Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com
Proceedings
of the
Combustion
Institute
Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 34 (2013) 3013–3020
www.elsevier.com/locate/proci

Effects of fuel constituents and injection timing

on combustion and emission characteristics
of a compression-ignition engine fueled
with diesel-DMM blends
Ruijun Zhu a, Haiyan Miao b,⇑, Xibin Wang a, Zuohua Huang a
a
State Key Laboratory of Multiphase Flow in Power Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Shaanxi 710049, China
b
Institute of High Performance Computing, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, 138632, Singapore

Available online 20 July 2012

Abstract

The effects of DMM addition and fuel injection timing on combustion characteristics, fuel efficiency and
emissions of a compression-ignition engine fueled with diesel-dimethoxymethane (DMM) blends are inves-
tigated experimentally in this study. Three diesel-DMM blends with 15%, 30% and 50% volume fraction of
DMM addition respectively are tested at different engine loads and engine speeds. Not only HC, CO,
smoke and NOx emissions, but also particle-size distribution and number concentration in exhaust gas
have been measured. According to the measured in-cylinder pressure history, the in-cylinder combustion
process is promoted by using diesel-DMM blends and can be further improved with early fuel injection.
We find that using diesel-DMM blends can improve thermal efficiency and is beneficial to the reduction
of smoke and CO emissions as well as particle number of both nanoparticles and ultrafine particles in
exhaust gas with slightly increased NOx emission. Both fuel efficiency and thermal efficiency are improved
with advanced fuel injection timing. Advancing fuel injection timing reduces smoke emission and particle
number at the cost of increased NOx emission. We find that early fuel injection can either increase or
decrease nanoparticles in exhaust gas. When advancing fuel injection from 20 to 23 CA BTDC, the number
of nanoparticles is reduced; the further advanced fuel injection timing from 23 to 26 CA BTDC produces
more nanoparticles. In this study, the lowest nanoparticle number in exhaust gas was achieved by injecting
diesel-DMM blends with 50% DMM addition at 23 CA BTDC.
Ó 2012 The Combustion Institute. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Diesel-dimethoxymethane (DMM) blends; Compression ignition engine; Combustion; Emissions; Nano-
particles

⇑ Corresponding author. Address: Institute of High

1. Introduction
Performance Computing, Agency for Science, Technol-
ogy and Research (A⇑STAR), 1 Fusionopolis Way,
Compression-ignition (CI) engines, also known
#16-16 Connexis, 138632 Singapore, Singapore. Fax: as diesel engines, have been widely used in trans-
+65 64674350. portation and power generation due to its reliabil-
E-mail address: miaohy@ihpc.a-star.edu.sg ity, durability and high fuel efficiency. There exist
(H. Miao). two major challenges to keep their position as one

