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5 HYDROLOGY
5.1 Introduction
Hydrology is the study of the properties, distribution, and effects of water on the earth's
surface, and in the soils, underlying rocks, and atmosphere. For the purpose of this manual,
hydrology will deal with estimating flood magnitudes as the result of precipitation. In the
design of highway drainage structures, floods are usually considered in terms of peak
runoff or discharge in cubic meters per second (m3/s) and hydrographs as discharge per
time. For structures that are designed to control volume of runoff, like detention storage
facilities, or where flood routing through culverts is used, then the entire discharge
hydrograph will be of interest.
on specific data and they need to be calibrated with local data in Ethiopia before the result
can be used in confidence for project design work.When local data is not available, advice
should be sought from an experienced hydrologist with sound hydrological knowledge and
experience to undertake the hydrological analysis. The internationally available flow
estimation methods are discussed and referenced here but original publications should be
utilized to ensure the correct application of computational procedures.
To provide consistency within this chapter, as well as throughout this manual, the
following symbols will be used. These symbols were selected in the existing manual
because of their wide use in hydrologic publications.
Table 5-1: Symbols
Also of interest is the performance of highway drainage structures during the frequently
occurring low flood flow periods. Because low flood flows do occur frequently, the
potential exists for lesser amounts of flood damage to occur more frequently. It is entirely
possible to design a drainage facility to convey a large, infrequently occurring flood with
an acceptable amount of floodplain damage only to find that the accumulation of damage
from frequently occurring floods is intolerable. Adequate analysis and provision for
frequently occurring floods (low flows) should be provided.
The response of a watershed to rainfall is considered to be a linear process. This has two
implications that are useful to the drainage designer: The concepts of proportionality and
superposition. For example, the runoff hydrograph resulting from a two-unit pulse of
rainfall of a specific duration would have ordinates that are twice as large as those resulting
from a one-unit pulse of rainfall of the same duration. In addition, the hydrograph resulting
from the sequence of two one-unit pulses of rainfall can be found by the superposition of
two one-unit hydrographs. Thus, by determining a unit hydrograph for a watershed, it is
possible to determine the flood hydrograph resulting from any measured or design rainfall
using these two principles.
5.3.4 Surveys
Since hydrologic considerations can influence the selection of a highway corridor and the
alternate routes within the corridor, site specific studies and investigations shall be
undertaken at the Planning Stage (see Chapter 3: Planning) andrefer to the ERA Route
Selection Manual.In addition, special studies and investigations may be required at
sensitive locations (example wetlands and important archaeological sites). The magnitude
and complexity of these studies shall be commensurate with the importance and magnitude
of the project and problems encountered. Typical data to be included in such surveys or
studies are: topographic maps; aerial photographs; stream flow records; historical high
water marks; flood discharges; and locations of hydraulic features such as reservoirs,
wetlands, water projects, and designated or regulatory floodplain areas (for more detailed
data requirement, refer to Chapter 4).
and often necessary. In addition, agencies can share data and experiences within project
areas to assist in the completion of accurate hydrologic analysis. Interagency coordination
between the Ministries of Transport, Water & Energy, Agriculture and Telecommunication
etc. is very important.
Documentation
Experience indicates that the design of highway drainage structures should be documented
adequately. Frequently, it is necessary to refer to plans and specifications long after the
actual construction has been completed. Thus, it is necessary to fully document the
collected raw hydrological data and the results of all hydrologic analysis including the
hydrological modeling reports and model results.
during light rainfall but overflow during heavy rainfall. Assess the likely effect of
diversions that exist within the watershed. Also, ensure that the potential impact of
necessary diversions resulting from the highway project is minimized.
Channelization: Channelization in an urban area includes the following:
• Improved open channels;
• Curb and gutter street sections;
• Inverted crown street sections; and
• Storm drain systems.
Any of these channelization types serve to make drainage more efficient. This means that
flows in areas with urban channelization can be greater, and peak discharges occur much
more quickly than where no significant channelization exists.
