Marine Geology, 91 (1990) 299-312 299

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam - - Printed in The Netherlands

Wave Refraction Patterns and Sediment Transport in

Monifieth Bay, Tay Estuary, Scotland

A H M E D M.A. A L - M A N S I

National Commission For Wildlife Conservation and Development, P.O. Box 61681, Riyadh 11575 (Saudi Arabia)

(Revision accepted August 30, 1989)

Abstract

A1-Mansi, A.M.A., 1990. Wave refraction patterns and sediment transport in Monifieth Bay, Tay Estuary, Scotland.
Mar. Geol., 91: 299-312.

Monifieth Bay is floored by unconsolidated sediments dominated by medium to fine sand which rest on andesitic or
sandstone bedrocks. Wave activity dominates the shoreline processes and refraction diagrams constructed for the
prevailing southwesterly winds show waves sweeping towards the northwest between Monifieth and Broughty Ferry.
Only short-period waves from the southwest cross Aberty Sands and they refract to give northwestern motion paths in
this area.
Injection and recovery of fluorescent tracers at many sites under a range of tidal and wind conditions suggested that
the volume of sand transported in the intertidal zone ranges from 4.15 cm3/s to 129.76 cm3/s along the beach.
The complex bottom geomorphology of Monifieth Bay leads to differential potential wave erosion, depending on the
level of the tide and wave direction. Especially at low water ( - 5 to - 2 m), waves from the southwest are refracted and
create divergent paths of sediment movement, defining a zone of potential erosion. Waves from the southeast,
however, transport the sediment in a uniformly westerly direction along the coast.

Introduction (Grant, 1943). The w o r k performed by the

The T a y Estuary, w h i c h is situated on the
east coast of Scotland, links the rivers T a y and
E r a n with the N o r t h Sea. The Monifieth Bay
area is located in the U p p e r T a y E s t u a r y (Fig.l).
W a v e s b r e a k i n g at an a n g l e to the shoreface
c a u s e n e t particle t r a n s p o r t a l o n g the beach.
However, v a r i a t i o n s in the g r a i n size of
sediments on the b e a c h a n d n o n - u n i f o r m i t y of
breakers, s w a s h and b a c k w a s h i n d u c e varia-
tions in the m o t i o n s which, coupled with the
effect of the tide-level changes, r e n d e r this
e n v i r o n m e n t of net t r a n s p o r t one of g r e a t
complexity.
L o n g s h o r e c u r r e n t s , c o m b i n e d with the agi-
t a t i n g a c t i o n of the b r e a k i n g waves, g o v e r n the
r a t e at w h i c h sand moves a l o n g a coastline
waves in the n e a r s h o r e zone m a y be a useful
p a r a m e t e r for p r e d i c t i n g the w a v e - i n d u c e d
littoral t r a n s p o r t r a t e of sand (Scripps Institu-
tion of O c e a n o g r a p h y 1947), an idea followed
by B a g n o l d (1963) w h o s u g g e s t e d t h a t the wave
m o t i o n provides the stress to s u p p o r t the sand
while a superimposed l o n g s h o r e c u r r e n t causes
the l o n g s h o r e t r a n s p o r t .
Several l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t s (Krumbein,
1944, Saville, 1950, S h a y and J o h n s o n , 1951,
J o h n s o n , 1953, S a u v a g e and Vincent, 1954,
Savage, 1959) h a v e been c o n d u c t e d to investi-
gate the effect of w a v e energy, wave steepness,
and the a n g l e of wave a p p r o a c h on the r a t e of
littoral sand t r a n s p o r t . All studies a g r e e t h a t
i n c r e a s i n g the w a v e a c t i v i t y resulted in an
i n c r e a s i n g sand t r a n s p o r t rate.

