The Cartographic Journal Vol. 40 No. 1 pp.
17–26 June 2003
# The British Cartographic Society 2003
REFEREED PAPER
The Representation of Topographic Information on Maps:
The Depiction of Relief
Peter Collier1 , David Forrest2 and Alastair Pearson3
1
Department of Geography, University of Portsmouth, Lion Terrace, Portsmouth PO1 3HE, UK.
Email: peter.collier@port.ac.uk
2
Department of Geography and Topographic Science, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK.
Email: dforrest@geog.gla.ac.uk
3
Department of Geography, University of Portsmouth, Lion Terrace, Portsmouth PO1 3HE, UK.
Email: alastair.pearson@port.ac.uk
INTRODUCTION
The mapping of the surface of the land has been foremost
amongst the problems confronting cartographers (Harvey,
1980). As Robinson et al. (1995) observe:
There is something about the three-dimensional (3-D)
land surface that intrigues map users and sets it apart
from other distributions portrayed on maps. (p. 528)
The land surface is often a dominant component of topo-
graphic maps, yet relative to horizontal distances, changes
in altitude are very small.1 So why should relief depiction
be a key element of topographic map design? One obvious
reason is that we are very small in comparison to hills
and mountains and therefore cartographers exaggerate
our subjective response to these land forms to match our
subjective impressions. Furthermore, a minor change in
altitude can also be accompanied by a dramatic change
in environment, a variation to which we are also very
sensitive. Hills and mountains are a very visible part of the
landscape and offer map users a fundamental link between
the real world and the abstract symbols of the map.
Terrain portrayal is often a source of criticism both for its
failure to create an impression of relief in the mind of the
map user but also for its interference with the legibility
of other map information. The successful representation of
relief on a topographic map therefore depends on how
well the map conveys a subjective impression of the
landscape and not merely how it records its planimetric
and altitudinal variation. With the increased quality and
quantity of elevation data, developments in computing and
reprographic techniques and the ever growing popularity
of maps, the portrayal of the land surface form has
taken on special signiŽcance in recent years. However,
only relatively recently has literature become available that
attempts to aid the cartographer solve the fundamental
problem of recreating the three-dimensional surface of the
DOI: 10.1179/000870403235002033
17
earth by two-dimensional symbols. What follows is not
an exhaustive treatise on relief portrayal, but rather an
exploration, with examples, of how cartographers continue
to grapple with this age-old problem.
Any study of relief representation must refer to Imhof’s
classic work ‘Cartographic Relief Representation’ (Imhof,
1982). Not restricted to pure descriptions of the various
methods, this work provides an introduction to methods
of topographical survey with special reference to accuracy
in measuring terrain surfaces and the interpretation of
relief from air photographs. Other concepts such as the
theory of colours and the interplay of map elements form
the foundation of the detailed treatment of the different
methods of relief representation. By comparison, other
works may seem rather superŽcial. Nevertheless, the standard
cartography texts, notably Keates (1989) and Robinson et al.
(1995), provide adequate introductions. Relief portrayal
has provided a subject for experimentally based studies
in map legibility and perception. Studies by Patton and
Crawford (1977), Potash, Farrell and Jeffrey (1978),
and Phillips, De Lucia and Skelton (1975) have sought to
develop scientiŽc design principles based upon the objective
testing of cartographic products utilizing experimental tech-
niques already established by the human factors engineers,
psychologists and physiologists. Their success is open to
question. Nevertheless, reference to these works should
at least alert the map designer to the possible effects
that different relief portrayal methods may have on map
information accessibility and interpretation, and more
signiŽcantly to the diversity of the needs and abilities of
the map user.
Topographic maps produced by national mapping agencies
offer a range of relief representation methods. As with all
elements of map design, the method of relief portrayal
adopted will depend on the perceived purpose of the series
and the needs of the majority of its users. National mapping
organizations have to choose between conicting interests
18
of majority and minority users (Harley, 1975). Therefore,
we should be mindful not to make glib generalizations
about the success of a method of relief portrayal without
taking into account the special circumstances of the
mapping agency that produced the map. However, when
we consider different map series from around the world
there may be a case for speculating that even if all other
economic and topographic factors were held equal, the
method of relief portrayal adopted by national mapping
agencies would still differ from country to country.
RELIEF REPRESENTATION METHODS
Hachuring
Historically, the development of relief portrayal has
developed hand in hand with progress in solving the
problems of measuring relief. Early maps relied heavily on
the employment of hachures to depict changes in slope. The
estimation of slope angles in the Želd was relatively easy in
comparison to the laborious task of gathering detailed
measurements of altitude for the production of contours.
