convert the voltage sourcein Figure 8-9 to an equivalent current source and show the
equivalent circuit.

F I G U R EB - 1 0

Solution The value of R5 is the same as with a voltage source.Therefore, the equiv-
alent current source is

. v. 100\' - ' ^
' 5 - R s -- _ - a A

5oo
Figure 8-10 shows the equivalent circuit.

Related Problem Determine 1s and Rs of a current source equivalent to a voltage

sourcewith vs = 12 v and R5 = 10 Q.

Convertinga CurrentSourceto a VoltageSource

The source curent, 15,multiplied by the internal sourceresistance,R5, gives the value of
the equivalent source voltage.

7s = lsRs
268 ! AND CONVERSIONS
CIRCUITTHEOREMS

Again, R5 remains the same. The polarity of the voltage source is minus to plus in the
direction of the current. The equivalent voltage sourceis the voltage in serieswith R5, as
illustratedin Figure 8-11.

rr-
^q _r1*-^
'*':r--
i^.
I I .B LB
(a) Current source (b) Voltage source

F I G U R EB - 1 1
Conversion of current soutce to equivalent vollage source,

EXAMPLEB_5 Convert the current sourcein Figure 8-l2to an equivalentvoltage source and show the
equivalent circuit.

F I G U R EB - 1 2

Solution The value of R5 is the same as with a current source.Therefore, the equiv-
alent voltage source is
Vs = /sRs = (10 mAXl.0 kA) = 19 Y

Figure 8-13 shows the equivalent circuit.

F I G U R EB - 1 3

Related Problem Determine V5 and R5 of a voltage source equivalent to a current

source with 1q= 500 mA and Rs = 600 Q.
 THE SUPERPOSITION
THEOREM . 269

1. Write the formula for converting a voltage source to a current source.

2. Write the formula for convertinga current sourceto a voltagesource.
3. convert the voltagesourcein Figure 8-14 to an equivalentcurrent source.
4. convert the current source in Figure 8-15 to an equivalent voltage source.

Ys*

F I G U R EB - 1 4 F I G U R EB - 1 5

r TH ESU P E R P OS IT ION
T H E OR E M
some circuits require more than one voltage or current source. For example, most
ampffiers operate with two voltage sources: an ac snd a dc source. some ampffiers
require both a positive and a negative dc voltage sourcefor proper operation.

After completing this section, you should be able to

r Apply the superposition theorem to circuit analysis
. State the superpositiontheorem
. List the steps in applying the theorem

The superposition method is a way to determine currents and voltages in a circuit that
has multiple sourcesby taking one source at a time. The other sources are replaced by
their intemal resistances.Recall that the ideal voltage source has a zero internal resis-
tance. In this section, all voltage sourceswill be treated as ideal in order to simplify the
coverage.
A general statementof the superposition theorem is as follows:

The current in any given branch of a multiple-source circuit can be

found by determining the currents in that particular branch produced by
each source acting alone, with all other sources replaced by their internal
resistances. The total current in the branch is the algebraic sum of the
individual source currents in that branch.

The stepsin applying the superpositionmethod are as follows:

Step 1. Take one voltage (or current) source at a time and replace each of the other
voltage (or current) sourceswith either a short for a voltage source or an open
for a current source (a short representszero internal resistanceand an open rep-
resentsinfinite internal resistancefor ideal sources).
Step 2. Determine the particular current or voltage that you want just as if there were
only one source in the circuit.
Step 3. Take the next source in the circuit and repeat Steps I and 2. Do this for each
source.
2 7 0 T C I R C U I T H E O R E MASN D C O N V E R S I O N S

Step 4. To find the actual current in a given branch, algebraically sum the currents
to each individual source. (If the currents are in the same direction, they
added. If the currents are in opposite directions, they are subtracted with
direction of the resulting current the same as the larger of the original
ties.) Once the current is found, voltage can be determined.

An example of the approachto superpositionis demonstratedin Figure8-16 for

series-parallelcircuit with two voltage sources.Study the steps in this figure.
8-6 through 8-9 will clarify this procedure.

2-Shorl
Ys2

(a) Problem: Find 12. (b) Replace ys2 with zero resistance(shorl)

(c) Find R1 and ft looking from Vs1: (d) Find 12 due to V51 (current divider):
= Rr+ R,lln,
Rr(sr) / R - \
ft1511= V51/R11511
1z,srr=
(7frp, /1r,sl

Short R: lrrszrl +
replaces
7sz
vsr

(e) Replace V51with zero resistance(short) (0 Find R1 and{ looking from V52:
Rr(sz)= R: + Rt ll nt
fu152;= V52lR1152;

R r l R , R l l R :
*,31',,,,, vs2 ,r,r',f
$Jo,r,
(g) Find 12due to Ys2: (h) Add 12151; and 121s2;to get the act,nl 12
(they are in same direction):
/ P. \
12,52,=
(7fr7;)rrrszr 12= 126y,+ 14s21

F I C U R EB - 1 6
Demonstrationof the superpositianmethod..
 T H ES U P E R P O S I T I T
OHNE O R E M

EXAMPTE
B-6 Find the cunent in R2 of Figure 8-17 by using the superpositiontheorem,

F I G U R EB - 1 7 R1 R3

.l rooo I rooo l*

""-T I'*' T'u

h--
3f;^. Efg
:
Solution
Step 1. Replacevs2with a shorlandfind the currentin R2dueto voltagesourcev51,
asshownin Figure8-18. To find12,usethecurrent-divider
formula(Equation
6-10).Lookingfrom V51,

R r(sr=)Rr * 100O + 50Q= 150O

+=
Ir(sr)= = = 66.inA
O* #*
The current in R2 due to V51is

= ("+")t",,, = (#*)oo.t -o = 333mA

Iz(sr)
Note that this current is downward throush R,.

Rl R3
R1 R3 ReplaceYsr

+ 100o 1000 ,.n"n)

with . I l00O | 1000 |
V.,*
10v T'
' I
't I r I
R2
100 f,}
,,,tflu #l*
I
t-
-L : i_ - _L
FIGURE
B-18 F I G U R EB - 1 9

Step 2. Find the current in R2 due to voltage source v52 by replacing vy with a
short, as shown in Figure 8-19. Looking from V52,

Rrtszr=R. + * = 100 Q + 50 fl = 150 O

L

Ys' 5V
l 1' , r r , = f f i = , r o n = 3 3 . 3 m A

The current in R2 due to V52is

'
Izrszt: R t \ , =/1000\ mA= 16.7
mA
Io; & Jh,.', (ffi,)33.3
Note that this cunent is downward through R2.
Step 3. Both component currents are downward through R2, so they have the same
algebraic sign. Therefore, add the values to get the total current through R2.

Iz(ot)=Iz<srl* Iz6z)= 33.3 mA + 16.7mA = 50 mA

Related Problem Determine the total current through R, if the polarity of v52 in
Figure 8-17 is reversed.
2 7 2 T C I R C U I T H E O R E MASN D C O N V E R S I O N S

EXAMPLE
B-7 Find the current through R2 in the circuit of Figure 8-20.

FIGUREB-20 RI

Ys Is
10v 100mA

Solution
Step 1. Find the currentin R2due to V5by replacing15with an open,as shownin
Figure8-21.

F I C U R EB - 2 1 Rl

22oQ
+l | | o p ""n
6/
Ys+
rO_vT ' l f o,
r,ll tooo
,,'
?
l_
: : -L : _L
Notice that all of the current producedby V5 is through R2. Looking from V5,

Rr=Rr +R2=320{,
The current through R2 due to V5 is

" , , , ,f = = , 1 0 , Y
1'\asi =3r.2mA
Rr 320 a
Note that this current is downward through R2.
Step 2. Find the current through R2 due to 15by replacing V5 with a short, as shown
inFigure 8-22.

FIGUREB-22 Rl

Repiace*
w i r h\ ] | t
usrron\ o,3l,^ fl It
tooofl ' p/ t00mn
t
+t +t +l
Use the current-divider formula to determine the current through R2 due
to 15.