1540-7489/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 The Combustion Institute. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2012.06.174
3014 R. Zhu et al. / Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 34 (2013) 3013–3020
of the most popular power providers. One is
related to the limited crude oil resource on earth.
The other is related to environmental concern; it is
difficult to reduce nitrogen oxide (NOx) and
smoke simultaneously in diesel engines, due to
the tradeoff relationship between them, and the
high NOx and smoke emissions are still the main
obstacle to the development of diesel engines.
Oxygenated fuels have important emission and
resource benefits. The usage of oxygenated fuels
can reduce the amount of diesel consumption and
smoke or particulate matter (PM) emissions with-
out large modification of the engine and, therefore
has wide applicability to future launch vehicles as
well as those currently in use. In addition, most
of them exist in liquid form at room temperature
and can be easily stored and transported.
There are many oxygenated fuels such as
biodiesel, alcohol and those with ether groups
(–O–). Engine tests showed that unlike biodiesel
and alcohol [1–3], using oxygenated fuels with
ether groups (–O–) in diesel engines can reduce
smoke emission without the increase of NOx emis-
sion (e.g. [4–8]). Ren et al. [8] compared the com-
bustion and emission characteristics of a diesel
engine fueled with mixtures of diesel and several
different oxygenated fuels such as dimethoxyme-
thane (DMM), diglyme, dimethyl carbonate,
diethyl carbonate and diethyl adipate. Diesel-
DMM blends performed well in terms of engine
performance and emissions levels [8].
Recently the usage of DMM in diesel engines
has received more and more attention. The reason
is linked with the fact that DMM has high oxygen
fraction and is expected to have great potential for
soot reduction. In fact, there exists a relationship
between the amount of soot reduction and the
oxygen content of an oxygenated fuel. It was
found that the amount of smoke reduction
depends largely on the total oxygen mass fraction
in the fuel; i.e. the higher the oxygen content is,
the more the soot will be reduced [5–8].
Ogawa et al [9] pioneered in using DMM as a
sole fuel for a CI engine. By employing an exhaust
gas recirculation (EGR) system and a three-way
catalyst, they reported that NOx, hydrocarbon
(HC), carbon oxide (CO) and smoke emissions
can be reduced simultaneously when fueling the
engine with DMM. Engine performance and emis-
sions of diesel fueled with diesel-DMM blends
were studied in [10–16]. The oxygen concentra-
tions of the diesel-DMM blends tested in [16] were
up to 21% by mass, which was almost twofold of
that of the fuels used in [11,12,14,15], threefold of
that in [10] and more than fivefold of that in [13].
It was found that by adding DMM into diesel, CO
and smoke emissions are reduced significantly
with little influence on NOx emission, though
HC emission is increased. Using EGR can bring
down NOx emission at the cost of increased
smoke level [17,18]. Furthermore, the usage of
diesel-DMM blends in the engines with port injec-
tion, diesel particulate trap and Gas-to-Liquids
were studied [19–21].
Very surprisingly, less study has been con-
ducted on investigating how fuel injection timing
affects engine performance and emissions of CI
engines fueled with diesel-DMM blends. Usually,
the diesel-DMM blends were injected into the
combustion chamber at specific injection timing,
pre-determined based on diesel operation recom-
mendation and unchanged throughout their tests.
As we know, fuel injection timing is one of the
most important parameters in optimizing engine
efficiency and emission control. To ensure the
efficient usage of diesel-DMM blends in diesel
engines, further investigations are needed. The
objective of this study is to reveal the effects of
fuel injection timing on engine performance,
combustion and emission (NOx, CO, HC and
smoke) characteristics of a diesel engine using
various diesel-DMM blends with different blend-
ing ratios.
It is worth to mention that we also measured
particle-size distribution and number concentra-
tion in exhaust gas and will discuss the effects of
DMM addition and fuel injection timing in this
paper. The existing regulations for diesel engine
particulate emissions have not yet set limits on
particle number in exhaust gas. But with the
understanding that ultrafine particles (Dp < 100
nm) and nanoparticles (Dp < 50 nm) actually have
high potential of being inhaled and deposited in
the respiratory tract and lung (e.g. [22]), it is very
likely that future regulations will include size dis-
tribution and number concentration of particulate
emissions. Once regulated, it will have great
impact on diesel engine industry. This is because
although PM emission (in terms of total mass) is
reduced by employing the state-of-the-art technol-
ogies such as electronic controlled high pressure
injection systems, modern diesel engines tend to
emit higher concentrations of ultrafine particles
and nanoparticles, which are mainly related to
the exhaust process due to temperature drop
[22]. The experimental results in this study will
provide evidence that using diesel-DMM blends
will produce fewer ultrafine particles and nano-
particles than pure diesel operation. Moreover,
as the ratio of nucleation number density and
accumulation number density depends on both
engine load and fuel injection timing [23], it is
therefore especially important to understand the
effect of fuel injection timing on particle-size dis-
tribution in exhaust gas.
In the following sections, we describe the
experimental apparatus as well as the fuel proper-
ties of the diesel-DMM blends at first. Then we
present the experimental results of fuel efficiency,
followed by emissions data. Finally the combus-
tion processes inside the combustion chamber will
be analyzed to further interpret the effect of fuel
 R. Zhu et al. / Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 34 (2013) 3013–3020 3015