0025-3227/90/$03.50 © 1990 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

300
o~.,3, ~o. ~, ?,
3"
) ",
:5=
).0=
I3"
0 5
o'3-25' 2'o, ,~" I~,
Fig.1. Location of the Tay Estuary and sites referred to in the text.
In the field, many techniques have been
applied to the study of sand movement. Radio-
active tracer techniques were used by Smith
and Parsons (1965), Smith et al. (1965) and
Smith et al. (1967) working in the Forth
Estuary using short half-life isotopes• Their
investigation used 46Sc as the radioactive
isotope to trace silt and spoil movement on the
bed and within the water of the outer Forth
Estuary.
However, their studies were not directly
applied to the motion of beach sands. As the
technique is both expensive and provides a
potential health hazard, it is not suitable for
use on recreational beaches such as those of
Monifieth Bay.
Fluorescent dyes provide an alternative
means of following longshore sand transport,
ideally, locally derived sands coated with thin
films of material which fluoresce when exposed
to ultraviolet light are released on the beach-
face. Sampling of beach material containing
injected tracer particles varies, and is either
carried out by recovery of the upper sand
surface layer from the beachface or by re-
A.M.A. AL-MANSI
o3' o?.oo. ;3, 0o, o~..3,
. B°ddo,/
.36.30. ~:
• 20"
"l
10 K m
~3, o~-oo" ~3" ~'o' o~'43"
covery of a fixed volume of the sediment. In the
former method, sampling entails using cards
coated with a sticky substance such as grease
(Ingle, 1966) but the results obtained are
unsuitable for quantitative purposes• The pre-
cision (i.e., the number of grains obtained) is of
course much greater for sampling by volume
than using cards• Volume sampling extends
well into the moving sheet of sand and so gives
a much better representation of the traces and
sediment movement t h a n do the cards which
sample only the single uppermost layer of sand.
Using fluorescent sands, Jolliffe (1963) found
that bed material (mean size 2.0 ¢) travelled at
least 2 miles from the injection site in a 3 week
period• In contrast, on the Tasmanian coast the
absence of littoral drift results from a low
energy level (Davies and Hudson, 1987).
Work carried out to identify the movement
of sands of specific individual grain size
(Yasso, 1965; Fox, 1978; Duane and James,
1980) has suggested that fine particles move
more rapidly alongshore than coarse material•
Komar (1977) found that the minimum rate of
transport was for sands of 1.75 ¢ diameter.
WAVE REFRACTION AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT IN THE TAY ESTUARY
Finer and coarser particles migrated more
rapidly. Blackley and Heathershaw (1982) have
demonstrated a minimum transport rate in
sands of 2.25 ~ diameter, with coarser and finer
particles migrating more rapidly.
The differences in the ease of transport of
individual grain-size fractions demonstrated
by Komar (1977) and Blackley and Heather-
shaw (1982) may be the result of different
waves, tidal current regimes and the nature,
especially the particle shapes, of the sediments
at the experimental sites.
Method
The program used in analysing the data is
that of Dobson (1967), modified to suit the
study area. It is based largely on the refraction
theory as obtained by the direct application of
Snell's Law.
The technique requires the establishment of
02"50'
QZ"
Fig.2. Locality map showing the distribution of the principal channels and banks (based on Admiralty Chart 1481, 1976)
Depth in metres.
301
a grid of points of known water depth (Fig.2)
which is approximated by a quadratic surface.
Two groups of rays, from the North Sea and
from the Upper Tay Estuary were selected for
analysis. Each was assigned a specified origin
point for every individual ray, and every group
was represented by a straight line which was
permitted to become curved as it travelled from
deep to shallower water. The refraction pat-
terns were examined using wave periods of 3, 4
and 6 s and wave heights of 1.5 m, conditions
which correspond fairly closely to those typi-
cal of the area.
Following the study of the wave refraction