(#ffi)roo'"a=68'8
ru.,=(o,1o,)t'= mA
Note that this current also is downward through R2.
Step 3. Both currents are in the same direction through R2, so add them to get the
total.

Iz(tot)= Iz(v")I 147,y=31.2 mA + 68.8 mA = 100 mA

Related Problem If the polarity of v5 in Figure 8-20 is reversed,how is the value

of 15 affected?
 T H ES U P E R P O S I T I T
OHNE O R E M . 273

EXAMPLE
B_B Find the current through the 100 C) resistor in Figure 8-23.

F I G U R EB _ 2 3

100c)

Solution
Step L. Find the current through the 100 f) resistor due to current source 151by
replacing source 152with an open, as shown in Figure 8-24. As you can
see,the entire 100 mA from the current source 151is downward through the
100 Q resistor.

FIGUREB-24
56c)
Open
lsr / 's2
100mA

step 2. Find the cuffent through the 100 f) resistor due to source 1s2by replacing
source 1r, with an open, as indicated in Figure 8-25. Notice that all of the
30 mA from source 152is upward through the 100 f) resistor.

FIGUREB-25 sd
5 6ct
c)

rI s 2
100c)
30 mA

Step 3. To get the total current through the 100 Q resistor, subtract the smaller cur-
rent from the larger becausethey are in opposite directions. The resulting
total current is in the direction of the larger cuffent from source151.
- ltooo(r*)
ltooo(,og= 1100c1(L')
=100rnA-30mA=70mA

The resulting current is downward through the resistor.

Related Prohlem If the 100 c) resisrorin Figure 8-23 is changedto 68 e, what will
be the current throush it?
2 7 4 T C I R C U I T H E O R E MASN D C O N V E R S I O N S

EXAMPTE B-9 Find the total currentthroughR3in Figure8-26.

FIGURE8-26

R3
2.2ko.

Solution
step 1. Find the currentthroughR3dueto sourcev51by replacingsourcev52with a
short,as shownin Fieure8-21.

FIGURE8-27

Replace R2
YS2with a 1.0ko R3
2.2ko-

Looking from V51,

(1'0 kf)-X2:2kO)
Rr,s, = o,' * J41_ = 1.0ko + = 1.69ke
R, + R. 3.2kA
,
/rrsrr= V., = Z-O V =
| 1.8mA
or; ,5, ka
Now applythe current-divider
formulato get the currentthroughR3dueto
sourceVs1.

=("+")r,,,,,=(#+3)rrs-o =3.6e
I:(sr) mA
Notice that this current is downward through R3.
Step 2. Find 13due to source Vsz by replacing source V51with a short, as shown in
Figure 8-28. Looking from V52,

=R,+
Rr(sz) = r.0ka. g9*1#@: 1.6e
ko
#ft
, - V"' l5V
=
rrrs2r = = 6.b6 mA
&; 159 kcl
 T H ES U P E R P O S I T I T
OHNE O R E M . 275

FICUREB-28

R,= r.oko ,,1

- t ' t
"-;T- ___)
I/
vq)
-
- l<\/
rJ Y
|
I

Now apply the current-divider forrnula to find the current through R3 due to
source V52.

=("+")r",,, =(#+3)sas-o =2.i8

1:(sz) mA
Notice that this current is upward through R3.
Step 3. Calculate the total current through R3.

1:(.oo= Is(sr)- 1:(sz)= 3.69 mA - 2.18 mA = 910pA

This current is downward through R3.

Related Problem Find the total cunent through R3 in Figure 8-26 if Ysr
to 12Y and its polarity reversed.

loN B-4 1. Statethe superpositiontheorem.

REVIEW 2. Why is the superpositiontheorem useful for ana$sis of multiple-source linear cir-
c ui t s ?
3. Why is an ideal voltagesourceshorledand an ideal currentsourceopenedwhen the
superpositiontheoremis applied?
4. Using the superpositiontheorem.find the cuffent through R1 in Figure 8-29.
5. If. as a result of applying the superpositiontheorem.two currentsare in opposing
directions through a branch of a circuit, in which direction is the net current?

FIGUREB-29
Rl R3

vs2
8V
276 I C I R C U I T H E O R E MASN D C O N V E R S I O N S

8-5 T THEVENIN'S
THEOREM
Thevenin's theorem provi.desa method for simpffiing a circuit to a stundard equiva.
lent form. In many cases,this theorem can be used to simpffi the analysis of com-
plex circuits.

After completing this secti.on,you should be able to

r Apply Thevenin's theorem to simplify a circuit for analysis
. Describe the form of a Thevenin equivalent circuit
. Obtain the Thevenin equivalent voltage source
. Obtain the Thevenin equivalent resistance
. Explain terminal equivalency in the context of Thevenin's theorem
. Thevenize a portion of a circuit
. Thevenize a bridse circuit

The Thevenin equivalent form of any two-terminal resistive circuit consists of an equiva-
lent voltage source (Vs) and an equivalentresistance(R111),arrangedas shown in Fi
8-30. The values of the equivalent voltage and resistance depend on the values in
original circuit. Any resistive circuit can be simplified regardlessof its complexity.

FICURE B_30
The general form of a Thevenin equivalent
circuit is simply a nonideal voltage source.
Any resistive circuit can be reduced to this YrH
form.

(V1s)and EquivalentResistance
Thevenin'sEquivalentVoltage (RrH)
The equivalent voltage, Vs, is one part of the complete Thevenin equivalent circuit. The
other part is Rs.

The Thevenin equivalent voltage (V111)is the open circuit (no-toad) volt-
age between two terminals in a circuit.

Any component connectedbetween these two terminals effectively "sees" Vry in series
with Rt". As defined by Thevenin's theorem,

The Thevenin equivalent resistance (R111)is the total resistance appear-

ing between two terminals in a given circuit with all sources replaced by
their internal resistances.

TerminalEquivalency
Although a Thevenin equivalent circuit is not the same as its original circuit, it acts the
samein terms of the output voltage and current. Try the following demonstration as illus-
trated in Figure 8-31. Place a resistive circuit of any complexity in a box with only the
output terminals exposed.Then place the Thevenin equivalent of that circuit in an identi-
cal box with, again, only the output terminals exposed. Connect identical load resistors
across the output terminals of each box. Next connect a voltmeter and an ammeter t0
measurethe voltage and current for each load as shown in the figure. The measuredval-
ues will be identical (neglecting tolerance variations), and you will not be able to deter-
mine which box contains the original circuit and which contains the Thevenin equivalent.
That is, in terms of your observationsbasedon any electrical measurements,both circuits
 ' SH E O R E M)
THEVENINT 277

Same I andVl
readings

Thevenin's
equivalent
circuit

(b)

F I G U R EB _ 3 1
Which box containsthe original circuit and which containsthe Theveninequivalentcircuit?
You cannot tell by obsemingthe meters.

are the same.This condition is sometimesknown as teminal equivalency becauseboth

circuits look the same from the "viewpoint" of the two outout terminals.

TheTheveninEquivalent
of a Circuit
To flnd the Thevenin equivalent of any circuit, determine the equivalent voltage, V',', and
the equivalent resistance,Rs, looking from the output terminals. As an example, the
Thevenin equivalentfor the circuit betweenterminalsA and B is developedin Figure 8-32.

R r u = R : + R l l lR 2
Rr R3
AA - AAA
\*- / ys t -
\ 1(3ls ln
\ou / replaced serieswith
R2 Rr Rz
by shortl

R1 and R2
ll
o
are ln
/ \ para11el

(a) Finding Vs (b) Finding R11

R r H = R : + R r lRl 2

n'=(t'6)"'
(c) Thevenin equivalent circuit

B-32
of the simpffication of a circuit by Thevenin'stheorem.
278 I C I R C U I T H E O R E MASN D C O N V E R S I O N S

In Figure 8-32(a), the voltage acrossthe designatedpoints A and.B is the Theve

equivalent voltage. In this particular circuit, the voltage from A to B is the same as
voltage acrossR2 becausethere is no current through R3 and, therefore, no voltage
acrossit. V111is expressedas follows for this particular example:
R,
u-,,=/ \y"
"tn-\o, *Rr/"t

In Figure 8-32(b), the resistancebetween points A and B with the source

by a short (zero internal resistance)is the Thevenin equivalent resistance.In this particu.
lar circuit, the resistancefromA to B is R3 in series with the parallel combination of R
and R2. Therefore, R111is expressedas follows:

=R,.
RrH ##
The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 8-32(c).

