498

 
Fig. 3: A belt from the Early Avar Period decorated with fittings (Budakalász – Dunapart, Hungary, grave 696.
According to T. Vida)
   () 499

amount of time, the juxtaposition of thin, predominantly square sheet

fittings and cast products, which are frequently decorated with a very
similar geometric ornament, may be observed. It is apparent from
many details that an effort was made to adapt to the new fashion.
For instance, thick, square sheets, which are strong enough to sup-
port attached rings and large decorative rivets, are common. We
also find strap-ends which do not, as yet, have a spout but instead
are riveted onto the belt with the help of a rectangular piece of
sheet (fig. 5). To cast a spout a three-part mould would be needed,
whereas the third part must have been either an iron wedge, which
was removed from the strap-end after casting or, alternatively, a clay
wedge, which was broken up later.
It may seem surprising that by no means all details of the cast-
ing process are known. They would definitely merit further research
and archaeological experiments. Nevertheless, some substantial work
on Avar casting technology has already been done.82
Not only the period of transition from Middle- to Late Avar Period,
but also the various Late Avar phases, are well represented in the
cemetery from Mödling, which has already been mentioned. Grave
140 is a good example, containing a belt-set consisting of more than
40 parts. The main decorative element on both the strap-ends and
the fittings is a frame with scale ornament, sometimes with addi-
tional engraved or punched decoration. However, the most impres-
sive grave from Mödling is the already famous woman’s grave 144.
The coat-fastener found in this grave is decorated with the images
of two kneeling archers. Both parts consist of thick bronze sheet,
engraved and punched, and finally mercury-gilded. The woman was
lavishly equipped with a pair of silver- and of gold-earrings, a neck-
ring made of bronze wire, a rich bead necklace, consisting mainly
of large black melon- and pumpkin seed beads, two band-like bracelets,
spiral finger-rings made of bronze wire and a Roman glass bottle.
Significantly, the clay vessel had been made by hand, which seems

82
For example H.-J. Hundt, “Textilreste aus awarischen Gräbern von Leobers-
dorf und ein Exkurs über gegossene Textilstrukturen an der Rückseite bronzener
Riemenzungen”, F. Daim et al., Das awarische Gräberfeld von Leobersdorf, Niederösterreich
2, Studien zur Archäologie der Awaren 3. Denkschriften der Österreichischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften, philosophisch-historische Klasse 194. Veröffentlichungen
der Kommission für Frühmittelalterforschung 10 (Wien 1987) pp. 9–18.
 500
 
Fig. 4: Typochronology of Late Avar belt ornaments based on the
Leobersdorf cemetery
   () 501

Fig. 5: The structure of Avar main strap-ends in the eighth century

to prove that the almost industrial production of the majority of Late

Avar pots on a slow wheel (pottery finished on a slow wheel) was
not perceived as increasing their value.
Let us now return to the male means of representation, the belt-
set. Apart from the lattice ornament mentioned previously, rectan-
gular fittings decorated with the griffin-motif are characteristic of
Late Avar Period I, together with main strap-ends divided into sev-
eral panels and decorated with figural imagery, “trees of life” and
many other motifs. In Late Avar Period II, the animal-combat scene
is the most characteristic motif. Two griffins attack a stag or doe,
whereby the animals are arranged in such a way that they resem-
ble the rhythm of a large-leaved scroll with circular lobes (e.g. pl.
36,8). This type of depiction is totally foreign to the principles of
classical art. Although the animal-combat scene—griffins against
deer—like the griffin by itself, belongs to the group of motifs which
had been adopted into the Avar repertoire from images in Byzantine
art, the animal-combat scene which was so popular in Late Avar
Period II must have been created by Avar artists. It reveals that they
were familiar with the concept of multi-dimensional motifs.83 The
rectangular fittings, which are typical for Late Avar Period I, are
now replaced by hinged fittings of escutcheon-like, pentagonal or