patterns, a series of tracer injection sites was
established throughout the study area (Fig.3).
Some sites were examined more than once,
under conditions of differing wave conditions,
and the remainder during a range of differ-
ent conditions of wave energy. In a second
group of experiments injections and recoveries
were made at two sites simultaneously for
~0" 02 e 45 '
 302
/
/ ,B
,.-, . . , / . . . .- . . . . .
56"30 ~
TQy Estuery
Fig.3. Sites of tracer injection experiments in Monifieth Bay.
comparative purposes. In all cases, the field
experiments were carried out during spring
tides.
The experiments were designed to measure
the effect of the direction of waves, i.e. the
movement of tracers under waves from the
North Sea and waves from up estuary, attempt-
ing to relate sand mobility to coastal erosion.
At each site, the direction of the t r a c e r
movement and rates of local bed movement
alongshore were estimated.
A suitable fluorescent sand was purchased
from British Industrial Sand. At all locations,
the material for injection was prepared so t ha t
the cumulative frequency curves as defined by
sieving at ¼¢ intervals were typical of the
cumulative curves for the beach concerned.
The amount of fluorescent sand injected for
each test varied from 13 to 26 kg according to
predetermined characteristics of the beach
locality under investigation.
The injections was completed at low water in
the intertidal zone by digging a shallow
cylinder (radius 25 cm, depth from 4 to 8 cm as
A.M.A. AL-MANSI
02e50 ' 02 ° 4 5 '
<._/-)
,-c.
I
02"50' 0 2 °45"
required) into the beach face or foreshore zone
and replacing the removed sand with fluores-
cent sand.
The location of every injection site was
marked by driving two wooden posts into the
beach in line with the centre of the injection
site, and measuring the distance from the
nearest post of the injection point.
The sampling grid, which extended up to
20 m offshore and 30 m alongshore, was estab-
lished at 5 m intervals. The actual points of the
grid were located by measuring from the centre
of the injection site. All samples were obtained
with by volume sampling and stored in poly-
thene bags. The sampler penetrates the beach
to a depth of 5 cm and obtains a volume of sand
of about 450 cm 3. An additional sample was
taken from the injection point using a glass
cylinder in order to measure the thickness of
the tidally mobile sand resting on top of the
residual fluorescent sand.
Upon r e t u r n i n g from the field the volume
samples obtained from the grid sampling pro-
gramme were washed three times to remove the
WAVE REFRACTION AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT IN THE TAY ESTUARY
s a l t a n d a n y o r g a n i s m s . A f t e r drying, e a c h
s a m p l e w a s divided b y a m e c h a n i c a l s p l i t t e r to
f o r m s u b s a m p l e s (25-30 g). T h e m a t e r i a l w a s
t h e n s p r e a d o u t to a t h i c k n e s s of o n e g r a i n
l a y e r on a b o a r d p a i n t e d dull b l a c k a n d
b e a r i n g grid lines d r a w n to aid in t h e count-
ing of t r a c e r grains. T h e s a m p l e w a s s c a n n e d
u n d e r a n u l t r a v i o l e t light in a d a r k room. T h e
t r a c e r g r a i n s w h i c h glowed b r i g h t red w h e n
excited by u l t r a v i o l e t light w e r e easily
counted.
Fig.4. Wave refraction of 150 cm high waves of 6 s period
showing the changing patterns of wave refraction during
the tidal cycle.
303
W a v e refraction o f w a v e s originating
from the e s t u a r y
T h e s e q u e n c e of r e f r a c t i o n d i a g r a m s con-
structed from water depth variation through
the r i s i n g tide (Figs.4 a n d 5) r e v e a l s p a t t e r n s of
c h a n g e in w a v e r e f r a c t i o n . In the e a r l y p a r t of
the cycle, n e a r low w a t e r t h e r e is s t r o n g
c o n v e r g e n c e of w a v e o r t h o g o n a l s on B u d d o n
Ness b e a c h a n d a s p r e a d i n g of t h e r a y s
elsewhere. As t h e tide a d v a n c e s a n d t h e w a t e r
1111
~, ~ HWm-4/
Fig.5. Wave refraction of 150 cm high waves of 4 s period
showing the changing pattern of wave refraction during