constituent and injection timing on fuel efficiency corresponding brake mean effective pressures
and emissions. (BMEP) are 0.189 and 0.694 MPa) at the engine
speeds of 1600 r/min and 2200 r/min. The fuel
injection timing was then varied from 20 to 26°
2. Experimental setup and fuel properties crank angle before top dead center (CA BTDC).
Note: during the experiments, each operation con-
The experiments were conducted using a sin- dition was repeated three times and the average
gle-cylinder diesel engine. Engine specifications data were used for analysis. If the deviation of
are given in Table 1 and a schematic of the exper- the measured data was beyond the predefined
imental configuration is illustrated in Fig. 1. The limit (3% in this study), the measurement should
in-cylinder pressure was measured by a water- be conducted again to avoid measurement errors.
cooled Kistler piezoelectric transducer; the crank- Three diesel-DMM blends were prepared and
shaft position obtained by a Kristler crank angle tested in this study: DMM15, DMM30 and
encoder with a resolution of 0.2 crankshaft angle DMM50 (whose DMM volume fractions are
interval. The acquisition duration covered 50 15%, 30% and 50%, respectively with oxygen
completed cycles. concentration up to 21% by mass). Fuel properties
In this study, particle-size distribution and of diesel, DMM and diesel-DMM blends are sum-
number concentration was measured by using an marized in Tables 2 and 3. It is worth to mention
electrical low-pressure impactor (ELPI, Dekati
Ltd., Finland), in which the main flow rate was
Table 2
10 L/min and it could cover particle cut size from Fuel properties of diesel and dimethoxymethane
7 nm to 10 lm. To avoid overloading the ELPI’s (DMM).
electrometer, a two-stage diluter was employed.
The detailed principle and measurement proce- Diesel DMM
dure of ELPI are well described in [24,25]. An Chemical formula C10.8H18.7 C3H8O2
AVL DiGas 4000 exhaust gas analyzer and an Mole weight (g) 148.3 76.08
AVL DiSmoke 4000 opacity smoke meter were Density (g/cm3) 0.86 0.865
used to measure exhaust gas emissions and smoke Viscosity (mm2/s) 3.44 0.34
Boiling point (°C) 188–343 42
level respectively. Distillation temperature 90% 550 (288)
Experiments were performed under both low volume recovery, max (°C)
and high engine loads of 15 and 55 N m (whose Lower heating value (MJ/kg) 42.5 22.4
Latent heat of evaporation (kJ/ 260 318.6
Table 1 kg)
Engine specification. Self-ignition temperature (°C) 200–220 237
Cetane number 45 30
Displacement Bore Stroke Compression C (wt.%) 87.4 47.4
(L) (mm) (mm) ratio H (wt.%) 12.6 10.5
0.996 105 115 18 O (wt.%) 0 42.1

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of experimental setup.

3016 R. Zhu et al. / Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 34 (2013) 3013–3020

Table 3 Fig. 2). On the other hand, thermal efficiency

Fuel properties of diesel-DMM blends. increases with the increase of DMM addition.
DMM15 DMM30 DMM50 Taking two cases under high load
DMM volume 15 30 50
(bmep = 0.694 MPa) running at 1600 r/min as
fraction (%) an example (see Fig. 2a). When fueled with diesel,
DMM mass fraction 15.07 30.12 50.14 the bsfc is 235 g/kWh, i.e. the heat value of
(%) 9987.5 kJ/kWh is provided. As we know, the heat-
Lower heating value 39.41 36.35 32.3 ing value of DMM is lower than that of diesel (see
(MJ/kg) Table 2). Therefore, to achieve the same engine
C (wt.%) 81.37 75.35 67.34 output, greater amount of fuel is needed to main-
H (wt.%) 12.28 11.97 11.55 tain the same power output when using DMM50;
O (wt.%) 6.35 12.68 21.11 as a result, the bsfc increases from 235 g/kWh to
275 g/kWh. However, although more fuel is con-
sumed, the heat value of DMM50 case is actually
that DMM can mix well with diesel within the reduced to 8916 kJ/kWh. Therefore, adding
range of this study. Pure diesel was also tested DMM into diesel improves thermal efficiency,
to form a baseline case. indicating a promoted combustion process inside
the engine. In other words, when replacing diesel
with diesel-DMM blends whose heating values
3. Experimental results are as same as that of diesel, one would expect
increased engine output, comparing with that of
The experimental results obtained in this study the pure diesel operation.
allow us to investigate the effects of DMM addi- Beside thermal efficiency and fuel efficiency, we
tion and fuel injection timing on fuel efficiency also studied engine emissions when using diesel-
and emission characteristics as well as particle-size DMM blends. Figures 3–7 illustrate the effects
distribution and number concentration in exhaust of fuel injection timing and DMM addition on
gas under different engine loads and engine speeds. smoke, NOx, CO and HC emissions and particle
Advancing fuel injection timing improves both number in exhaust gas when using diesel-DMM
fuel efficiency and thermal efficiency. Figure 2 blends. Although we conducted emission mea-
summarizes the brake specific fuel consumption surements under different engine loads and at
(bsfc) when using diesel, DMM15, DMM30 and different engine speeds, the results shown in
DMM50 under both low and high loads at differ- Figs. 3–7 were obtained from high load operation
ent engine speeds. It was observed that fuel effi- with engine speed of 1600 r/min due to the paper
ciency is improved with the advanced fuel length limits.
injection timing, showing that thermal efficiency Smoke: Adding DMM into diesel has signifi-
is improved. cant reduction effect on smoke emission. In this
It is worth to mention that the effect of DMM study, the smoke emission level is indicated by
addition on engine performance is twofold. On the smoke opacity of the exhaust gas. Figure 3
the one hand, bsfc increases with the increase of shows that the higher the DMM fraction is, the
DMM fraction in a diesel-DMM blend (see greater the smoke opacity level will be reduced.