83
F. Daim, “Der awarische Greif und die byzantinische Antike”, Typen der Ethnogenese
unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Bayern 2, ed. H. Friesinger and F. Daim, Denkschriften
der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, philosophisch-historische Klasse
204. Veröffentlichungen der Kommission für Frühmittelalterforschung 13 (Wien
1990) pp. 273–304.
502  

more or less round shape, usually decorated with simple plant-orna-

ment. In Late Avar Period III, there are some important innova-
tions. The belt-sets tend to have a high number of parts, some consist
of more than 30 fittings. The individual, larger hinged fittings are
sometimes replaced by groups of three tongue-shaped fittings. Abstract
plant-ornament prevails, especially the circular-lobe ornament. The
griffin-motif, which was so popular in the two earlier phases, disap-
pears almost completely. However, round decorative harness-mounts
and griffin-head-shaped (eagle heads with ears; pl. 37,8) fittings, which
were fixed on straps of horse harness, are one important exception.
Instead, strap-ends with circus scenes (pl. 37,5), with medallions and
animal motifs, as well as with stylized plant and tendril ornament,
the so-called “lily decoration”, now appear.
Some important changes also take place in casting technology (fig.
4): The spout for fastening the belt is now used exclusively in con-
junction with appendages, frequently in the shape of animal heads,
which enclose the rivets for fastening the end of the strap. The rel-
atively thick strap-end is often cast in one piece, leaving a slit at the
end between the two protuberances. In many cases, this slit not only
looks as if it had been sawn, but actually shows definite tool marks
which suggest the use of a fine saw. However, it seems to have been
most common to cast the strap-ends in two parts, whereby a gap,
in which the belt may be placed and fastened with rivets, remains
between the two halves. The process of casting such a strap-end is
very simple, because no wedge is needed for the ferrule. At first
glance, the two types look strikingly similar, as both usually have
parallel sides, a semi-circular end and protuberances for riveting the
belt strap.
Surprisingly, the analysis of the cast belt-sets from Leobersdorf
revealed that the belt-sets from Late Avar Period III, especially those
with strap-ends consisting of two parts, were cast using a different
alloy than those from earlier phases, namely so-called “bell bronze”,
which contains a high proportion of lead at the expense of copper
content.84 In the earlier periods, almost exclusively pure tin bronze
was used. However, it will be necessary to verify whether we may
in fact generalise from this result.

84
P. Wobrauschek, W. Haider and C. Streli, “Röntgenfluoreszenzanalyse von
Bronzefunden aus der Awarenzeit”, F. Daim et al., Das awarische Gräberfeld von
   () 503

Belt-fittings which were cast from pure precious metal—gold or

silver—occur in the Late Avar Carpathian Basin only in exceptional
cases. The half-palmette ornament on the silver belt-fitting from
Komárno-ul. Váradiho, suggests that it may have been an import
from the Mediterranean region.85 On the other hand, in the Late
Avar Period, there are a large number of mercury-gilded belt-fittings.
The latter have been examined by Gábor Kiss.86 There seems to
have been a large variety of motifs and ornaments which in some
cases have been adopted from the Mediterranean region or even
from the Far East. Evidently, the gilded belt-sets seem to have pos-
sessed an exemplary function for the costume of the less wealthy pop-
ulation (examples from Komárno-Schiffswerft: pl. 37,5–8) However,
not all the “foreign” motifs were imitated, some occur only on the
group of gilded fittings. Characteristically, the distribution map shows
a concentration of gilded belt-decoration on the fringes of the area
of Avar settlement. As not a single (!) grave is known from the Late
Avar Period which could compare with the wealth of the princely
graves from the seventh century, we should consider that perhaps,
this displacement of rich finds to the periphery may also signify a
shift of power away from the centre. However, it would also be pos-
sible that the leading social stratum adhered to a different type of
burial rite. This may even have meant lavish burial rituals, but with-
out grave accompaniments, in analogy to customs practised in the
West and the Mediterranean region at the same time. If—as in

Leobersdorf, Niederösterreich 2, Studien zur Archäologie der Awaren 3. Denkschriften

der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, philosophisch-historische Klasse
194. Veröffentlichungen der Kommission für Frühmittelalterforschung 10 (Wien
1987) pp. 45–55, esp. p. 55, fig. 8. A large number of Avar finds were examined
by László Költö using X-ray fluorescence analysis: L. Költö, “Avar kori bronztár-
gyak röntgenemissziós analízise [X-ray emission analysis of bronze objects from the
Avar age]”, Somogyi Múzeumok Közleményei 5 (1982) pp. 5–68 [English summary:
p. 66]. The following collection of essays demonstrates Hungarian researchers’ inter-
est in archaeometry: Archaeometrical Research in Hungary, ed. M. Járó and L. Költö
(Budapest 1988). X-ray fluorescence analysis was also used to examine “Avar” finds
from Bohemia and Moravia, as suggested by Nad’a Profantová: J. Frána and A.
Ma“talka, “Röntgenfluoreszenzanalyse von frühmittelalterlichen Bronzen aus Böhmen
und Mähren”, Awarenforschungen, ed. F. Daim, Archaeologia Austriaca 1. Studien zur
Archäologie der Awaren 4 (Wien 1992) pp. 779–801.
85
Daim, “‘Byzantinische’ Gürtelgarnituren”, p. 106, fig. 23.
86
G. Kiss, “A késoi  avar aranyozott övdíszek [Die spätawarischen vergoldeten
Gürtelbeschläge]”, Somogyi Múzeumok Közleményei 11 (1995) pp. 99–126 [German sum-
mary: p. 106].
504  