EXAMPLE
B-10 Find the Thevenin equivalentbetween terminals A and B of the circuit in Figure 8-33.

FIGURE B-33 R1 R4
a

1 0 0 ( ) 'p, 2

tY/S 4lA

10V R^ __J

224

Solution First, remove R.. Then V1g eeuals the voltage acrossR2 + R3 as shown in
Figure 8-34(a). Use the voltage-divider principle to find Vs.

u."=(*fffi)^ =(#t)rov=4.08
v
R4 is in serieswith R1 ll (R2 + R3).
Rl R^ R , \ R ^
100c) 100 f,) '9q9 \np
R2 V5 replaced R2
by sho-rt 47rl.
ys
: RrH
10v
R3
R2 + R3.
224

(a) The voltage from A to B is V11land equals V2_3. (b) Looking from terminals A and B, Ra appearsin series
with the combination of R1 in parallel with (R2 + Rr).

(c) Theveninequivalentcircuit

FIGUREB-34
 T H E V E N I N 'TSH E O R E M . 279

To find Rs, first replace the source with a short to simulate a zero internal resis-
tance. Then R1 appearsin parallel with R, + Rr, and Ra is in series with the series-
parallel combination of R1, R2, and R3 as indicated in Figure g-34(b).

n, (100 Qx69 o)
Rru = R++ ,{r(Rr-+ = 100 e + -=r 'r4r
r lL
R,+R'+R., 169A
The resulting Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Figure g-34(c).

Related Problem Determine Vry and R111if a 56 O resistor is connectedin parallel

acrossR, and R".

TheveninEquivalency
Dependson the Viewpoint
The Thevenin equivalentfor any circuit dependson the location of the two terminals from
between which the circuit is "viewed." In Figure 8-33, you viewed the circuit from
between the two terminals labeled A and B. Any given circuit can have more than one
Thevenin equivalent, depending on how the viewpoints are designated.For example, if
you view the circuit in Figure 8-35 from between terminals A and c, you obtain a com-
pletely different result than if you viewed it from between terminals A and B or from
between terminals B and C.

<r
ViewpointAB
B e ViewpointAC
+r
Viewpoint BC

FIGUREB-35
Thevenin'sequivalentdependson viewpoint.

In Figure 8-36(a), when viewed from between terminals A and C, v1s is the volt-
age acrossR, + R, and can be expressedusing the voltage-divider formula as

R:+R: \',,
6" '""=-/\ R r
+Rrlpl/Ys
Also, as shown in Figure 8-36(b), the resistancebetween terminals A and C is R2 + R3 in
parallel with Rr (the source is replaced by a short) and can be expressedas

J')
R-" = id4lj
Rr+Rr+R,
The resulting Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Figure g-36(c).
when viewed from between terminals B and c as indicated in Figure g-36(d), yrH
is the voltage acrossR3 and can be expressedas

y' ', ", =- /\ R , R'

\u-
+R,*Rr/"t
As shown in Figure 8-36(e), the resistancebetween terminals B and C is R. in parallel
with the seriescombination of R, and R".

4.* - 3'(4t1&)
Rl+R2+R3
2 8 0 T C I R C U I T H E O R E MASN D C O N V E R S I O N S

Rrr=Rrll(Rz+R:)
A
r__r/W____________o
,+ . l. I R 2 + R ?\ . .

t"l u*=(o----ry,.or.or)u, ( b )R r n = R r l l ( R z + R : ) (c) Thevenin equivalent

RrH=R:ll(Rr+Rz)

_Rru
{lT;i
:
f
J - /
%w=|,e-a,
R
* er* er/Ys
, \

C
/ _R_"r \
't "A '\ r"l r u--l \ p - u u . , / lt/
"s (e) RrH = R3ll(R1+ R2) (f) Thevenin equivalent

FICURE8_36
Example of circuit thevenized from two viewpoints, resulting in two dffirent equivalent
circuits. (The V7s and R7H are different.)

The resulting Thevenin equivalent is shown in Figure 8-36(0.

Thevenizing
a Portionof a Circuit
In many cases,it helps to thevenize only a portion of a circuit. For example, when
need to know the equivalent circuit as viewed by one particular resistor in the circuit,
can remove the resistor and apply Thevenin's theorem to the remaining part of the circui
as viewed from the points between which that resistor was connected.Figure 8-37 illus
trates the thevenizing of part of a circuit.
Using this type of approach,you can easily find the voltage and current for a spec-
ified resistor for any number of resistor values using only Ohm's law. This method eli
inates the necessityof reanalyzing the original circuit for each different resistancevalue.

@ Remove R3
--l
o\
9
ffiil""1'"f o,
vrewpomr I
of Rj
(a) Original circuit (b) Remove R3 and thevenize

RrH=Rr ll Rz

R3

(c) Thevenin equivalent of original circuit with R3 connected

FIGUREB_37
Example of thevenizinga portion of a circuit. In this case,the circuit is thevenizedfrom the
viewpointof the load.resistor,Rj.
 T H E V E N I N 'TSH E O R E M. 281

Thevenizing
a BridgeCircuit
The usefulnessof Thevenin's theorem is perhaps best illustrated when
it is applied to a
Wheatstonebridge circuit. For example,when a load resistoris connected
to the output ter-
minals of a Wheatstonebridge, as shown in Figure 8-38, the circuit is
very difficult to ana-
lyze becauseit is not a straightforward series-parallelanangement.There
a"reno reslstors
that are in seriesor in parallel with another resistor.

FIGURE8_38 +ys
Wheatstonebridge with load resistor is not
a series-parallelcircuit.

Using Thevenin's theorem, you can simplify the bridge circuit to an equivalent
cir-
cuit viewed from the load resistor as shown step-by-stepin nigure g-39.
Study carefully
the stepsin this figure. Once the equivalentcircuit for the bridge is found,
the voltage and
cuffent for any value of load resistor can easily be determined.

RemoveR1 (b) Redraw to find Vry. (c)v'.n = v.,- vn = (.;};)^ - (^*)",

ReplaceVs with a short. Note:The (e) Redraw to find Rrg: (f Thevenin's equivalent
redlinesrepresentthe same R r u = R r lnl r + n , l ln o with Ra reconnected
electricalpoint as the red lines
in Part(e).

8-39
a Wheatstone bridge with Thevenin,s theorem.
282 I AND CONVERSIONS
CIRCUITTHEOREMS

EXAMPLE B-1 1 Determine the voltage and current for the load resistor,Rr, in the bridge circuit of Fig-
ure 8-40.

FIGURE
B-40

Solution
Step 1. Remove R1.
Step 2. To thevenize the bridge as viewed from between terminals A and B, as was
shown in Figure 8-39, first determine V1s.

vtn=ve- vn=f
" = 1,= )u,- |,= 1o=
+ Rzl
)u,
+ R4l "
\R, \R3

=(#fr)'4v- (#*)z+u = 1616v-1084

Y=5'32Y
Step 3. Determine R111.

^ RrRz R.lRo
l f T U = - - f -
Rr+R2 R3+R4
_ (330f2)(680O) + (680f))(560O) = 222A+ 307Q = 529d)
t0l0 f2 n40 a
Step 4. Place Vry and R1p1in seriesto form the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
Step 5. Connect the load resistor from terminals A and B of the equivalent circuit,
and determine the load voltage and current as illustrated in Figure 8-41.

