RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY
 Meaning of Research
 Is the pursuit of truth with help of study, observations, comparison and
experiment.

Objectives of Research
Research comprises

 Defining and redefining the problems

 Formulating the hypotheses or suggested solutions.
 Collecting, organizing and evaluating data.
 Making deductions and reading conclusions
 And at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they
fit the formulating hypotheses
 Motivation in Research
 Desire to get research degree
 Desire to face challenges in solving the
unsolved problems
 Desire to get intellectual joy doing some
creative work
 Desire to be of service to the society
 Desire to get responsibility
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
 Descriptive Research:-Means description of the state of
affairs as it exists at present. Researcher only reports only
what has happened or what is happening
 Applied Research:- Aims at finding solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industry/ business
organizations
 Quantitative Research:-Based on the measurement of
quantity or amount. Applicable to phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantity.
 Conceptual Research: - Related to some abstract ideas or
theory. Used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts or re-interpret existing ones.
 Empirical Research: - Relies on experience or
observations alone, often without due regard for
system and theory.
 Qualitative Research: - Concerned with
qualitative phenomenon, i.e. phenomenon relating
to or involving quality or kind.
 Fundamental Research: - Mainly concerned with
generalizations and with the formulation of a
theory.
 Analytical Research: - Researcher has to use facts
on information already available and analyze these
to make a critical evaluation of the material.
 RESEARCH METHODS Vs.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
 Research Methods:- Refers to the methods/
techniques researchers use in performing
research operations.
 Research Methodology:- It may be understood
as a science of studying how research is done
scientifically. In it we study the various steps
that are generally adopted by researcher in
studying his research problem along with the
logic behind them.
 Difference between Methods and Techniques

TYPE METHODS TECHNIQUES

Library Research (i)Analysis of historical records
(ii)Analysis of documents
2. Field Research (i) Non-participant direct observation
(ii) participant observation
(iii) Mass observation
(iv) Mail questionnaire
(v) Opinionnaire
(vi) Personal interview
(vii) Focused interview
(ix) Telephone survey
(x) Case study and life history
3. Laboratory Small groups study of random behavior, play
Research and role analysis
Recording of notes, Contents analysis, Tape and listening
and analysis.
Statistical compilation and manipulations, references and
abstract guides, contents analysis.
Observational behavioral scales, use of score cards,
etc.Interactional recording possible use of tape recorders,
photo graphic techniques.Recording mass behaviour,
interview using independent observers in public
placesIdentification of social and economic background of
respondentsUse of attitude scales, projective techniques,
use of sociometric scales.Interviewer uses a detailed
schedule with open and closed questionsInterviewer
focuses attention upon a given experience and its
effectsUsed as a survey technique for information and for
discerning opinion may also be used as a follow up of
questionnaireCross sectional collection of data for intensive
analysis, longitudinal collection of data of intensive
character
Small groups study of random behavior, play and role
analysis
 DETERMINING SAMPLE DESIGN
Sample design is the heart of research work
Steps in Sample Design

 Define the universe

 Sampling unit
 Source list or sampling frame
 Size of sample
 Sampling method or technique
 Parameters of interest
 Budgetary constraint
 Select the sample
 METHODS OF SAMPLING
Samples may be grouped into two broad
classes according to their method of
selection. Namely:

 Random or Probability Sampling

 Non- Random or Non-Probability
Sampling.
 Random or Probability Sampling
Major random or probability samples are
 Simple random sample

 Systematic sample

 Stratified random sample

 Multi-stage random sample

 Cluster sample or area sample

 Sequential sample or sample in installments

 Replicated or interpenetrating sample

 Non –Random or Non-Probability
Sampling
Major Non-random or Non-probability
samples are:-

 Purposive sample
 Quota sample
 Convenience sample
METHODS OF COLLECTION OF DATA

While deciding about the method of data

collection to be used for the study, the
researcher should keep in mind two types.
i.e.

 Primary Data
 Secondary Data
 Collection of Primary Data
There are several methods of collecting primary
data. These are:-

 Questionnaires
 Observations
 Interviews
 Schedules
 Collection of Secondary Data
Secondary data means data that is already available i.e. it may be either
published or unpublished.
Published data are available in:-

 Various publications of the central, state or local governments

 Various publications by foreign governments or international bodies and
their subsidiary organizations
 Technical and trade journals
 Books, magazines and newspapers
 Reports and publications of various organizations connected with business
and industry, Banks, Stock exchanges etc.
 Reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists etc in
different fields
 Public records and statistics, historical documents and other sources of
published information
 Sources of unpublished data are many and
they include:-

 Diaries
 Letters
 Unpublished biographies and autobiographies
 Data available with research scholars and
research workers, trade associations, labour
bureaus and other public/ private individuals
and organizations
 PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
After collection of data it has to be processed
and analyzed.

Process of Analysis
 Editing
 Coding
 Classification
 Tabulation
 Elements /Types of Analysis
 Descriptive analysis
 Correlation analysis
 Multivariate analysis
Under multivariate we have the following analysis
 Multiple regression analysis
 Multiple discriminant analysis
 Multivariate analysis of variance (or Multi-ANOVA)
 Canonical analysis

• Inferential analysis
 HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Hypothesis means a mere assumption or some supposition to be proved
or disapproved

Characteristics of Hypothesis

 It should be clear and precise

 Should be capable of being tested
 It should state the relationship between variables
 It should be limited by scope and be specific
 It should be stated as far as possible with most simple terms so that the
same is easily understandable by all concerned
 It should be consisted with most known facts
 It should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time
 Must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation
 Types of Hypothesis
 Null Hypothesis
 Alternative Hypothesis
 Testing of Hypothesis
Procedure of testing Hypothesis

 Formulate a null or alternative Hypothesis

 Choose the level of significance of the test
 Choose the location of the critical region
 Choose the appropriate test statistics
 Compute from the sample observations for the observed
value of the chosen statistics using the relevant formula
 Compare the sample value of the chosen statistics with the
theoretical (table) value that defines the critical region.
 Methods of Testing Hypothesis
 Parametric Tests or Standard tests of Hypothesis
The important parametric tests are:-
 Z- Test
 T-Test
 X- Test and
 F- Test
 Non –Parametric tests or Distribution
free test of Hypothesis
A. One sample and Two sample tests
 Binomial test
 Chi- square test
 McNemar test
B. K- sample tests ( K > 3)
 Kruskal-Wallis test : H
 Friedman test
 Kendall`s coefficient of concordance: W
 INTERPRETATION
 Interpretation of data means the task of
drawing conclusions and of explaining their
significance after a careful analysis of data
 Techniques of Interpretation
Interpretation requires a great skill on the part of the researcher. It is an art
that one learns through practice and experience

The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:-

 Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he

has found
 Extraneous information, if collected during the study must be considered
while interpreting the final result
 Its advisable before embarking upon final interpretation to consult
someone having insight into the study
 Researchers must accomplish the task of interpretation only after
considering all relevant factors affecting the problem.
 PRESENTATION OF REPORT
• Preliminary pages
 Title page
 Certificate of supervisor
 Table of contents
 Preface
 Acknowledgement
 Listing of tables
 Listing of figures
 Abbreviations
A. Main text
 Introduction
 Objectives
 Methodology
 Findings
 Limitations
 Conclusion and recommendations
A. End matter
 Appendix
 Bibliography
 Alphabetical order
 books reports journals
 name of author ,title ,place publisher
volume ,page
number
 Glossary