Future Conditions: Changes in watershed characteristics and climate directly affect runoff
rates. A reasonable service life of a designed system is expected. Therefore, base the
estimate of design flood upon runoff influences within the time of the anticipated service
life of the facility.
Prediction Information: In general, consider estimates for future land use and watershed
character within some future range. It is difficult to predict the future, but the designer
should make an effort at such a prediction, especially with regard to watershed
characteristics. Local and federal officials and planners can often provide information on
potential future characteristics of the watershed. In estimating future characteristics of the
watershed, consider changes in vegetative cover, surface permeability, and controlled
drainage systems. Climatic changes usually occur over extremely long periods of time
however, it is reasonable to consider potential climatic changes during the anticipated life
span of the facility.
Photo 5-2: Vegetation and land use significantly affect watershed hydrology
Photo 5-3 Deforestation alters the runoff patterns and volumes in watersheds
Photo 5-4: Debris flows interrupt the traffic and cause extensive damage.
Flood of years Percentage probability that a flood of frequency “f” or larger will occur
frequency at least once during the period of “n” years
conditions under which the culvert/dam may fail.The PMF is not related to an event
frequency but is a specialized analysis.
The following are some of the most widely used flow estimation methods:
• Rational Method;
• NRCS Runoff Curve Number Methods;
• Statistical analysis of stream data; and
• Regional regression equations.
Rational Method: The Rational Method provides estimates of peak runoff rates for small
urban and rural watersheds of less than 50 hectares (0.5 square km) and in which natural or
man-made storage is small. It is best suited to the design of urban storm drain systems,
small side ditches and median ditches, and driveway pipes. It shall be used with caution if
the time of concentration exceeds 30 minutes. Rainfall is a necessary input for this method
of flow estimation. See Section 5.6 for more information on the Rational Method.
NRCS Runoff Curve Number Methods: The Natural Resources Conservation Service
(formerly Soil Conservation Service) developed the runoff curve number method as a
means of estimating the amount of rainfall appearing as runoff. Technical Release 20 (TR
20) employs the Runoff Curve Number Method and a dimensionless unit hydrograph to
provide estimation of peak discharges and runoff hydrographs from complex watersheds.
The procedure allows the designer to estimate the effect of urbanization, channel storage,
flood control storage, and multiple tributaries. TR 20 can be applied to the design of
culverts, bridges, detention ponds, channel modification, and analysis of flood control
reservoirs. Technical Release 55 (TR 55) is a simplified form of TR 20 for use in
estimating peak discharges for small watersheds (urban and rural) whose time of
concentration does not exceed 10 hours. TR 55 includes a hydrograph development
procedure; however, where hydrograph determination is necessary, use TR 20 or another
hydrograph procedure. See Section 5.7 for more information on the NRCS Runoff Curve
Number Methods.The unit hydrograph used by the SCS method is based upon an analysis
of a large number of natural unit hydrographs from a broad cross section of geographic
locations and hydrologic regions in USA. The rainfall depth to be used as input is
presented in Table 5-19 at the end of this chapter.
However, the SCS Curve Number method is applicable to small catchments (maximum
area 6,500 ha) with a time of concentration for any sub-area of 0.1 – 10 hours (NRCS,
2002).
As detailed in Highway Hydrology - Hydraulic Design Series -2, The SCS method should
be used on watersheds that are homogeneous in CN; where parts of the watershed have
CNs that differ by 5, the watershed should be subdivided and analyzed using a hydrograph
method, such as TR-20 (SCS, 1984).
The SCS method should be used only when the CN is 50 or greater and the tc is greater
than 0.1 hour and less than 10 hours. The computed value of Ia/P should be between 0.1
and 0.5.
The method should be used only when the watershed has one main channel or when there
are two main channels that have nearly equal times of concentration; otherwise, a
hydrograph method should be used.
Other methods should also be used when channel or reservoir routing is required, or where
watershed storage is either greater than 5 percent or located on the flow path used to
compute the etc.