As a method, it was also well suited to the capability of
the engraver to produce Žne line detail. The relationship
between the hachure type and the nature of the slope
is quite straightforward. Hachure length varies according
to the length of slope, thickness is determined by the
steepness of the slope, and the hachure density can be
used to determine the degree of slope. However, though
various attempts have been made to classify variations
in hachure length, thickness, spacing and direction to aid
interpretation, it is difŽcult to Žnd examples where more
than three different slope categories can be clearly identi-
Žed (Keates, 1989). Perhaps the best known example is
that devised by Johann Georg Lehmann in 1799 which
is described in detail by Imhof (1982, pp. 217–21). The
impression of relief was enhanced by the employment of
‘shadow hachures’ whereby a light source from the left is
assumed to illuminate the surface. Hachures were drawn
lightly on the illuminated side of the mountain, normally
the north-west side, and very heavily on the shaded slopes,
thus producing a three-dimensional impression, redolent
of obliquely lit terrain models. Arguably the Žnest example
of the combination of the Lehmann hachure system and
this method of line shading was the ‘Topographische Karte
de Schweiz 1:100 000’ or the so-called ‘Dufourkarte’
which was published between 1842 and 1864 (Figure 1).
According to Imhof, the Dufourkarte ‘is considered to be
the Žnest and clearest map of any high mountain region to
have appeared in the last century’ (Imhof, 1982, p. 11).
With the later introduction of lithographic printing,
hachures could be printed in colour to produce subtle
combinations with other relief representations such as
contours (Figure 2).
The employment of hachures is useful in depicting
changes in slope if proper attention is paid to the subtle
changes in terrain. Those areas with abrupt changes in slope,
such as uvially eroded mountain landscapes, lend them-
selves to this relatively rapid method of relief depiction.
However, their effectiveness diminishes signiŽcantly in areas
of gently undulating topography.
The Cartographic Journal
Though not a common method of relief depiction today,
many countries still possess large stocks of ofŽcial maps
with hachures. Indeed, the merits of hachuring were not
lost on mapping organizations well into the 20th century
in the mapping of large tracts of colonial territories. The
‘Preliminary Plots’ produced by the Directorate of Overseas
Surveys (DOS) from the late 1940s until the early 1960s
were an exception to the general trend in contemporary
topographic mapping. Why then did this organization con-
tinue to use a method of relief depiction that had fallen
out of favour in the rest of the world? The simple answer
was cost. To provide contours for the large numbers of
map sheets produced at the time by the DOS would have
required access to far more photogrammetric instruments
than were available within the organization (McGrath,
1983). In addition, the provision of contouring would
have required more height control than was generally used
at the time.2
The DOS used a number of styles of hachuring in
different countries for which it provided mapping. In
the case of Kenya, and the other countries covered by the
East Africa SpeciŽcation, this involved the use of standard
hachures as in Figure 3. These were drawn to show the
direction and steepness of slopes. In the legend the symbols
were described as ‘lesser slope’ and ‘steep slope’. Decisions
on where to show hachures, and of what type, would have
been based upon stereoscopic examination of the photo-
graphs to identify signiŽcant physical features. At the DOS
this was normally carried out by photo-interpreters who
would mark the features to be plotted on the photographs
in different coloured paints. This detail would then be
plotted on overlay sheets using radial line techniques.
Checking would ensure consistency between interpreters.
Hachures no longer provide a viable or apparently
desirable method of relief depiction. ‘Hachures are not
normally used on modern mapping, except to depict
cuttings, embankments or steep slopes’ (Ministry of Defence,
1971). Indeed, some would argue that even these symbols
cannot be classed as hachuring as they are not part of a
systematic classiŽcation of all slopes in the terrain (Keates,
1989). Automation of hachuring is also problematic given
its subjective nature and complexity of pattern. No doubt
successful automation would have been achieved if the
desire had been there.
Hill Shading
Many topographic map series employ shading on slopes
which generally combine effectively with contours which
provide absolute height differences. The metric framework
of the topography is thus transformed into a continuous
surface by the shading. The most common method
assumes an artiŽcial oblique light source where the tonal
variations depend on the angle of each slope facet to the
illumination source.