Fig. 2. Effects of DMM addition and fuel injection timing on fuel efficiency.
 R. Zhu et al. / Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 34 (2013) 3013–3020 3017

is increased significantly when advancing the fuel

Fig. 3. Effects of DMM addition and fuel injection
timing on smoke opacity.
injection timing from 23 CA BTDC to 26 CA
BTDC, especially at high engine load.
CO: Figure 5 illustrates the effects of DMM
addition and fuel injection timing on CO emis-
sion. When increasing the DMM fraction in die-
sel-DMM blends, CO emission is reduced
greatly under high engine load conditions, though
DMM addition has less significant influence at
low engine load operations. Generally speaking,
CO emission is increased with the increase of
engine load as well as engine speed when fueling
a diesel engine with diesel-DMM blends. With
retarded fuel injection timing, CO emission tends
to be decreased (see Fig. 5; note: the effect is rather
moderate under low load). This suggests that both
DMM addition and retarded fuel injection timing
can improve the post-flame oxidation during the
expansion stroke and reduce the locally fuel rich
regions where CO is mainly formed, especially
under high load operating conditions when the
temperature inside the cylinder is much higher
comparing with that at low load operation.
HC: Experiments showed that using diesel-
DMM blends tends to increase HC emission (see

Fig. 4. Effect of DMM addition and fuel injection

timing on NOx emission.