FIGUREB-41 Thevenin's
equivalent
for the Wheatstone
bridge
\
RrH

RL
1 . 0k o

u.=(&fu)u* =(*#fu)' 32Y

=3'48
v
',=k=#H =3'48
mA
Related Problem Calculate I for R1 = 2.2kf-J, Rz = 3.3 kO, R3 = 3.9 kO, and Ro =
2.1kf).
 T H E V E N I N ,TSH E O R E M. 283

Summaryof Thevenin's
Theorem
Remember, the Thevenin equivalent circuit is always in the form of an equivalent volt-
age source in series with an equivalent resistanceregardlessof the original circuit that
it replaces. The significance of Thevenin's theorem is that the equivalent circuit can
replace the original circuit as far as any external load is concerned.Any load resistor
connected between the terminals of a Thevenin equivalent circuit will have the same
current through it and the same voltage across it as if it were connected to the termi-
nals of the original circuit.
A summary of stepsfor applying Thevenin's theorem is as follows:

Step 1. Open the two terminals (remove any load) between which you want to find the
Thevenin equivalent circuit.
Step 2. Determine the voltage (Vs) acrossthe two open terminals.
Step 3. Determine the resistance(Rry) between the two open terminals with all sources
replaced with their internal resistances(ideal voltage sourcesshorted and ideal
current sourcesopened).
Step 4. Connect V111and R111in seriesto produce the complete Thevenin equivalentfor
the original circuit.
Step 5. Place the load resistor removed in Step 1 acrossthe terminals of the Thevenin
equivalent circuit. The load current can now be calculated using only Ohm's
law, and it has the same value as the load current in the orieinal circuit.

DeterminingVruand RrHby Measurement

Thevenin's theorem is largely an analytical tool that is applied theoretically in order to
simplify circuit analysis.However, in many cases,Thevenin's equivalent can be found for
an actual circuit by the following general measurementmethods. These steps are illus-
trated in Figure 8-42.

Step 1. Remove any load from the output terminals of the circuit.
Step 2. Measure the open terminal voltage. The voltmeter used must have an internal
resistancemuch greater (at least 10 times greater) than the R* of the circuit.
(V111is the open terminal voltage.)
Step 3. Connect a variable resistor (rheostat)acrossthe output terminals. Its maximum
value must be greater than Rilr.
Step 4. Adjust the rheostat and measurethe terminal voltage. When the terminal volt-
age equals 0.5yrH, the resistanceof the rheostat is equal to R1g.
Step 5. Disconnect the rheostat from the terminals and measureits resistancewith an
ohmmeter.This measuredresistanceis equal to Rs.
This procedure for determining R111differs from the theoretical procedure because
it is impractical to short voltage sources or open current sources in an actual circuit.
Also, when measuring Rs, be certain that the circuit is capable of providing the
required cuffent to the variable resistor load and that the variable resistor can handle the
required power. These considerations may make the procedure impractical in some
cases.
2 8 4 T C I R C U I T H E O R E MASN D C O N V E R S I O N S

[*-t--- *--_]
| ffi:l' | ***r* Jo.
'""
|t L_
- *___l
Step 1: Open the output terminals (remove load) Step 2: Measure Vs

0.5ylrl

Rl(.u*) ) Rttl

Step 3: Connect variable load resistanceacross Step 4: Adjust R1 until V1 = 0.5Vrn.

the terminals. When V1 = 0.5VrH, Rr = Rrr.

Step 5: Remove R1 and measureits resistance

to get RrH.

FIGUREB-42
Determinationof Thevenin'sequivalentby measurement,

SECTIONB-5 1. What are the two componentsof a Thevenin equivalent circuit?

REVIEW 2. Draw the generalform of a Theveninequivalentcircuit.
3. How is V1g defined?
4. How is Rtn defined?
5. For the original circuit in Figure 8-43, draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit as
viewed by R1

FICURE8_43

ys
50v

33c|
 NORTON'STHEOREM r 285

r NORTON'STHEOREM
Like Thevenin's theorem, Norton's theorern provides a method of reducing a more
complex circuit to a simpler equivalent form. The basic dffirence is that Norton's
theorem results in an equivalent curcent source in parallel with an equivalent resis-
tsnce.
After completing this section, you should.be uble to
r Apply Norton's theorem to simplify a circuit
. Describe the form of a Norton equivalent circuit
. Obtain the Norton equivalent current source
. Obtain the Norton equivalent resistance

The form of Norton's equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 8-44. Regardless of how
complex the original two-terminal circuit is, it can always be reduced to this equivalent
form. The equivalent current source is designated6{, and the equivalent resistanceis des-
ignated Rp.

FICUREB-44
Form of Norton's equivalentcircuit.

To apply Norton's theorem, you must know how to flnd the two quantities 4,{ and
RN. Once you know them for a given circuit, simply connect them in parallel to get the
complete Norton circuit.

Current(lp)
Norton'sEquivalent
As stated,6{ is one part of the complete Norton equivalent circuit; RN is the other part.

Norton's equivalent current (Iry) is the short-circuit current between two

terminals in a circuit.

Any component connected between these two terminals effectively "sees" a current
source of value {1 in parallel with RN.
To illustrate, supposethat a resistive circuit of some kind has a resistor (R) con-
nected between two terminals in the circuit, as shown in Figure 8-45(a). You want to find
the Norton circuit that is equivalent to the one shown as "seen" by R1. To find 6{, calcu-
late the current between terminals A and B with these two terminals shorted, as shown in
Figure 8-45(b). Example 8-12 demonstrateshow to find {q.

B-45
the Norton equivalent

- l

(a) Original circuit (b) Short the terminals to get 1^.

2 8 6 T C I R C U I T H E O R E MASN D C O N V E R S I O N S

EXAMPLE B-12 Determine {q for the circuit within the beige areain Figure 8-46(a).

FIGURE8-46 , , j' r,.:.p,, . R3

Tt ^Tl A
4 7a I looo 4'7o" | 100f,)

(a)
= *f;"
p
R,
"
Ys
83.3V

(b)
R2
47o"
! B

Solution Short terminals A and B as shown in Figure 8-46(b). 1p is the current

through the short and is calculated as follows. First, the total resistance seen by the
voltage source is
(47o)(lq0o)
Rr = Rr*' =4= = 4i e+ =79 tt
R2+ R., 147{t
The total current from the source is

rt r--- v s - 8 3 ' 3 v= l . o 5 A
Rr iga

Now apply the current-divider formula to find 1N(the current through the short).

,f*= / _ R,_ \r, = ( !7='=\t.oso = 336mA

\R, + Rr/'' \ 1 4 7a )
This is the valuefor the equivalentNofion currentsource.
RelatedProblem Determine1Nin Figure8-46(a)if all theresistorvaluesaredoubled.

(RN)
Norton'sEquivalentResistance
Norton's equivalent resistance(RN) is defined in the same way as Rry.

The Norton equivelent resistance, RN, is the total resistance appearing

between two terminals in a given circuit with all sources replaced by
their internal resistances.

Example 8-13 demonstrateshow to find Rp.

Find Rp for the circuit within the beige area of Figure 8-46(a) (see Example 8-12).

Solution First reduce Vs to zero by shorting it, as shown in Figure 8-47. Looking in
at terminals A andB, you can seethat the parallel combination of R1 and R2 is in series
with R.. Thus.

Related Problem DetermineRNin Figure 8-46(a) if all the resistorvaluesare doubled.

 NORTON,STHEOREM . 287

Examples 8-12 and 8-13 showed how to find the two equivalent components of a
Norton equivalent circuit, 4q and RN. Keep in mind that these values can be found for any
linear circuit. Once these are known, they must be connectedin parallel to form the Nor-
ton equivalent circuit, as illustrated in Example 8-14.

Draw the complete Norton equivalent circuit for the original circuit in Figure 8-46(a)
(Example 8-12).

Solution In Examples 8-12 and 8-13 you found that 1N= 336 mA and RN = 124 f).
The Norton equivalent circuit is shown in Fieure 8-48.

Related Problem Find Rp for the circuit in Figure 8-46(a) if all the resistor values
are doubled.