Fundamentally, there are three types of hill shading
based on the angle of illumination; vertical, oblique and a
combination of the two. Shading based on a vertical light
source produces tones graded on the principle ‘the steeper
the darker’. Steep areas are dark and at areas are white.
Tonal variations that are determined by an oblique light
source typically assume the light source to be from the
Topographic Information on Maps 19

Figure 1. ‘Topographische Karte de Schweiz 1:100 000’ or the so-called ‘Dufourkarte’ which was published
between 1842 and 1864
20
Figure 2. With the later introduction of lithographic printing, hachures could be printed in colour to produce subtle combinations with other
relief representations such as contours
north-west. This method renders level areas in an inter-
mediate tone as they are at an angle to the light source.
The tone of the slope is therefore dependent on slope,
aspect and steepness. The combined method leaves the
level areas un-shaded, yet slopes of different orientations
remain tonally distinct (Imhof, 1982, and Keates, 1989).
Establishing conventions for hill shading is problematic.
In some cases only extremely steep slopes, ridges or out-
crops facing directly away from the light source are made
solid black, and conversely only very steep slopes facing
north-west are left white (DOS, Undated). In between the
two extremes are slopes of varying degrees of steepness
and direction. According to the Directorate of Overseas
Surveys:
‘No rules can be written to predetermine which of
the multitude of grey shadows should be used for
all numerous variations of slope and direction; this
must be learned from experience.’ (Undated, p. 7)
Sharp changes in angle of slope should be represented by
sharp changes in tone while gentle undulations in topo-
graphy should be illustrated by gradual changes in the
strength of shading. Cast shadows are not normally shown.
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Most hill shading is carried out with prime consideration
being given to the positive features in the landscape such
as the ridges and spurs.
The Swiss cartographer Eduard Imhof was instrumental
in developing what has become known as the ‘Swiss style’,
a style of relief representation adopted by the Bundesamt
fur Landestopographie der Schweiz. Indeed, it can be
used as an exemplar of how to create a three-dimensional
representation of relief in the mind of the map user
(Figure 4). The clarity of the landforms is due to the
expertise of the Swiss cartographers in being able to pick
out the characteristics of the landforms and their variability.
Clearly, the success of the Swiss mapping of relief is owed
in no small part to the thorough training that cartographers
received and the emphasis placed on their developing a
sound geomorphological knowledge of landforms, together
with their innate visual and graphic aptitude and experi-
ence. The maps demonstrate incomparable attention to
detail, employing delicate use of shading techniques that
produces a very satisfying treatment of both major and
minor landforms. Abrupt changes in slope are given a crisp
switch from light to dark, while softer shading transitions
are applied to more gradual changes in slope. Small local
Topographic Information on Maps
Figure 3. In the case of Kenya, and the other countries covered
by the East Africa SpeciŽcation, this involved the use of standard
hachures
deviations from the direction of the light source are
employed to avoid the main direction of light being
parallel to the dominant direction of mountain ridges and
valleys. Horizontal surfaces have a medium, homogeneous
Figure 4. The ‘Swiss style’, a style of relief representation adopted by the Bundesamt fur Landestopographie der Schweiz
21
tone that permits small coloured symbols in the map to be
brought out more effectively. The overall effect is enhanced
by the interplay between the shading and the contours,
rock portrayal and colour tones (Imhof, 1982). The whole
scheme is based on the natural effects of atmospheric
colours in the mountains, with violet tints applied to the
shading and yellowish tints applied to the sides facing
the imaginary light source. More contrast is added to the
higher areas to further enhance the impression of relief.
Imhof’s method, luftperspectivische Geländedarstellung is
regarded as one of the best methods of representing relief
on a geometrically orthogonal map, while still preserving
the third dimension (Kraak and Ormeling, 1996).
The choice of shading colour is important. Half-tone
black shading has been used to good effect on topographic
map series. This colour prints well in half tone, providing a
clear, crisp reproduction of the shading. However, it has
been argued that the use of black is inappropriate for
tropical areas covered with forest and grassland. This has
led to experiments with a subdued greenish-grey colour
that was used on the 1:50 000 series for Sarawak (DOS
434) and for Nyasaland (DOS 425). Light facing slopes
on the north-west slopes of the 1:50 000 tourist map of
St Vincent in the West Indies has been separated from
the basic hill shading and printed in pale yellow. In the
Antarctic, Falkland Island Dependencies, the crevassed ice
sheets and glaciers are depicted by electric blue ice shading
and the bare precipitous nunataks by grey rock shading.