Comparing with the baseline case of using pure

diesel, when fueling the engine with DMM15,
DMM30 and DMM50 (whose DMM volume
fractions are 15%, 30% and 50%, respectively),
there was about 15%, 50% and 80% smoke reduc-
tion respectively. (Note: similar smoke reduction Fig. 5. Effects of DMM addition and fuel injection
timing on CO emission.
level was observed throughout the engine tests
conducted at different engine loads and engine
speeds in this study). Figure 3 also shows that
smoke emission can be further reduced by advanc-
ing fuel injection timing, though the effect of fuel
injection timing on smoke emission is rather mod-
erate comparing with that of DMM addition.
NOx: In diesel engines, there exists a tradeoff
relationship between NOx and smoke emissions,
which makes it rather difficult to reduce both of
them simultaneously. When using diesel-DMM
blends, the smoke reduction can be achieved with-
out much affects on its NOx emission. From Fig. 4
it can be seen that there is only slight increase of
NOx emission when using diesel-DMM blends,
showing that the addition of DMM has limited
influence on NOx emissions. Fuel injection timing
has greater effects on NOx emission than DMM Fig. 6. Effect of DMM addition and fuel injection
addition does. As shown in Fig. 4, NOx emission timing on HC emission.
3018 R. Zhu et al. / Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 34 (2013) 3013–3020
Fig. 6). This might due to the lower boiling point
and ignitability of DMM comparing with that of
diesel. (Note: the self-ignition temperature of
DMM is higher than diesel; see Table 2.) When
the mixture of diesel and DMM is injected into
the combustion chamber, DMM evaporates first
and therefore, has sufficient time to mix with the
air inside the combustion chamber, forming rather
lean fuel–air mixtures. The oxidation of the lean
mixture could be very slow, especially at low load
when the in-cylinder temperature is low. Gener-
ally speaking, HC emission can be reduced by
retarding the fuel injection timing (see Fig. 6),
though the effect of fuel injection timing on HC
emission is not as significant as DMM addition
Fig. 7. Effects of DMM addition and fuel injection
timing on particulate-size distribution and number
concentration.
does. Interestingly, the more the DMM is added
into the blended fuels, the greater the fuel injec-
tion timing affects HC emission.
Particle number in exhaust gas: The influence
of DMM addition and fuel injection timing on
particle-size distribution and number concentra-
tion is illustrated in Fig. 7. The measurements
clearly show that when using diesel-DMM blends,
the numbers of ultrafine particles as well as nano-
particles are reduced greatly comparing with pure
diesel operation. When fueling the engine with
DMM50, the peak value of the particulate num-
ber distribution curve is reduced more than 50%,
comparing with that of pure diesel operation.
Cheng et al [12] used 10–30% blends of DMM
in diesel and observed the reduction of particle
number density and mean particle diameter,
which agrees well with our results. Figure 7 also
shows that it is possible to reduce particle number
in exhaust gas by varying fuel injection timing; the
more the DMM addition is, the more the effect of
fuel injection timing is. For example, when using
pure diesel, the peak value of particle-size distri-
bution curve is reduced less than 6% by advancing
the injection timing from 20CA BTDC to 26CA
BTDC, while in the case of using DMM50, the
reduction is up to 40%. We also found that num-
ber concentrations in the nanoparticle and ultra-
fine ranges are very sensitive to fuel injection
timing. In this study, the lowest nanoparticle
number in exhaust gas was achieved by injecting
DMM50 at 23 CA BTDC.
4. Discussion
To understand the effects of fuel injection tim-
ing and DMM addition on engine performance
and emissions, we examined the combustion pro-
cess inside the combustion chamber. Heat release
rate was obtained by analyzing the measured in-
cylinder pressure based on the first law of thermo-
dynamics (the detailed method was given in
[18,26]). It was used as a reference to distinct dif-
ferent stages of the combustion inside the engine.
In this paper, the ignition delay is defined as the
time interval from the time when the nozzle valve
begins to lift to the start of rapid heat release, and
the rapid combustion duration is defined as the
time interval from the start of rapid heat release