Summaryof Norton'sTheorem
Any load resistor connectedbetween the output terminals of a Nofion equivalent circuit
will have the same current through it and the same voltage across it as if it were con-
nected to the output terminals of the original circuit. A summary of stepsfor theoretically
applying Norton's theorem is as follows:

Step 1. Short the two terminals between which you want to find the Norton equivalent
circuit.
Step 2. Determine the cunent (6r) though the shorted terminals.
Step 3. Determine the resistance(RN)between the two open terminals with all sources
replaced with their internal resistances(ideal voltage sourcesshorted and ideal
current sourcesopened).RN = Rrn.
Step 4. Connect 1p and RN in pa.rallelto produce the complete Norton equivalent for
the original circuit.

Norton's equivalent circuit can also be derived from Thevenin's equivalent circuit
by use of the source conversionmethod discussedin Section 8-3.

1. What are the two componentsof a Norton equivalent circuit?

2. Draw the general form of a Norton equivalent circuit.
3. How is 1p defined?
4. How is R6rdefined?
5. Find the Norton circuit as seenby R; in Figure 8-49.

FIGUREB-49
R1 R3
2BB I C I R C U I T H E O R E MASN D C O N V E R S I O N S

8-7 I MAXIMUM POWERTRANSFER

THEOREM
The maximum power transfer theorem is important when yoa need to know the vqlue
of the load ut which the most power is deliveredfrom the source.

\fter completing this section, you should be able to

I Apply the maximum power transfer theorem
. State the theorem
. Determine the value of load resistancefor which maximum power is transferred
from a given circuit

The maximum power transfer theorem is statedas follows:

When a source is connected to a load, maximum power is delivered to the

load when the load resistance is equal to the internal source resistance.

The sourceresistance,R5, of a circuit is the equivalentresistanceas viewed from the out

put terminals using Thevenin's theorem. An equivalent circuit with its output resistance
and load is shown in Figure 8-50. When Rr = Rs, the maximum power possible is trans-
ferred from the voltaee source to R,.

FIGURE8-50
Maximum power is transfeted to the laad
when Rt = Po

Practical applications of this theorem include audio systems such as stereo, radio,
and public address.In these systemsthe resistanceof the speakeris the load. The circuit
that drives the speakeris a power amplifier. The systemsare typically optimized for max-
imum power to the speakers.Thus, the resistanceof the speakermust equal the intemal
source resistanceof the amplifier.
Example 8-15 shows that maximum power occurs when R. = ftr.

EXAMPLE
B-15 The source in Figure 8-51 has an internal source resistanceof 75 O. Determine the
load power for each of the following values of load resistance:
(a) 25o (b) s0 o (c) 75 o (d) 100O (e) 125a
Draw a graph showing the load power versus the load resistance.

FICUREB-51

5Ys
 MAXIMUM POWERTRANSFER
THEOREM . 289

solution use ohm's law (1= v/R) and,the powerformula1p = I2R)to find the load
power,P", for eachvalueof load resistance.
(a) For Rr=25 Q,
Vt - lOV
J=
Rs+Rz 75O+25O=loomA
pt= I2Rr= (100 mn121ZS
O) = 250mW
(b) For Rr = 50 Q,

Vt - 10V
I=
Rs+Rr lz5o=8omA
pr= IzRz= (80mA)2(50e) = 320mW
(c) For Rr='75 CL,

Vt - 10V
1= = 66'7mA
Rs+ Rz 150O
pt= IzRr= (66.7mA)2(j5e) = 334mW
(d) For Rr = 100 Q,

7 = --vt = ,!o,t- = 57.1rnA

Rr+R. l75A
pt= I2Rr,=(5j.1mA)2(100 O) = 326mW
(e) ForRr= 725{1,

1= -JC- = ,1,0v_ = 5omA

Rs+Rz 200Q
pr= I2RL= (50 mA)2(125tt) = 313 mW

Notice that the load power is greatestwhen Rl = 75 Q, which is the same as the
internal source resistance.When the load resistanceis less than or greater than this
value, the power drops off, as the curve in Figure 8-52 graphically illustrates.

P1 (mW)

Rz(o)

FIGUREB-52
Cumeshowingthat the load power is maximum when R, = po

Related Prohlem If the sourceresistancein Figure 8-51 is 600 o, what is the max-
imum power than can be delivered to a load?
290 I C I R C U I T H E O R E MASN D C O N V E R S I O N S

sEcTroN
s-7 1. State the maximum power transfer theorem.
REVIEW 2. When is maximum power deliveredfrom a sourceto a load?
3. A given circuit has L int"*ut sourceresistanceof 50 Q. What will be the value of
the load to which the maximum power is delivered?

B-B r DELTA-TO-WYE
(A-TO-Y)AND
(Y-TO-A)CONVERSTONS
WYE-TO-DETTA
Conversions between delta-type and wye-type network srrsngements are useful in cer.
tain specialized three-terminal applications. One example is in the analysis of a
loudedWheutstone bridge circait. In this sectinn, the conversionformulas and rules
for remembering them are given.
After completing this sectian, yoa should be uble to
I Perform A-to-Y and Y-to-A conversions
. Apply A-to-Y conversion to a bridge circuit

A resistive delta (A) network is a three-terminal arrangementas shown in Figure 8-53(a).

A wye (Y) network is shown in Figure 8-53(b). Notice that letter subscripts are used to
designateresistors in the delta network and that numerical subscripts are used to desig-
nate resistorsin the wye network.

FICUREB-53
Delta and wye networks.

(a) Delta

A-to-YConversion
It is convenientto think of the wye positioned within the delta, as shown in Figure 8-54.
To convert from delta to wye, you need Rr, Rz, and R3 in terms of Ra, Ru, and R6,.The
conversionrule is as follows:

Each resistor in the wye is equal to the product of the resistors in two
adjacent delta branches, divided by the sum of all three delta resistors.

FICURE8-54
"Y within A" aid for conversionformulas.
 DELTA-TO-WYE (Y-TO-A)CONVERSIONSr
(A-TO-Y)AND WYE-TO-DELTA 291

In Figure 8-54, RA and R6'are adjacentto R1; therefore,

R,R.
R,' - (B-1)
R A+ R u + R .

Also, Rs and R6 are adjacent to R2, so

^ RaRc
'*2-RA+RB+Rc (B-2)

and Ra and Rs are adjacent to R3, so

, - ReRu
(8-3)
"3-Ra+RB+Rc

Y-to-AConversion
To convert from wye to delta, you need R4, Ru, and R6 in terms of R1, R2, and R3. The
conversionrule is as follows:
Each resistor in the delta is equal to the sum of all possible products of
wye resistors taken two at a time, divided by the opposite wye resistor.

In Figure 8-54, R2 is opposite to Ra; therefore,

^ R,Rz+ RrR3+ R2R3

I\A- (B-4)
D
T\2

Also, Rr is oppositeto Rs, so

R1R2+R1R3+R2R3
ftn= (8-5)
R1

and R3 is opposite to R6', so

^ RrR: + RrR3+ R2R3

' R 3 (8-6)

The following two examplesillustrate conversionbetween these two forms of networks.

EXAMPLE
B-16 Convert the delta network in Figure 8-55 to a wye network.

R,

F I G U R EB - 5 5
292 T CIRCUITTHEOREMS
AND CONVERSIONS

Solution UseEquations
(8-1), (8-2), and(8-3).
RaRc - (220OXl00 O)
R.' = = r( o
Rel-RB+ Rc 220{t+ 560e + 100O

n'= =@*#nq@=63'6o
*#n.
n'= =@9#ff@=14oo
*#n.
The resulting wye network is shown in Figure 8-56.

FIGURE8-56

Related Problem Convert the delta network to a wye network for Ra = 2.2 kQ,
Rr = 1.0 kf), and Rc = 1.8 kC).

EXAMPIE B-17 convert the wye networkin Figure8-57 to a deltanetwork.