The Žnal effect is greatly enhanced by the addition of a
violet shading plate (Figure 5).
22
Figure 5. In the Antarctic, Falkland Island Dependencies, the crevassed ice sheets and glaciers are depicted by electric blue ice shading and the
bare precipitous nunataks by grey rock shading
Form Lines
Like hachures, form-lines are a relief depiction method
typically used when the necessary control and equipment
for photogrammetric contouring are not available. One of
the earliest uses of form lining from aerial photography
was by the 7th Field Survey Company, Royal Engineers, in
Palestine during the First World War (Collier, 1994). The
approach adopted was to draw form-lines on the photo-
graphs under stereoscopes and then transfer the lines to the
map sheets. In Palestine the terrain lent itself to this tech-
nique being mainly composed of near horizontally bedded
limestones eroded into natural terraces. The form-lines
produced were not directly related to height measurements
as the areas mapped were behind Turkish lines.
The DOS based its form-lines on a framework of heights,
sketching the form-lines under a stereoscopic examination
using a radial-line plotter. Under these circumstances it
was possible to achieve results that were not signiŽcantly
worse than the contours on the Ordnance Survey one-inch
maps of the day. As McGrath (1983) notes, the majority
of contours on the OS one-inch sheets were based on
The Cartographic Journal
interpolation between instrumental contours and point
elevations. Even the instrumental contours would have
contained signiŽcant interpolated elements. To combat
perceptions that form lining was an inferior method of
relief portrayal, at the end of 1960 contours were re-titled
contours A, while form-lines were re-titled contours B
(McGrath, 1983).
Contours
Although the precise deŽnition will vary from text to
text, contours are usually deŽned as lines joining adjacent
points of equal height. As will be noted below in the
discussion of how contours were surveyed, it was very rare in
the pre-photogrammetric era for contours to be much more
than coarse approximations to that deŽnition. The central
problem was that it was far easier to deŽne a contour than
it was to survey one in the Želd.
The Žrst use of contours is usually credited to Milet
de Mureau in 1749 (Crone, 1968) although as Crone
noted, the use of lines to show equal depth on charts can
be traced back to Pierre Ancelin’s 1697 map of Rotterdam
Topographic Information on Maps 23

and the Nieuve Maas. The adoption of contouring to
cover all but the smallest area was delayed by the lack of
height information. The heights that were shown on maps
were normally derived from triangulation or barometric
heighting.
The general adoption of contouring had to await the
national surveys of the nineteenth century but some series,
such as the French ‘Carte d’État-Major’ at 1:80 000 were
never contoured. As late as the early twentieth century it
was common for government mapping to combine con-
tours with either hachures or hill-shading in the belief that
the hachures or shading helped in relief visualization.
Systematic height measurement, which could be used as a
basis for contouring, was a product of the mid-nineteenth
century. In the United States the Žrst transcontinental
connection was not made until 1907. Smaller countries
were able to achieve national coverage rather earlier. For
example, in Britain the Žrst levelling was completed between
1841 and 1859. As with other systematic levelling pro-
grammes, Ordnance Survey’s ran into the problem of height
deŽnition (Seymour, 1980).
SURVEYING FOR CONTOURING
A variety of techniques were used to map contours in
the Želd. These would have included the use of relatively
simple and low precision techniques such as Želd sketching
(in reality little better than form-lining), through the use
of hand levels (such as the Abney Level) and the planetable
and Indian Clinometer techniques employed by the Survey
of India. More precise techniques would have included
triangulation and the use of levels, either water levels or
spirit levels. One feature that all of these techniques would
have had in common is that they would all involve some
degree of interpolation. The degree of interpolation would
have varied from simply interpolating between surveyed
points to form the contour line to the interpolation of
entire contour lines or runs of contour lines.
Close and Winterbotham (1925) set out the appropriate
techniques to be used for different map scales:
4 inches to 1 mile and level, theodolite or
larger (approx. 1:15 000) water-level
2 inches to 1 mile water-level or
(approx. 1:30 000) clinometer
1 inch to 1 mile (1:63 360) water-level, clinometer or
aneroid barometer
½ inch to 1 mile (1:125 000) clinometer, aneroid
barometer or sketch
contours
¼ inch to 1 mile or smaller sketch contours
(1:250 000)
Clearly, the cost in labour of producing contours instru-
mentally would rise signiŽcantly with increased contour
density and accuracy. The contour speciŽcation would have
depended on the purpose of the contouring on the map.