to the time when 90% heat release is accumulated.
In this study, all the heat release rate curves are
bimodal in shape, indicating that there is a rapid
premixed combustion phase followed by a slower
diffusion combustion phase when using diesel-
DMM blends. Adding DMM can promote the
in-cylinder combustion process, feathered with
increased peak value of the in-cylinder pressure
(Pmax) (see Fig. 8) as well as increased maximum
rate of heat release. Further analysis showed that
the rapid burning duration decreases with DMM
 R. Zhu et al. / Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 34 (2013) 3013–3020
Fig. 8. Effect of fuel injection timing on maximum cylinder pressure.
addition and the ignition delay tends to be elon-
gated. Both mean that more heat will be released
during the premixed combustion phase when
using oxygenated fuels. As a result, thermal effi-
ciency is improved when using diesel-DMM
blends, together with reduced smoke and CO
emissions.
There are twofold effects on Pmax of DMM
addition. On the one hand, DMM has higher value
of evaporation latent heat than that of diesel, i.e.
the more the DMM addition is, the more the heat
will be absorbed during evaporation. This will
reduce the in-cylinder temperature when combus-
tion takes place and tend to elongate ignition
delay. On top of this, DMM has lower cetane
number and higher self-ignition temperature com-
pared with diesel, which also tend to elongate igni-
tion delay. On the other hand, DMM is an
oxygenated fuel that has very high oxygen concen-
tration. When adding DMM into diesel, it
prompts the chemical reaction and improves the
in-cylinder combustion, leading to higher heat
release rate. Therefore, Pmax is determined by the
balance among these effects. Our measurements
showed that Pmax does not change much when
increasing the DMM fraction in diesel-DMM
blends, suggesting the moderate change of the tem-
perature inside the combustion chamber (see
Fig. 8). This explains the reason why the smoke
reduction can be achieved without much affects
on its NOx emission when using diesel-DMM
blends.
Our experimental results also showed that
adding DMM can reduce particulate emission.
Particulate matter consists of soot and other
liquid- or solid-phase components [27]. The effect
of oxygenated fuels on soot emission has been
studied both experimentally and numerically (e.g.
[1–6,10,11,18]). Westbrook et al. [28] used the
detailed chemical kinetic modeling to simulate
soot formation in diesel engines and their results
3019
showed that oxygenate species influenced the
smoke reduction level since the amount of soot
precursor was varied with different oxygenate
additives. In order to understand soot precursors
depletion, the kinetics of DMM has been investi-
gated [12,29,30]. It was found that the pyrolysis
and decomposition of DMM, high radical concen-
trations (primarily OH) and promoted carbon oxi-
dation are the key mechanisms leading to the
reduced formation of soot precursors.
Fuel injection timing can be used to optimize
fuel efficiency and engine emissions. In fact, when
advancing fuel injection timing from 20 CA BTDC
to 26 CA BTDC, both Pmax (see Fig. 8) and max-
imum heat release rate are increased. With
advanced fuel injection, the ignition delay is elon-
gated, the diffusion burning phase boosted and the
post-flame oxidation during the expansion stroke
enhanced. Therefore, the combustion inside the
engine is promoted, bringing in the benefits of
increased engine efficiency and reduced PM emis-
sions at the cost of increased NOx emission.
We observed the reduced particulate emission
when advancing fuel injection timing, which was
also reported in [31]. However, early fuel injection
can either increase or decrease nanoparticles.
When advancing fuel injection from 20 to 23 CA
BTDC, the number of nanoparticles is reduced;
the further advanced injection from 23 to 26 CA
BTDC produces more nanoparticles. Benajes et
al. [32] also measured increased nanoparticles
when changing injection timing from 24 to 33
CA BTDC. They argued that this might due to
increased amount of fuel deposited on the piston
when advancing fuel injection. Clearly the detailed
chemical kinetic modeling [29,30] alone cannot
explain this phenomenon. To reveal the effect of
fuel injection timing on nanoparticles, detailed
chemical kinetic modeling needs to couple with
engine simulation that includes detailed engine