the tidal cycle.
304
extends further shorewards, the degree of
convergence at Buddon Ness beach decreases
until within 1 m of high water the rays (of 4 s
waves) are parallel as far as the mouth of
Buddon Burn. Early in the tide, the orthogo-
nals were strongly deflected towards the
Dighty Water area, but the bending decreased
towards high water.
The spacing of rays on the beachface reflects
energy concentration on the coast. Strong
clustering of rays is associated with high
erosion potential, and spreading with deposi-
tion. Thus, at Buddon Ness the erosion is
greatest near low water but falls as the tide
rises, whereas at Monifieth erosion potential it
is non-existent at low water, becoming signifi-
cant only after mid-tide is reached. The zone
between Barnhill Point and the west of Moni-
fieth beach is one of high depositional poten-
tial, with a slightly smaller probability of
deposition west of the mouth of Buddon Burn.
The ray concentration at Monifieth beach is
largely a function of deeper water offshore.
The refraction pattern of 6 s waves generally
involves greater potential erosion at Moni-
fieth. The active zone is displaced east towards
the mouth of Buddon Burn. Early ray curva-
ture and late tide ray parallelism at Buddon
Ness is less well developed. It appears that the
zones of convergence and divergence are
displaced eastwards and become more distinct
than in the case of the period waves.
Wave refraction of waves originating
f r o m the N o r t h S e a
Because wave height is a function of wind
velocity, duration and fetch, the waves which
originate from the North Sea are more power-
ful than those from within the estuary.
When winds induce waves to approach the
coast from the southeast 4 s period waves are
refracted by Abertay Sands and travel towards
the coast of Tentsmuir (Fig.6). This prevents
powerful waves from the northeast directly
attacking the Broughty Ferry beaches, but
some of the powerful waves could reach the
Monifieth and Buddon Ness beaches.
At high water, 3 s period wave orthogonals
A.M.A. AL-MANSI
converged onto Broughty Ferry beach west of
Barnhill Point and to some extent in the
Dighty Water area, but otherwise the energy
was widely distributed along Buddon Ness and
Monifieth beaches (Fig.7).
The longer period (4 s) waves were more
effectively filtered by Abertay Sands, and few
rays reached the northern shoreline. Two are
shown to reach the Dighty Water mouth area
and two others bend to reach the Buddon
beaches. Regarding the waves produced by
westerly winds, the 3 s waves derived from the
southeast varied in height along the coast from
0.3 to 1.5m, according to locality. The 4s
waves varied in height by up to 1.8 m. For all
waves with periods > 4 s, virtually all the rays
are intercepted by Abertay Sands, which there-
fore play a major filtering role, protecting the
whole Monifieth Bay coastline from attack by
the potentially most damaging waves.
The stirring effect o f w a v e s a g a i n s t t h e
current
The movement of the tidal wave in the Tay
Estuary has been measured with a series of
tidal gauges by Allen (1948), Buller et al. (1972)
and McManus (1984). All have shown t h a t the
tidal wave exhibits a similar range at Buddon
Ness and Dundee. The level of the high tide of
the Tay Estuary ranges from 5.8 to 4 m in
spring and neap tide respectively. The maxi-
mum current velocity recorded in the study
area was 1.47 m/s (Land and Marine Engineer-
ing, 1983).
The interaction of tidal currents with waves
has a significant effect on wave refraction. The
bidirectional currents provided within the
estuary can induce different refraction pat-
terns on rising and falling tides. The effect of
currents on wave refraction is not directly
related to the shallow water. The current
speeds of 1 and 2 m/s result in significant
differences in wave height and refraction
(Christoffersen, 1982). Work by Barber (1985)
in areas of small tidal ranges has shown that
ignoring currents which exceed 0.4 m/s can
result in grave errors in prediction of both
W A V E REFRACTION A N D S E D I M E N T T R A N S P O R T IN T H E TAY E S T U A R Y 305