If they were only intended as a more ‘objective’ form of
relief portrayal, how accurate did they need to be? When
most of the instrumental contouring was carried out in
the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, contours
would not have fulŽlled any real scientiŽc or practical pur-
pose. Anyone requiring accurate height information would
have carried out their own levelling. In consequence, there
would not, in most cases, have been any incentive to pro-
duce contours of high accuracy for national mapping. Collier
(1972), in her discussion of Ordnance Survey contouring
in Scotland, shows that there where considerable differ-
ence of opinion as to the required accuracy. Furthermore,
she shows that there could be considerable errors in the
contouring when compared with later photogrammetric
contours. Planimetric errors in the contours of up to
0.75 km and on steep slopes errors of up to §100 feet in
altitude were evident. The position of some hills was also
in error by 0.25 km.
When photogrammetric contouring was introduced it
became as easy to produce accurate contours as it was to

Table 1.

Country Scale Vi Supplementaries Labelling Up-slope(U) Shading

North facing(N)

USA 1:24 000 10 ft No N None

Germany 1:25 000 5m 2.5 & 1.25 U None
Denmark 1:25 000 5m 2.5 U None
France 1:25 000 5m 2.5 U None
Belgium 1:25 000 5m 2.5 U None
Netherlands 1:25 000 5m 2.5 U None
Australia 1:25 000 10 m No N None
Norway 1:25 000 20 m 10 m N None
Israel 1:50 000 10 m No U None
Poland 1:50 000 10 m 2.5, 5 & 7.5 U None
Czech 1:50 000 10 m 5m U None
Russia 1:50 000 10 m 5m U None
Spain 1:50 000 20 m No N Shade
Switzerland 1:50 000 20 m 5 & 10 N Shade
Nepal 1:50 000 40 m 20 m U None
St Kitts & Nevis 1:50 000 200 ft No U Shade
India 1:63 360 50 ft No N None
24 The Cartographic Journal

Figure 6. Australia where the contour number is over-printed in black on a brown or magenta colour

produce poor ones and the photogrammetrists would have survey. When tested, the contours are normally within the
taken pride in producing the best answer they could. accepted accuracy, plus or minus half the contour interval,
Modern photogrammetric contours are therefore likely to and on open ground without vegetation cover, they are
be much more accurate than those produced by ground usually good to plus or minus 0.1 of the contour interval.
Topographic Information on Maps
CONTOUR DEPICTION
Different national mapping agencies have adopted a variety
of approaches to the depiction of contours on topographic
maps. Some of these are summarized in Table 1.
One fundamental difference is in the vertical interval
chosen for mapping at a particular scale and whether or not
supplementary contours are used. For example, in Australia
the State of Victoria has contours at 10-metre intervals on
the 1:25 000 mapping and 20 metres on the 1:50 000
mapping with no supplementary contours used. In New
South Wales the same contour intervals are used but with
the addition of supplementary (auxillary) contours. Both
states use ‘approximate contours’, while New South Wales
also uses symbols on the contours to indicate rocky slopes.
However, there are some common practices. Most of
the countries whose mapping we have examined for this
paper use a 5 metre contour interval for 1:25 000 mapping
and a 10 metre interval at 1:50 000. The exceptions are
countries with mountainous environments such as Norway,
Switzerland and Spain (Catalonia) which use 20 metre
intervals on 1:50 000 mapping and Nepal which uses a
40 metre interval. The use of supplementary contours
appears to be a largely continental European tradition and
is not widely practised in the English speaking world with
the exception of New South Wales. The Survey of Israel
also Žts the general pattern as its mapping traditions were
established under the British Mandate.
Another area of variation is in the orientation of contour
values. The most common approach is to have the values
reading up-slope, even if that means that they are inverted
on north facing slopes. However, some countries have
adopted the practice of having the values reading approxi-
mately west to east thus avoiding any inverted values. A
case can be made for both practices as north facing con-
tours are easier to read if the map is viewed with north at
the top, while numbering up-slope makes it easier to deter-
mine the aspect of the slope. If the contour numbers are
applied in ights up the slope, as is the common practice
in Britain, and in many English-speaking countries, there
is little room for confusion whatever the orientation of
the contour numbers. However, if contour numbering is
sporadic, the aspect of the slope may not always be readily
apparent.
On the sheets studied, nearly all contour numbering is
carried out using the same colour as the contour with the
number being inserted into a break in the contour line.