Rl R2

2.2kA
p

FIGUREB-57 FICURE8-58

Solution Use Equations (8-4), (8-5), and (8-6).

o _RrRr+RrR3+RrR,
'-
R,
_ (1.0kOX2.2
ko) + (1.0Ea)e.gkO)+ (2.2koxs.6kO)
= 9.15kO

o _
^, = 8-=t 4 r + R , R r + R 2 R 3
R;-
* (1.0kOX2.2
ko) + (1.0kOXs.6kO)+ (2.2kOXs.6kO)
= 20.1kO
1.0ko
RrR)+R,R.+RrR
Rc=
R3

_ (1.0kaX2.2kO) + (1.0kO)(5.6kO) + (2.2kOX5.6kO) =

3.59k,,
5.6kQ
The resultingdeltanetworkis shownin Figure8-58.
RelatedProhlem convert the wye network to a delta network for R, = 100 e.
Rz = 330 Q, and Rz = 470 {2.
 (A-TO-Y)AND WYE-TO-DELTA
DELTA-TO-WYE (Y-TO-A)CONVERSIONSr 29j

Application
of a-to-Yconversion
to thesimplification
of a Bridgecircuit
In Section 8-5 you learned how Thevenin's theorem can be used to simplify a bridge cir-
cuit. Now you will seehow A-to-Y conversioncan be used for converting a bridge circuit
to a series-parallelform for easier analysis.
Figure 8-59 illustrates how the delta (A) formed by Ra, R6, and R6 can be converted
to a wye (Y), thus creating an equivalent series-parallelcircuit. Equations (8-l), (8-2),
and (8-3) are used in this conversion.

rr+ +

(a) Rr, Ru. and R6-forma delti (b) Rl, R2, and R, form an (c) Pat (b) redrawn as a series-
equivalent wye. paral1e1circuit.

B-59
of a b:ridge circuit to a series-parallel configuration.

In a bridge circuit, the load is connectedacrosspoints c and D. In Figure 8-59(a),

R6' represents the load resistor. when voltage is applied across points A and B, the
voltage from C to D (Vgp) can be determined using the equivalent series-parallelcircuit
in Figure 8-59(c) as follows. The total resistancefrom point A to point B is

4-' = -(RL-14a1!4e14eI- -, -p.' '

( R r + R D )+ ( R 2+ R E )

Then,

h' = R
V e rn

The resistanceof the parallel portion of the circuit in Figure 8-59(c) is

( R r+ R D X R 2 + R E )
R "r v, - , =
(R' + Rr) + (R2+ RE)

The current through the left branch is

Rt'o'
1".=/ ) I -'
\R' + R'/
The current through the right branch is

o"=(#lh)"
294 I C I R C U I T H E O R E MASN D C O N V E R S I O N S

The voltage at point C with respectto point A is

Vce= Va - IecRo
The voltage at point D with respectto point A is

Voe=Ve-IeoR"
The voltage from point C to point D is

=U: -{:}o) - (ve- reoRn)= reoRa- recRo

"'
V6'2is the voltage acrossthe load (R6,)in the bridge circuit of Figure 8-59(a).
The load current through R6 can be found by Ohm's law.

lez
1, -
Rc

EXAMPLE
B-18 Determine the voltage acrossthe load resistor and the current through the load resistor
in the bridge circuit in Figure 8-60. Notice that the resistors are labeled for convenient
conversionusing Equations(8-1), (8-2), and (8-3). Rc is the load resistor.

FIGURE8-60 A

RD RE
4.7 kA 3.9kO

120V

R, RB
2.2ko" 2.7kQ

Solution First, convert the delta formed by Ra, Rs, and R6.to a wye.

ReRc _ ( 2 . 2k Q x l g k o )
R '. = :_ |l '?713rk. l( )
Ra*RB+Rc 2.2ka+2.7ke+ lgto

R,' = -44L - (2'7koxlq ko) = 2.t2ktl

RA+RB+Rc 22.9kfJ

R- .= --34u - - Q' 2\9) Q' 7- kq= 25ee

RA+R'+R. 22.9kA
The resulting equivalent series-parallelcircuit is shown in Figure 8-61.
Next, determine R1 and the branch cuffents in Figure 8-61.

R' ,=J4 r1 j a&iL+R,

(Rr + RD) + (R, + Rr)
ko)
= S'41 ElQlt6'02 + 259Q = 3.11kO + 259Q = 3.31kQ,
6.43kO-+ 6.0;6

6' - ! o z - - 1 2 0 V = JJ'OrnA
.R- 3-37t'O
 IECHNOLOCYTHEORYINTO PRACTICEI 295

FIGURE8-61

RD RE
4.',7
ka 3.9kO
D
Rl R2
1 . 7 k3o 2.12ka

of theparallelpartof the circuit,R11o;,

Thetotalresistance is 3.11kO.
r R . , p ,\ , _ / 3.llke \
a c_- \I ______!)y:_
'r,- Rr l1r -=\ {t #. z : 135.6mA = 17.2mA
*Ro)" k { t + 4 . tr s z l

r^,= f jl+-\r,
R, + Rr/-'
= /.-j*[9 - ):s.o*o = 18.4
2 . 1 2k Q + 3 . 9k O
mA
\ \ /
The voltage from point C to point D is

V6p= IapR6- IocRo= (18.4mA)(3.9 kO) - (17.2mAX4.7 kO)

=71.8V-80.8V=-9V

V6p is the voltage acrossthe load (R6.)in the bridge circuit shown in Figure 8-60.
The load currentthroughR6'is
-9V
- V-ii
,Io.= co =
- = -500pA
,, OCr--
RelatedProblem Determinethe load current,1a",in Figure 8-60 for the following
resistorvalues:Re = 2'7kQ, RB= 33 kf), Ro = 39 kQ, RE= 4'7k{1, andR6'= 100kQ.

B-B
SECTION 1. Sketch a delta circuit.
REVIEW 2. Sketcha wye circuit.
3. Write the formulas for delta-to-wye conversion.
4. Write the formulas for wye-to-delta conversion.

r TECHnologyTheory Into Practice

The Wheatstonebri.dgecircuit was covered in Chapter 7. In this section, you will
work with a bridge thut is to be used in a temperature-measuring circuit in which a
device cslled s thermistor is the temperature sensor. You will be doing a preliminary
analysis of the circuit in which Thevenin's theorem cun be used to advantage.
296 I C I R C U I T H E O R E MASN D C O N V E R S I O N S

The Wheatstone bridge circuit will be used in a temperature-sensingapplication where

the temperatureof a liquid that is used in a certain industrial process is monitored using
a thermistor in one leg of the bridge. The thermistor used in this application is a tem-
perature-sensingresistor with a negative temperaturecoefflcient in which the resistance
decreasesas temperatureincreases.
When a certain preset temperatureis reached,the bridge becomesbalanced andits
output voltage is zero. This zero-voltage condition is detected by a high-gain amplifler
circuit that operatesa relay to turn off the heating element. As the temperaturedecreases
below the preset value, the bridge again becomes unbalanced causing the amplifier to
close the relay and turn the heating element back on. This processmaintains the temper-
ature of the liquid in a tank within defined limits.
The amplifier effectively has an internal resistanceof 10 kO between its input ter-
minals. You do not need to know any additional details of the amplifler circuit in this
assignmentbecauseyou are to concentrateonly on the bridge circuit. The study of ampli-
fiers will come in a later course.
The Wheatstonebridge control and temperature-measuringcircuit is shown in Fig-
we 8-62. The amplifier and relay circuitry is to be connectedacrossthe bridge between
terminals A and B as indicated, so there will be a 10 kO load between these terminals.
The thermistor is connectedin one leg of the bridge but is remotely located in the tank
and away from the rest of the circuit. The variable resistor, R2, is used to set the desired
temperatureat which the liquid in the tank will be maintained. The temperaturecharac,
teristics of the thermistor, shown in the graph of Figure 8-63, indicates how the resistance
of the thermistor changeswith temperature.

R2

FIGURE8-62
Wheatstonebri.dgecontrol and temperature-measuringcircuit.

The Wheatstonebridge is built on a PC board as shown in Figure 8-64(a). A probe-

type thermistor is inserted through the wall of the tank and into the liquid as indicatedin
part (b); the circuit is powered by a 12 V battery shown in part (c). The amplifier and
relay circuitry is housed in a separatemodule that is not shown.

ThePrintedCircuit Board
I Check the PC board to make sure that it agrees with the schematic in Figure 8*62.
Relate each input, output, and component on the board to the schematic.
 TECHNOLOCY
THEORYINTO PRACTICE. 297

8-63
of thermistorresistanceversustemperature.