design in the future.
3020 R. Zhu et al. / Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 34 (2013) 3013–3020
5. Conclusions
The combustion and emission (CO, HC, PM
and NOx emissions as well as particulate num-
ber/size distribution) characteristics of a CI engine
fueled with diesel-DMM blends were investigated
in this study. Effect of DMM addition and fuel
injection timing was studied. Experimental results
showed that (1) the usage of diesel-DMM blends
can improve thermal efficiency and reduce smoke
emission as well as nanoparticles and ultrafine
particles in exhaust gas with a slight increase of
NOx emission; (2) engine performance and
emissions when using diesel-DMM blends can be
optimized by adjusting fuel injection timing;
advancing fuel injection timing brings in improved
thermal efficiency and fuel efficiency, decreased
smoke emission and particle number at the cost
of increased NOx emission; and (3) number con-
centrations in the nanoparticle and ultrafine
ranges are very sensitive to fuel injection timing;
early fuel injection can either increase or decrease
nanoparticles.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the National Nat-
ural Science Fund (50876086) and the innovation
colony program of National Natural Science
Fund (50821064).
References
[1] G. Dwivedi, S. Jain, M.P. Sharma, Renew. Sustain-
able Energy Rev. 15 (9) (2011) 4633–4641.
[2] J. Xue, T.E. Grift, A.C. Hansen, Renew. Sustainable
Energy Rev. 15 (2) (2011) 1098–1116.
[3] E. Rajasekar, A. Murugesan, R. Subramanian, N.
Nedunchezhian, Renew. Sustainable Energy Rev. 14
(7) (2010) 2113–2121.
[4] A. Constantine, B. Choongsik, C. Roy, E. Kinosh-
ita, Fuel 87 (7) (2008) 1014–1030.
[5] N. Miyamoto, H. Ogawa, K. Obata, JSAE Rev. 19
(2) (1998) 154–156.
[6] A.S. Cheng, Effects of Oxygenates Blended with
Diesel Fuel on Particulate Matter Emissions from a
Compression–Ignition Engine, Ph.D. Thesis, The
University of California, Berkeley, Auckland,
USA, 2002.
[7] G. Zhang, H. Liu, X. Xia, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng.
D: J. Automob. Eng. 219 (7) (2005) 897–903.
[8] Y. Ren, Z. Huang, H. Miao, et al., Fuel 87 (12)
(2008) 2691–2697.
[9] H. Ogawa, M. Nabi, M. Minami, SAE Technical
Paper Series 2000-01-1819, 2000.
[10] M. Sirman, E. Owens, K. Whitney, Emissions
Comparison of Alternative Fuels in an Advanced
Automotive Diesel Engine, Interim Report TFLRF
No. 338, Southwest Research Institute Report for
DOE and US Army TARDEC, 1998.
[11] K.D. Vertin, J.M. Ohi, D.W. Naegeli, et al., SAE
Technical Paper Series 1999-01-1508, 1999.
[12] A.S Cheng, R.W. Dibble, B.A. Buchholz, SAE
Technical Paper Series 2002-01-1705, 2002.
[13] K. Song, T. Litzinger, Combust. Sci. Technol. 178
(12) (2006) 2249–2280.
[14] Y. Ren, Z. Huang, D. Jiang, B. Liu, X. Wang,
Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. D: J. Automob. Eng. 219 (7)
(2005) 905–914.
[15] H. Huang, Y. Ren, D. Jiang, B. Liu, X. Wang,
Energy Convers. Manage. 47 (11-12) (2006) 1402–
1415.
[16] R. Zhu, X. Wang, H. Miao, K. Zeng, X. Wang,
Energy Fuels 23 (1) (2009) 286–293.
[17] S. Choi, Y. Oh, Int. J. Mod. Phys. B 24 (15-16)
(2010) 2850–2855.
[18] R. Zhu, X. Wang, H. Miao, X. Yang, Z. Huang,
Fuel 90 (5) (2011) 1731–1737.
[19] W. Liu, Z. Huang, J. Wang, Energy Fuels 22 (4)
(2008) 2307–2313.
[20] J. Fang, Z. Huang, X. Qiao, Y. Zhong, J. Song,
Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. D: J. Automob. Eng. 218 (5)
(2004) 549–555.
[21] A. Sathiyagnanam, C. Saravanan, Fuel 87 (10–11)
(2008) 2281–2285.
[22] C. Pope III, D.J. Dockery, Air Waste Manage.
Assoc. 56 (6) (2006) 709–742.
[23] M.M. Maricq, J. Aerosol Sci. 38 (11) (2007) 1079–
1118.
[24] A. Tsolakis, J. Hernandez, A. Megaritis, M.
Crampton, Energy Fuels 19 (2) (2005) 418–425.
[25] M.M. Maricq, D.H. Podsiadlik, R.E. Chase, Aer-
osol Sci. Technol. 33 (3) (2000) 239–260.
[26] J.B. Heywood, Internal Combustion Engine Funda-
mentals, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1988.
[27] D.R. Tree, K.I. Svensson, Prog. Energy Combust.
Sci. 33 (2007) 272–309.
[28] C.K. Westbrook, W.J. Pitz, H.J. Curran, J. Phys.
Chem. A 110 (21) (2006) 6912–6922.
[29] C. Renard, P.J. Van Tiggelen, J. Vandooren, Proc.
Combust. Inst. 29 (1) (2002) 1277–1284.
[30] V. Dias, J. Vandooren, Combust. Flame 158 (5)
(2011) 848–859.
[31] S. Niemi, T. Paanu, M. Lauren, SAE Technical
Paper Series 2004-01-1988, 2004.
[32] J. Benajes, J.M. Garcia-Oliver, R. Novella, C.
Kolodziej, Fuel 94 (2012) 184–190.