Leobersdorf—at the end of Late Avar Period III, the “classical” cus-
tom of grave accompaniments was given up step by step, this devel-
opment may in fact have been initiated by the Avar elite two or
three generations earlier.
The relative chronology of Late Avar belt-ornaments stands on a
firm methodological basis, as the individual elements regarding shape
and decoration correlate well with technical details. For instance,
one would never find a main strap-end decorated with the typical
animal-combat scene, “two griffins killing a stag or doe” cast in two
parts or with appendages in the shape of animal heads, presumably
because at the time when strap-ends cast in two parts and with
appendages became fashionable, animal-combat scenes were no longer
in vogue. If we assume that certain motifs, shapes and techniques
occurred in the same period, all kinds of different combinations of
the individual elements should occur.
An almost confusing variety of motifs, styles and workshop tradi-
tions is represented in the Late Avar casting industry. Provided they
are recorded and interpreted adequately, they may enable us to grasp
the numerous cultural trends in the eastern part of Central Europe.
For a long time, our perception of this problem was hindered by
the belief that in the eighth century, the Avars lived in forced iso-
lation, partly because after their defeat in 626 they were dependent
on their own resources and partly because the direct route to
Constantinople had been blocked by the foundation of the Bulgarian
empire. However, the sources suggest that the situation was in fact
quite different.
The methodological problem regarding the study of Late Avar
motifs is:

• There is hardly any comparative material from Byzantium, Italy

and western Europe north of the Alps, because dress-ornaments
are present in burials only in exceptional cases.
• Persistent difficulties concerning the fine chronology of the eastern
European archaeological material.

A possible methodological “lever” for decoding Late Avar motifs

could be:

• Comparing Avar motifs with contemporary examples as well as

earlier and later examples from the same area and adjacent regions.
   () 505

• Analysis of motif context (which other motifs frequently occur in

conjunction with the one in question?).
• Taking into consideration the style used in each case.

In this way we should be able to grasp synchronic and diachronic

motif transfer by examining one complex of motifs after another and
thus be able to detect both adaptions to personal taste as well as
changes of meaning.
The fact that our research is—inevitably—limited to metal objects
is something of a hindrance, because even the small number of bone
ornaments from the late Early- and early Middle Avar Period demon-
strate that certain motifs and types of decoration may have survived
on perishable materials and then appeared on belt-sets only much
later. We would like to give three examples for Late Avar motifs,
the griffin, the flowered scroll and the boar.
The griffin, a lion with wings and an eagle’s head, predominantly
with pointed ears and a long tail, is a motif which is thousands of
years old. It is well known from Oriental, Egyptian, Greek, Roman
and Byzantine art. As a symbol of strength, it is often linked with
power. In Roman culture in particular it also plays an important
role in a sepulchral context and also enters Christian iconography.
In Avar art it first appears in the Middle Avar Period, when Byzantine
buckles may have served as models. Nevertheless, many other pos-
sibilities exist regarding the transfer of this motif. In Late Avar Period
I and II, the griffin almost dominated the cast belts (e.g. pl. 36), so
that he has been even described as the “heraldic animal” of the
Avars. Such an interpretation, however, signifies a lack of familiar-
ity with the chronology of the archaeological material: How can
something be a heraldic animal if it was a popular motif on belt-
fittings for only 60 out of altogether 250 years of Avar presence? In
Late Avar Period II, apart from the simple griffin-fittings, on which
an individual animal is depicted in a dynamic position—ready to
pounce—there is now also the main strap-end decorated with the
characteristic animal-combat scene, where two griffins attack a stag
or doe. Interestingly enough, the group of animals is not depicted
according to the classical tradition, but in a strange, intertwined man-
ner, so that its “rhythm” resembles that of a scroll with leaves. The
latter is frequently present on the reverse of the strap-end. Here,
the Avars have depicted an originally Mediterranean motif—the
animal-combat scene—in a way which corresponds to their own
506  