.11fil
J
a
. ,
).+

:*l_
-:--fl:lI
--'.-.i ----{

. ]
i l
, r l "
i

90 100110t20 130t40 150160170180190200

Temperature

Circuit board (b) Thermister inserted in the tank (c) Battery

8-64

WiringList
r Develop a point-to-point wiring list to properly interconnect the elements in Figure
8-62. Although it is not shown, include the amplifler inputs (call them Amp 1 and
Amp 2).

Balancingthe Bridge
r From the graph in Figure 8-63, calculate the resistancevalue to which Rr must be set
in order to balance the bridse at 170'F.

Analysis
r Assume that R2 is adjustedfor balance at 170'F. Using Thevenin's theorem, determine
the voltage acrossthe thermistor and the current through the thermistor for each of the
following temperatures: 90o, 100o, 1I0", 120.,130., 140., 150., 160o,170., 180.,
190', and 200'. These data could be used to evaluate the power dissipation require-
ments for the thermistor basedon a deratins formula.
2 9 8 T C I R C U I T H E O R E MASN D C O N V E R S I O N S

In Figure 8-65, determinethe approximatetemperaturein the tank for each of the voh
ages indicated by the voltmeter. R2 is set at 1.5 kQ. Assume the board is
connectedaccording to the wiring list that you developedalthough, for simplicity,
wiring is not shown. Also, assumethe meter presentsno load to the bridge circuit.

e
6\

FIGUREB-65
tr'=drrltr]flrEEl
[l:t- [:FFlL:ql
SECTIONB-9 1. Discussthe purposeof the thermistor.
REVIEW 2. In the systemdiagramof Figure 8-62. when does the heatingelementturn on?

r SUMMARY r An ideal voltage sourcehas zero intemal resistance.It provides a constant voltage acrossits
minals regardlessof the load resistance.
I A practical voltage source has a nonzero internal resistance.
I An ideal cunent source has infinite intemal resistance.It provides a constant currenl
of the load resistance.
r A oractical culTent source has a finite intemal resistance.
I The superpositiontheorem is useful for multiple-source circuits.
I Thevenin's theorem provides for the reduction of any two-terminal linear resistive circuit to
equivalent form consisting of an equivalent voltage sourcein serieswith an equivalent
r The term equivalency, as used in Thevenin's and Norton's theorems, means that when a
load resistanceis connected to the equivalent circuit, it will have the same voltage acrossit
the same current throush it as when it was connectedto the orieinal circuit.
r Norton's theorem provides for the reduction of any two-terminal linear resistive circuit to
equivalentform consisting of an equivalent current sourcein parallel with an equivalent resi
r Maximum power is transferredto a load from a source when the load resistanceequals the
nal sourceresistance.
 . 299
SELF-TEST

CLOSSARY These terms are also in the end-of-book glossary.

Current source A device that ideally provides a constant value of cuffent regardlessof the load.
Maximum power transfer theorem A theorem that states the maximum power is transferred
from a source to a load when the load resistanceequals the intemal source resistance.
Norton's theorem A method for simplifying a two-terminal linear circuit to an equivalent circuit
with only a current source in parallel with a resistance.
Superposition theorem A method for the analysis of circuits with more than one source.
Terminal equivalency The concept that when any given load resistance is connected to two
sources,the same load voltage and load current are produced by both sources.
Thermistor A temperature-sensitiveresistor.
Thevenin's theorem A method for simplifying a two-terminal linear circuit to an equivalent cir-
cuit with only a voltage source in series with a resistance.
Voltage source A device that ideally provides a constant value of voltage regardlessof the load.

.FORMULAS A-to-YConversions
(8-l) 4,=---IL
'
Re+RB+Rc

(8-2) RaRc
R,' =
Re-l RB+ Rc

(8-3) R;Ra
R.' =
Re-l RB+ Rc
Y-to-A Conversions
P. P- -+RlR3+ R2R3
(8-4) no =-1---n;.1--:-jjzjr,

P,R-+RrR3+R2R3
(8-5) R"=---;::

P,R-+RrRr+R2Rj
(8-61 R.=-:-;;:

SEtF.TEST 1. A 100 O load is connected across an ideal voltage source with Vs = l0 V. The voltage across
the load is
(a) 0V (b) 10V (c) l00V
) A 100 O load is connectedacrossa voltage source with Vs = 10 V and Rs = 10 O. The voltage
acrossthe load is
(a) 10 V (b) 0 V (c) 9.09 V (d) 0.909 V
? A certain voltage source has the values Vs=25 V and R5 = 5 O. The values for an equivalent
curTentsoulce are
(a)5A,5f) (b)2sA,5O (c)5A,125o
A certain cuffent source has the values 1s = 3 prA and R. = 1.0 MO. The values for an equiva-
lent voltage source are
(a) 3 pY 1.0 Mo (b) 3 Y 1.0 MO (c) 1 V 3.0 MO
In a two-source circuit, one source acting alone produces l0 mA through a given branch. The
other source acting alone produces 8 mA in the opposite direction through the same branch.
The actual current through the branch is
(a) 10 mA (b) 18 mA (c) 8 mA (d) 2 mA
3OO I C I R C U I T H E O R E MASN D C O N V E R S I O N S

6. Thevenin's theorem convelts a circuit to an equivalent form consisting of

(a) a current source and a series resistance
(b) a voltage source and a parallel resistance
(c) a voltage source and a series resistance
(d) a current source and a parallel resistance
7. The Thevenin equivalent voltage for a given circuit is found by
(a) shorting the output terminals
(b) opening the output terminals
(c) shorting the voltage source
(d) removing the voltage source and replacing it with a short
8. A certain circuit produces 15 V acrossits open output terminals, and when a 10 kQ load is con-
nected acrossits output terminals, it produces 12 V. The Thevenin equivalent for this circuitis
(a) 15 V in serieswith 10 kQ (b) 12 V in serieswith 10 ke
(c) 12 V in serieswith 2.5 kQ (d) 15 V in serieswith 2.5 kO
9. Maximum power is transferred from a source to a load when
(a) the load resistanceis very large
(b) the load resistanceis very small
(c) the load resistanceis twice the source resistance
(d) the load resistanceequals the source resistance
10. For the circuit describedin Question 8, maximum power is transferred to a
(a) 10 kQ load (b) 2.5 kQ load (c) an infinitely large resistanceload

I PROBLEMS More dfficub problems are indicated by an asterisk (*).

SECTION8-3 SourceConversions
1. A voltage source has the values Vs = 300 V and R5 = 50 Q. Convert it to an equivalentcur-
rent source.
2. Convert the practical voltage sourcesin Figure 8-66 to equivalent current sources.

FIGUREB-66

3. A current source has an 1s of 600 mA and an R, of 1.2 ke. convert it to an equivalent

age source.
4. convert the practical culTent sourcesin Figure 8-67 to equivalent voltage sources.

FIGUREB-67

10mA 0.01A

(a) (b)
 r 301
PROBLEMS

SECTIONB-4 TheSuperposition
Theorem
5. Using the superpositionmethod, calculate the current through R5 in Figure 8-68.
6. Use the superpositiontheorem to find the current in and the voltage across the R2 branch of
Figure 8-68.

FIGURE 8-68 RI R?

2V

7. Using the superpositiontheorem, solve for the current through R3 in Figure 8-69.

FIGURE B_69 R.

100mA

8. Using the superpositiontheorem, find the load current in each circuit of Fieure 8-70.

1.0ko 8.2kO s60f,)

RL -
3.9kO
40v n< a^lr

t.0ko

*9. Determine the voltage from point A to point B in Figure 8-71.

FICUREB-71

R2
s6kO
R^

50v
=
I
J-
:
3O2 T CIRCUITTHEOREMS
AND CONVERSIONS

10. The switches in Figure 8-72 are closed in sequence,SWI first. Find the curent through Ra
after each switch closure.

FICUREB-72 t2v Rl

-rlrHl 5.6kO
6V R2

rlrH; 8.2kO
9V R3

rlrH;
R,
18ko

*1L. Figure 8-73 shows two ladder networks. Determine the current provided by each of the bat-
teries when terminals A are connected (A to A) and terminals B are connected (B to B).