Statistical Analysis of Stream Gauge Data: Where stream gauge data are available,
stream gauge data can be used to develop peak discharges.The Ministry of Water &
Energy keeps annual stream gauge data.The method commonly used for estimating the
peak discharges is usually Log-Pearson Type III distribution. However, as the record
length is increased, a Log-Normal distribution or General Extreme Value (GEV)
distribution could also be used. The recent data analysis demonstrated that GEV can be
used to estimate the peak flow in Ethiopia. See Section 5.9 for more information on
statistical analysis of stream gauge data.It is recommended that the distribution method,
which gives a best fit to the record data, should be used.
Regional Regression Equations: Regional regression equations provide estimates of peak
discharge for watersheds in specific geographic regions. See Section 5.10 for more
information on regional regression methods and equations.
Of these possible hydrologic methods based on the available data, it should be noted that,
at the present time, only the Rational and SCS methods are applicable to the whole
country.Regression equations and derivations from stream gauging (Gumbel, Log Pearson,
General Extreme Value) are often preferred but rely on data not available. For this reason,
only the Rational Method and the SCS method are given in this chapter.
Table 5-3: Application and limitation of flood estimation methods
5.6.1 Description
Hydrologic methods require an estimation of the time of concentration. This section
provides guidance on ways to estimate time of concentration and covers the following
topics: description, flow components, and procedure to estimate time of concentration.
The time of concentration (Tc) is used in the Rational Method to determine the critical
rainfall duration, which can then be combined with an appropriate rainfall intensity
duration frequency (IDF) relation to establish the required design rainfall intensity. The Tc
is the time required for water to flow from the most remote point of the basin to the
location being analyzed.
A storm equal to this duration will permit direct runoff to arrive from all points in the
watershed concentrating at the outlet. This time measure is taken to be the critical time by
many flood-estimating approaches, in that it is assumed that the use of any other time
would result in a lower flood estimate.A shorter time, although resulting in higher rainfall
intensity, will not permit the entire basin to contribute flow simultaneously. A longer
duration allows the entire basin to contribute, but with a lower intensity.
Many different Tc formulas are available, and it is through the selection and use of these
formulas result in greatest error that typically occurs in applying the Rational Formula to
non-urban watersheds.While some error occurs in assigning runoff coefficients, as there is
a large range of possible values for each surface condition, the realistic determination of
the response time of the basin is the greatest challenge, particularly for natural (rural)
basins. Bondelid et al (1982) found that upwards of 75% of errors in peak flow estimates
can be attributed to errors in the time of concentration.
Examples of popular Tc equations can be found in most hydrology texts books, such as
those by Chow et al (1988), Maidment (1993), and McCuen (1989), and the different
equations generally give a wide range of estimates for any particular set of basin
parameters. This situation reflects differences in the data sets used in deriving the
equations, and illustrates that most equations are generally unreliable when applied to areas
that are different from those used for their development.
The Kirpich and Hathaway equations are widely used to estimate time of concentration.
However, the designer should be aware that both equations have been developed from
limited data for a specific site. The Kirpich equation was developed from data for six
agricultural watersheds in Tennessee, USA (ranging in size from 0.4 ha to 45 ha), with
well defined channels and slopes ranging from 3% to 10% (Viessman and Lewis 1996).
The Hathaway formula was developed on the basis of data from very small watersheds
(<1.8ha), where the slopes were less than 1% and storm runoff was dominated by surface
flow (MaCuen 1989).
Drainage design practitioners in Ethiopia should be aware of the limitation of any formula
used to calculate time of concentration before applying it to estimate time of concentration
to be used in the Rational Method.
Where:
Tc = time of concentration (hours).
L = hydraulic length of catchments measured along flow path from the catchment boundary
to the point where the flood needs to be determined (km).
Sav= average slope (m/m).
The average slope may be determined graphically in two ways. The first procedure is
based on the balance of areas obtained by balancing the areas above and below the line of
the average slope as shown Figure 5.8. Alternatively, the formula developed by the US
Geological Survey, and referred to as the 1085-slope method could be used Figure 5.9.