artistic tradition of using a sometimes very high degree of abstrac-

tion. In Late Avar Period III, the griffin hardly ever occurs. One
exception is the equestrian grave 36 from Komárno, where the round
harness-mounts and some smaller fittings are in the shape of eagle’s
heads with ears, thus depicting griffin’s heads (pl. 37,8).
Already in the Early Avar Period, the boar’s head is found as a
decorative detail on some belt-mounts and—for example—on the
bowl rim fittings from Kölked-Feketekapu B, grave 119 (pl. 14). From
the end of the Middle Avar Period onwards, boar-shaped strap-ends
occur, which, in Late Avar Period III, seem to have replaced the
griffin as a symbol of power. Like the griffin, the boar is also a tran-
scultural symbol, however, it is not used much in Christian iconog-
raphy and if so, predominantly in a negative context.87 The boar
signifies untamed strength, wildness and vigour. It is a widespread
motif among the Romans and the Celts, among the Anglo-Saxons
and in the Germanic North it is used to decorate helmets. So far,
no connection has been identified between the Germanic boar images
of the sixth and the early seventh century and those from the Middle
and Late Avar Period, so that—for lack of good alternatives—a
Central Asian origin has been suggested for the latter.88 The boar’s
head on the rim fittings belonging to a (wooden) vessel from Kölked
is strikingly similar to some belt-fittings from the late eighth century,
for example those from Békés-Vizesbánó (eastern Hungary) and from
Holiare 778 (Slovakia),89 so that we must now assume that there was
in fact a direct link. Possibly, the boar’s head in its “canonised” form
was used on organic materials in the seventh and the first half of
the eighth century, before it was used to decorate belts. Presumably,
we can exclude the possibility that an Avar used an “antique” object,
which had been found or transmitted accidentally, as the starting
point for a new belt fashion.
The reverse of one of the strap-ends in the shape of a boar’s head,
from Edelstal (Hungarian: Nemesvölgy, present-day Burgenland,

87
For an extensive summary see: S. Müller, Awarische Eber. Ein Beitrag zur früh-
mittelalerlichen Ikonographie (unpublished Proseminararbeit at the Institut für Ur- und
Frühgeschichte der Universität Wien, 2001).
88
É. Garam, “A bocsi kes oavarkori
 lelet és kore [Der spätawarenzeitliche Fund
von Bocs und sein Kreis]”, Archeologiai Értesíto 108 (1981) pp. 34–50, esp. p. 50.
89
Ibid., fig 4,1–2; 5,1.
   () 507

Austria), grave 22, is decorated with a scroll motif with flowers. The
ornament, which in this case is not very clear, may best be seen on
the round harness-mounts from Komárno-Schiffswerft 149 (pl. 38,1).
A number of the stems, which overlap in some cases, have calices
depicted in section, on top of which there are semi-circular petals,
predominantly three in number. What distinguishes this decoration
from most others of Late Avar date is a stylistic element, namely
the treatment of the surface or space: the scrolls are spread out
loosely over the large surface, giving the impression of generosity, of
unobtrusive elegance. However, the other Avar products seem to fol-
low the principle of completely covering all the available surfaces,
similar to the western artistic tradition. Both this particular type of
flowered scroll and the same generous treatment of space are also
present in Chinese metalwork from the contemporary T’ang-dynasty.
The latter, however, was influenced strongly by neighbouring cul-
tures. There are many early medieval cultures which we do not yet
know sufficiently well in order to be able to come to a final opin-
ion. In this case, however, it is apparent that there was a connec-
tion with Avar workshops. A possible stimulus could have been the
Chinese silver cup which found its way into the Carpathian Basin
in the Middle Avar Period, together with Byzantine luxury goods,
or printed silk which was decorated with similar motifs.90 The ear-
liest Avar belt-set which is decorated with this type of flower orna-
ment comes from Kiskörös, grave IX,91 and belongs to the Middle
Avar Period (third quarter of the seventh century).
An important result of research carried out recently was the
identification of genuinely Mediterranean belt-ornaments from the
eighth century (pl. 34). The main types of multi-part belt-sets from
the late sixth and the seventh century whose origin lay within Byzantine
culture have already been identified and described some time ago.92
This is due to self-evident find circumstances, for instance the
treasures from Akalan, Mersin and the finds from the Byzantine

90
Daim, “‘Byzantinische’ Gürtelgarnituren”, pp. 130 ff.
91
G. László, Études Archeologiques sur l´histoire de la Société des Avars, Archaeologia
Hungarica 34 (Budapest 1955) p. 30, fig. 9a and pl. VIII,1. I would like to thank
Béla M. Szoke
 for drawing my attention to this piece.
92
Werner, “Nomadische Gürtel”.