FIGUREB-73 Rl R3 R5

vsl
32V

(4,

vsz
15v

ft)

SECTION8-5 Thevenin's
Theorem
12. For each circuit in Figure 8-74, determine the Thevenin equivalent as seen by Rr.

3V
+ l , l .-
A

RL 100o RL

(b)

0.1A

(cl (d)

FIGUREB-74
 P R O B L E M Sr 303

13. using Thevenin'stheorem,determinethe currentthroughthe loadR,,in Figure8-75.

FIGURE8-75 10ko 10ko 10ko

RL
32V
I J l(1,

*14. Using Thevenin's theorem, find the voltage acrossRa in Figure

8-76.

FICURE B-76 R.

R2 3.3kO

15. Find the Thevenin equivalent for the circuit extemal to the amplifier in Figure 8-77.

FIGUREB-77

16. Determinethe currentinto pointA whenRs is 1.0kQ, 5 ke, and 10 ke in Fisure g-7g.

6.8kO

Rl
9.1kO

FIGUREB-78
3 0 4 T C I R C U I T H E O R E MASN D C O N V E R S I O N S

*17. Find the currentthroughthe loadresistorin the bridgecircuit ofFigure 8-79.

18. Determinethe Theveninequivalentlooking from terminalsA andB for the circuit in Figure
8-80.

R3
15kO

R^
{r= o.zml

FICURE8-79 FIGURE8-80

SECTIONB-6 Norton'sTheorem
19. For each circuit in Figure 8-74, determine the Norton equivalent as seenby R;.
20. Using Norton's theorem, find the current through the load resistor R1 in Figure 8-75.
*21. Using Norton's theorem, find the voltage acrossR5 in Figure 8-76.
22. Using Norton's theorem, find the current through R1 in Figure 8-78 when Ra = 8 kf,2.
23. Determine the Norton equivalent circuit for the bridge in Figure 8-79 with R; removed.
24. Reduce the circuit between terminals A and B in Figure 8-81 to its Norton equivalent.

FIGURE8-81 R3
t5 ko

vs

12v

25. Apply Norton's theorem to the circuit of Figure 8-82.

FIGURE8-82
 r 305
PROBLEMS

SECTIONB-7 Maximum PowerTransferTheorem

26. For each circuit in Figure 8-83, maximum power is to be transferred to the load R1. Deter-
mine the appropriate value for R1 in each case.

50 mA

(a) (b)

5mA

(c.)

FIGUREB-83

27. Determinethe valueof R" for maximumpowerin Figure8-84.

FICUREB-84 8.2
8.2f,)

8.2f)

*28. How much power is delivered to the load when Ra is 107ohigher than its value for maximum
power in Figure 8-84.
*29. What are the values of Ra and R111when the maximum power is transferred from the the-
venized source to the ladder network in Fisure 8-85?

FICUREB-85
306 I C I R C U I T H E O R E MASN D C O N V E R S I O N S

SECTION8-8 Delta-to-Wye(A-to-Y)and Wye-to-Delta(Y-to-A)Conversions

30. In Figure 8-86, convert each delta network to a wye network.

FIGUREB_86 l.0Mo

RC

R,q, Ra Re= 1.0 R a = 2 . 7a

(a) (b)

31. In Figure 8-87, convert each wye network to a delta network.

FIGUREB-87

22Q

*32. Find all currents in the circuit ofFigure 8-88.

FIGURE 8-88 A

R2
39 kO

136V : C
22ka
I p
Rs
I 12ko 9.1ko

I
I
=

EWBTroubleshooting
and Analysis
Theseproblems require your EWB compact disk.
33. Open file PRO08-33.EWB and verify that the current through each resistor is correct and,
not, determine the fault.
34. Open file PRO08-34.EWB. and determine by measurementthe Thevenin equivalent for
circuit between terminal A and ground.
35. Open file PRO08-35.EWB and determine by measurementthe Norton equivalent for the
cuit between terminal A and ground.
36. Open file PRO08-36.EWB and determine the fault, if any.
37. Open file PRO08-37.EWB and determine the value of a load resistor to be connected
terminals A and B to achieve maximum power transfer.
 TO SECTIONREVIEWS,
ANSWERS 3O7

ANSWERS SectionB-1
TOSECTION 1. For ideal voltage source, see Figure 8-89.
REVIEWS 2. For practical voltage source, see Figure 8-90.

FIGUREB-89 FICUREB-90

3. The internal resistanceof an ideal voltage source is zero ohms.

4. Output voltage of a voltage source varies directly with load resistance.

SectionB-2
1. For ideal current source, see Figure 8-91.
2. For practical cunent source, see Figure 8-92.
3. An ideal current source has inflnite intemal resistance.
4. Load current from a current source varies inversely with load resistance.

^[

FICUREB-91 FIGUREB-92

Section 8-3
1. 1. = Yr74.
2. Vr = 7r4t
3. SeeFigure8-93.
4. SeeFigure8-94.

FIGUREB-93 FIGUREB-94

SectionB-4
1. The superposition theorem statesthat the total current in any branch of a multiple-source linear
circuit is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents due to the individual sources acting alone,
with the other sourcesreplaced by their intemal resistances.
2. The superpositiontheorem allows each source to be treated independently.
3. A short simulates the intemal resistanceof an ideal voltage source; an open simulates the inter-
nal resistanceof an ideal curent source.
4. I*= 6.67 mA
5. The net current is in the direction of the larser cuffent.
308 I C I R C U I T H E O R E MASN D C O N V E R S I O N S

Section8-5
1. A Thevenin equivalent circuit consists of V111and R1s.
2. See Figure 8-95 for the general form of a Thevenin equivalent circuit.

FIGURE8-95

3. V111is the open circuit voltage between two terminals in a circuit.

4. Rs is the resistanceas viewed from two terminals in a circuit, with all sourcesreplaced by
internal resistances.
5. See Fieure 8-96.

FIGURE8-96

Section8-6
1. A Norton equivalent circuit consists oflp and Rp.
2. See Figure 8-97 for the general form of a Norton equivalent circuit

FIGUREB-97

3. 6{ is the short circuit current between two terminals in a circuit.

4. Rp is the resistanceas viewed from the two open terminals in a circuit.
5. SeeFigure 8-98.

FIGUREB-98

515mA

Section8-7
1. The maximum power transfer theorem states that maximum power is transferred from a
to a load when the load resistanceis equal to the internal source resistance.
2. Maximum power is delivered to a load when R. - Rs.
 ANSWERS T 309
TO SELF-TEST

3, RL= Rs = 50 Cl

SectionB-8
1. For a delta circuit see Figure 8-99.
2. For a wye circuit, see Figure 8-100.

FIGUREB-99 F I G U R EB - 1 O O

3. The delta-to-wye conversion equations are

RrRc RoR"
R,' =___&4e- R,=
' R. =
RA+RB+Rc Ro+RB+Rc RA+RB+Rc

4. The wye-to-delta conversion equations are

^^=4dd#tl34t o, =4d-#taid" Rc=

R1R2+R1R3+R2R3
R3

Section 8-9
1. A thermistersensesa changein temperature
andproducesa resultingchangein resistance.
2. The heatingelementturnson whenthe bridgebecomesunbalanced.

SWERS 8-1 99.5V 8 - 1 1 1 . 1 7m A

RETATED 8-2 100V 8-12 168mA
8-3 3.33kfi 8-13 247 A
8-4 1.2A; 10A 8-14 RN=247 A
8-5 300V;600Q 8-15 41.7mW
8-6 16.6mA 8-16 Rl = 792Q, Rz: 360Q, R, = 449 I
V7 Is is not affected. 8-L7 RA= 712Q, Ra= 2.35kC),Rc = 500A
8-8 70 mA 8-18 3 pA
8-9 5 mA
8-10 2.36Y;124Q

ANSWERS 1. o) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b) s. (d) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d)

TOSETF.TEST (d)
9. 10. (b)