The exception is Australia where the contour number is
over-printed in black on a brown or magenta contour
(Figure 6). Individual point heights (or spot heights) are
sometimes shown in the same colour as the contours, for
example on American and Belgian maps. However, on the
sheets studied, they are more commonly printed in black.
Contouring is generally regarded as the least effective
method of creating the illusion of three dimensions in
the mind of the map user. The addition of colour in the
form of layer tinting can be an effective technique in over-
coming the deŽciencies of contouring. However, layer tinting
is rarely used in medium scale topographic mapping due
the expense of production. Ordnance Survey have experi-
mented with this technique for their 1:63 360 Tourist
Series.3
25
CONCLUSION
Except for the most dynamic landscapes, the terrain is one
of those Žxed entities in the landscape that requires little,
if any, revision. Time and effort invested in producing
effective relief representation should theoretically ensure
that little if any further expense is required in future.
However, one could argue that the representation of relief
on topographic map series has become as Žxed as the
landscape itself. Though national mapping agencies have
adjusted their map designs to accommodate the increased
availability of height data that has resulted from the post-
war developments in photogrammetry, this has not led to
a dramatic change in relief portrayal, but to an increase in
contour accuracy and density. Mapping organizations have
tended to retain the method adopted in the early part of
the century.
In the past, three-dimensional maps from oblique per-
spectives have been cumbersome and time-consuming to
produce manually. There are remarkable examples by Imhof
(1982) and Raisz (1944). Virtually any phenomenon that
can be conceived as a three-dimensional surface can be
mapped in this way. With the advent of the computer-
assisted techniques, the process is relatively easy and there is
a plethora of examples to refer to. Digital Terrain Models
are an integral part of Geographical Information Systems.
The exploration and visualization of surfaces, topographic
or statistical, are often enhanced by the three-dimensional
modelling capabilities of modern software. Nevertheless,
even with these technical advances, a number of unresolved
conceptual issues still remain. The age-old problems of
striking a balance between the metrical accuracy of the
graphic image with the generation of a three-dimensional
surface in the mind of the map user, does not disappear with
the assistance of computers. As technology has advanced,
mapmakers have been confronted by a dichotomy of
requirements: maps, on the one hand, can be made to
portray the surface so that the viewer can develop a clear
understanding of the nature of the land surface. On the
other hand, maps can be made to provide specialists with a
means of measuring and analyzing the surface (Robinson,
1982).
Brad Washburn commented that if you wish to remain
faithful to every nuance of the land:
You have to steep yourself in the place, its trails and
rocks and vegetation, if you are to produce a map
with more authenticity, one that has the right feel as
well as the right mathematics. (Quoted in Wilford,
1981, p. 387)
ENDNOTES
1
Robinson et al. point out that if Everest were represented accurately
on a 3-D model of Asia at a scale of 1:10 million, it would be less
than 1 mm high.
2
Map production for medium scale mapping in the DOS was based
around the use of graphical radial line plotting with ground control
being supplied by slotted template adjustment (McGrath, 1983).
Using this technique, it was possible to map large areas with a very
sparse framework of planimetric control. While labour was relatively
cheap compared with the cost of photogrammetric plotters, this
was a very cost-effective solution for mapping areas containing
26
little detail. The one thing that radial line plotting could not pro-
vide was height information. To provide height information it was
necessary to either establish a high density of height control points
(at least four per photogrammetric model) or to have an aerial
triangulation capacity to artiŽcially intensify a rather sparser frame-
work (MofŽtt, 1967). In the early years at the DOS neither was an
option. Ground control was extremely expensive to provide and
the DOS had only a limited aerial triangulation capability (based
upon the use of long-bar multiplex plotters). In practice three
different representation methods were used, hachuring, hill-shading
and form-lining.
3
Ordnance Survey experimented with the depiction of relief, most
notably with its 1:63 360 Tourist series. Various methods have been
used, sometimes separately, sometimes in combination. On maps
of the Peak District and North Yorkshire Moors a blue shadow was
printed in half tone over the layer tinted map but with layer tints
chosen to minimize the layer effect. No layer system was employed
for the Lake District and Loch Lomond sheets where a more
natural effect was used with purple-grey tones on the shadow sides of
hills and buff applied to the illuminated side. Other combinations
have been applied in response to the Davidson Committee’s urge
for innovation and experimentation by Ordnance Survey. However,
the medium scales national map series have relied heavily on
contouring to depict relief (Harley, 1975).
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1914–1919’, The Cartographic Journal, 31, 100–04.
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