02." 5 0 ' 02*45*

56" "56"30'

Fig.6. Pattern of wave refraction with rays approaching the coast from the southeast. Wave period 4 s, significant wave
height 150 cm. High water condition.

wave height and direction of approach at the per kilogramme of sample were plotted on a
shoreline. diagram of the grid and contoured to provide a
In the estuary, waves from the southwest picture of the distribution of tracers at the time
during the flood tide show an increase curva- of sampling. The mean distance of transport is
ture in the orthogonals, while the ebb cur- calculated from the t racer distribution by
rent reduces the curvature. This effect may taking moments of c o n c e n t r a t i o n in the long-
also be predicted for waves from the south- shore direction about a perpendicular line
east. t hrough the injection point and using the
As a result, waves from the southwest during Crickmore and Lean (1962) equation:
the flood reduce the potential for sand trans-
Xb
port to the No r th Sea, whereas during the ebb ~ yC(x, y)
they increase the potential movement. Exactly Y 1 - x=o y=o®
Xb
the opposite is the case when the waves
originate from the southeast. x=O y=Oc~

where C(x, y) is the concent rat i on of t racer at a

D a t a t r e a t m e n t and c a l c u l a t i o n o f the
longshore distance of Y1 from the injection line
t r a n s p o r t o f f l u o r e s c e n t sand
and at an offshore distance X. The rate of sand
t ransport is expressed as:
The measured concentrations of t r acer
grains expressed as the number of t r a c e r grains Y1 = Y1/t
306
02 e 50"
~6-30 !
OZ°50 S
Fig.7. Pattern of wave refraction with rays approachingfromthe southeast. Waveperiod 3 s, significantwave height 150 cm.
High water condition.
where t is the time elapsed between the
injection and sampling. If b denotes the
measured thickness of the layer of sand moving
along the beach, the bulk volume sand trans-
port rate along the beach is given by:
S 1 ~ ZbV 1
where X b is the width of the surface zone or
beachface.
Finally, the immersed weight transport rate
is calculated using the Bagnold (1963) equa-
tion:
11 = (p~ - p ) g a S 1
where p~ and p are the densities of sand and
water respectively, a is the correction factor
for pore space and considered to be 0.6 (as
suggested by Bagnold), and the g is the
acceleration due to gravity.
A.M.A. AL-MANSI
02~ 45"
5 6 " 3 O"
02°45 '
Longshore transport of sand
The purpose of the experimental programme
is to investigate the path of the longshore
transport of sands at Monifieth Bay. Figures 8
and 9 show the contour plots of tracer concen-
trations from sites D and E. These are obtained
from the grid samples. The tidally mobile sand
was measured from the injection point using a
glass cylinder. The volume transport ($1) and
the immersed weight transport (I1) were evalu-
ated from the sand advection rate (vl) and the
thickness of the tidally mobile beach sand. The
data for wind speed and direction recorded at
RAF Leuchars were identified for each period
of injection (Table 1).
The sand migration path and the volume of
tidally mobile sand varied from site to site,
depending on wave energy, breaking angle and
the geomorphological position of the injection
WAVE REFRACTIONAND SEDIMENTTRANSPORTIN THE TAY ESTUARY 307

N JY
I ~J J

'0 5 10m
I i i

°~/~~J j jr • • ~~,~o•
.o~\÷ ~ ~
• ~ ¢0£"~5"\: •

Fig.8. C o n c e n t r a t i o n s ( t r a c e r grains/kg) at site E after 24 h.

~ 500

0 5 10m
I I I

Fig.9. C o n c e n t r a t i o n s ( t r a c e r grains/kg) at site D after 24 h.

308 A.M.A. AL-MANSI

I I I Z I I

ZZ r Z

e.
o

(9

e~

"r-, X X X X X X X X X X 0
e.
v

o
,-- e~

¢D

< 5 I I
r~
WAVE REFRACTION AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORTIN THE TAY ESTUARY 309

site. The waves have a smaller effect on the periods than site E. Under similar stormy wave
wide beaches than on those areas with narrow conditions it was found t h a t the tidally mobile
foreshores. This is because there is much more sand was thicker at site D than at site C
dissipation of energy as waves cross the broad because no trace of the fluorescent sand was
sand areas, as seen by the development of found beneath the injection point at site D.
ripples in the foreshore zone. Plotting the thickness of the mobile layer
At sites A, B, D and G the sand moved along against the greatest recorded wind speed
a simple path. This movement was dependent during the experimental period (Fig.10) demon-
on the direction of the waves which were strates t h a t there is a probable interrelation-
originally created by wind activity. Waves ship. The link is almost certainly that of wave
from the southwest into Monifieth Bay moved power generated and expended.
the sand along the shore eastwards, whereas
waves from the southeast moving into Monifi- Discussion
eth Bay (sites C and E) showed a different
pattern. Here, with waves from the same Study of sand migration shows t h a t sediment
direction the movement was westwards. transport is mainly controlled by current
At site F the movement was both eastwards activity, associated with the motion of the
and westwards, but resulted in a net movement incident waves and secondary longshore and
eastwards. In constrast, at site E net motion rip currents. Data obtained from the Meteoro-
was westward under the same conditions. logical Office and from Ferentinos and
The thickness of the tidally mobile sand McManus (1981) revealed that the winds blow-
layer varied greatly along the beach, on the ing over the Tay Estuary are mainly from
upper shoreface and on the lower foreshore. either the east or the west. Winds from the
Under the same conditions it was found that north or south are unusual. The prevailing
the tidally mobile sand was 0.5 cm thicker at year-round wind direction is from the west
site E than at site F. This is unexpected (64% of all wind). However, during spring and
because site F was covered by water for longer summer the prevailing wind is from the east.

os

CI
E G._B
~3

®2

.- 1
.c f

1 2 3 ~. ~ ~ ~ ~ g t'o i~ ;2 t'3 t'~ 1"s 1'6 1'7 (s I~ 2'o

Greatest recorded wind speed ( k n o t s l

Fig.10. V a r i a t i o n in t h i c k n e s s of t h e mobile s a n d l a y e r in r e l a t i o n to w i n d speed. - D a n d - B r e l a t e to w i n d s from t h e east.

