Unit 4 Extra Lab

Objectives:
- to help further understanding of natural selection and the role of genetics and gene frequencies in
evolution.

Background:
Evolution occurs in the population of organism, and is based on variation with different variations across
different population in a species. One way to understand and view evolution is bases on the frequency of
alleles in a population. When evolution occurs, allele frequency changes, resulting in different expression
some genes and different phenotypes. If these variations increases fitness of an organism, the organism
is thus more likely to survive, and pass on its genes to the next generation. Through this continued
process whole species can undergo genetic drift and can create new species. The entire process of
express of phenotypes, or physical characteristics, an organism shows, based on its genotype, its genetic
variations. These genetic variations, mostly in groups of two, called alleles. One allele is dominant, and
one is recessive. Each gene exists with two different alleles, with 3 different variations. If we say x is the
recessive and X is domination, genes can be xx, Xx, and XX. When the zygote forms during meiosis, the
genes cross, and a zygote can form one fo these combinations. If the parents are Xx, we can use a
Punnett sauce, which shows all possible combinations.

X_ x_

X_ XX Xx

x_ Xx xx

through this square we see we are likely to get the XX ¼ of the time, xx ¼ and Xx ½ of the time. This is
true for all organism and allses of this cross. This is not always true. There are several other types of
crosses. Some types there are more then two allles sfo a broad range pehtotypes can show up. Another
is incomplete, where both an allele is partially dominant. IN this case, red and white flowers cross, and
produces pink. Another example is incomplete domincace, here both alleles show up. If a white and
black dog mate, a incomplete dominant offspring whould be black and white cehcekd.

To test allele frequencies, we can use the hardy Weinberg equation. Assuming condition such as infinite
resources, and no entering of additional allele frequencies, as well as assuming only two alleles per trait,
we can use the following formulas to simulate frequency.

P+q=1

(p+q)^2=1
Where p and q are the two allele proportions.

Theis equation was independently created by G.H. Hardy, and W.R. Weinberg, who solved how random
mating in successive generation on the frequencies of alleles in apopulation .This became the gold
standard for biologists, and was the hypothetical stability from which real change can be measured. Within out
popilatino we assume that for one allele there can be 3 possible combiations, FF, Ff, or ff. What the HW equation
says is the fraction of pp (or FF) individuals plus the fraction of pq (or Ff) individuals plus the fraction of qq (ff)
individuals equals 1. The pq is multiplied by 2 because there are two ways to get that combination. To solve for one
trait, or group of the population, we simply plug in what we know, and solve for the remaing part.