All o t h e r d a t a r e l a t e to w i n d s f r o m t h e s o u t h w e s t .
310 A.M.A. AL-MANSI

Because wave direction in the estuary is during the action of powerful waves
dependent on wind direction, the waves caused (129.76 cm3/s) is four times greater t han under
by winds from the west determine the domi- the influence of small waves (32.59 cm3/s). The
n a n t direction of the annual sand transport. influence of tidal currents during a full semi-
When waves from the southwest enter Moni- drain tidal cycle indicates a net transport of
fieth Bay, a complex pa t t e r n of r a y directions is sand towards the N ort h Sea (A1-Mansi, 1986).
formed according to the stage in the cycle of This would appear to help in maintaining the
the tide. The refracted wave rays move the sand bar in the centre of the estuary, acting to
sand east or west depending on the level of the extend it towards the North Sea.
water, the latter leading to variations in the In the other case, when waves approach from
direction of the waves. The net sediment the south and east, there were no signs of
movement at sites C and E was towards the complex sand movement patterns because the
west, while the net movement at sites D and F rays of the refracted waves had the samd
was towards the east. This divergence of direction as the original waves.
sediment transport results in loss of the Brought y Ferry and Buddon Ness beaches
material in this zone (Fig.ll). Furthermore, in have simple patterns of sand movement. On
this zone AI-Mansi (1986) found t hat the both beaches, when the waves approach from
coastline has retreated by ~ 30 m over a period the southeast towards the coast the sand is
of 20 years (1957-1977), and it was found t hat moved towards the west. In contrast, waves
the level of the beach became depressed by from the west move the sand in the opposite
~ 7 0 c m over a period of 2 years. Erosion direction, i.e. to the east. However, in the
occurs because the volume of net transport outermost part of the bay, at Buddon Ness, the
under conditions of divergent flux is greater light and moderate winds from up estuary do
than t h a t entering the area along the beach- not induce waves which move sand eastwards
face. At site C, the volume of sand transport because of interference factors caused by the

02°50 , 02o45,
. . . . . . . I
I i bUooNaura, i. . . . . . . /'

;OrG.'T'YWATE~i
J

L.

> __. r,~,-.....

~. i t .
"~ I J t ""

56°30~
"56"30 /

Tay Estuary

o" o~ - ~ 02*45'

Fig.]l. Sediment transport along the coast of the Tay Estuary.

WAVEREFRACTIONAND SEDIMENTTRANSPORTIN THE TAY ESTUARY
intersection of waves from the North Sea with
waves from the west.
The volume transport rate ($1) ranges from
129.76 cm3/s to 4.15 cm/s. As a comparison, on
Silver Strand and E1 Moreno beaches, Califor-
nia, where much of the initial research into
sediment transport on beaches was carried out
by Komar in 1969, the volume transport rates
were 30,100 and 292 cm3/s respectively, figures
greater t h a n at Monifieth Bay principally due
to the great energy of the large waves in the
Pacific Ocean and Gulf of California.
In general, the sand transport in the Tay
Estuary is parallel to the coastline, the amount
of material transported at each site being
dependent on the wave energy and the tidal
currents. However, at sites F and G sand was
transported down the beach as a result of cell
circulation rip currents.
Acknowledgements
The author expresses his gratitude to Dr.
John McManus of the University of Dundee
for his helpful consultation during this study. I
would also like to t h a n k Dr. M. Sarrikostis and
Dr. I. A1-Affan for their help in the computing,
and Dr. Graham Child, Dr. M. Basyoni and
Faisal Ghazali for their valuable suggestions.
References
Allen, S., 1948. Firth of Tay scale model investigation. Eng.
Manage., Dundee, Rep. 15.
A1-Mansi, A.M.A., 1986. Sediments, sediment transport and
beach erosion in Monifieth Bay, Tay Estuary, Scotland.
Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Dundee, 188 pp.
Bagnold, R.A., 1963. Mechanics of marine sedimentation.
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