Where:
Sav =average slope (m/m)
H 0.10L =elevation height at 10% of the length of the watercourse (m)
H 0.805L = elevation height at 85% of the length of the watercourse (m)
L = length of watercourse (km)
H = H 0.805L - H 0.10L (m)
The height of waterfalls and high rapids are subtracted from the gross H value.
iii Calculation of the Time of Concentration for Urban Areas
In urban areas, the time of concentration should be determined, where applicable, by
means of the flow velocities according to the Chezy or Manning’s equation for uniform
flow through representative cross-sections with representative slopes.
In road drainage, the volume of water that runs off as a result of a storm of less than 15
minute duration is usually not large; much of this runoff is absorbed in filling of
watercourses. Times of concentration of less than 15 mins are thus generally not
significant.
It is sound practice to calculate the average flow velocity (v = L/Tc) after determining Tc
in order to ensure that it falls within realistic times. Typical value of the flow velocity
ranges from 0.1 to 4m/s, depending on the natural conditions.
Station: Velocity-area station with cableway; 10m wide. Situation not ideal due to bend u/s and
island d/s, but stage-discharge relation is regularly reviewed using routine gaugings. Stable
bedrock control at low flows.
Catchment: Upper third of catchment is fairly steep (Grampian Mountains),the rest has moderate
slopes. Lower 80% is on ORS, the remainder is metamorphic. Almost the entire catchment is
covered by superficial deposits. Land use is forest (approx. half) and rough grazing at higher levels
with arable and cattle elsewhere.”
It is recommended that a similar data recording procedure is adopted in Ethiopia.
previous sections, rainfall intensity-duration curves have been developed for commonly
used design frequencies. Figures 5-16 through 5-23 at the end of this chapter show the
curves prepared from presently available data.
5.7.1 Application
Some precautions shall be considered when applying the Rational Method:
• The first step in applying the Rational Method is to obtain a good topographic map
and define the boundaries of the catchment area in question. A field inspection of
the area should also be made to determine if the natural drainage divides have been
altered.
• In determining the runoff coefficient C value for the catchment area, thought shall
be given to future changes in land use that might occur during the service life of the
proposed facility that could result in an inadequate drainage system. Also, the
effects of upstream detention structures must be taken into account.
• Restrictions to the natural flow such as highway crossings and dams that exist in
the catchment area shall be investigated to see how they affect the design flows.
• The charts, graphs, and tables included in this section are not intended to replace
reasonable and prudent engineering judgment that should permeate each step in the
design process.
5.7.2 Characteristics
Characteristics of the Rational Method that generally limit its use to 50 hectares include:
(1) The rate of runoff resulting from any rainfall intensity is a maximum when the
rainfall intensity lasts as long as or longer than the time of concentration. That is, the
entire catchment area does not contribute to the peak discharge until the time of
concentration has elapsed.
This assumption limits the size of the drainage basin that can be evaluated by the Rational
Method. For large catchment areas, the time of concentration can be so large that constant
rainfall intensities for such long periods do not occur and shorter more intense rainfalls can
produce larger peak flows. Further, in semi-arid and arid regions, storm cells are relatively
small with extreme intensity variations thus making the Rational Method inappropriate for
catchment areas greater than 50 hectares.
(2) The frequency of peak discharges is the same as that of the rainfall intensity for the
given time of concentration.
Frequencies of peak discharges depend on rainfall frequencies, antecedent moisture
conditions in the catchment area, and the response characteristics of the drainage system.
For small and largely impervious areas, rainfall frequency is the dominant factor. For
larger drainage basins, the response characteristics control. For catchment areas with few
impervious surfaces (little urban development), antecedent moisture conditions usually
govern, especially for rainfall events with a return period of 10 years or less.
(3) The fraction of rainfall that becomes runoff (C) is independent of rainfall intensity or
volume.
This assumption is only reasonable for impervious areas, such as streets, rooftops, and
parking lots. For pervious areas, the fraction of runoff does vary with rainfall intensity and
the accumulated volume of rainfall. Thus, the application of the Rational Method requires
the selection of a coefficient that is appropriate for the storm, soil, and land use conditions.
Many guidelines and tables have been established, but seldom, if ever, have they been
supported with empirical evidence.
(4) The peak rate of runoff is sufficient information for the design.
Modern drainage practice includes detention of urban storm runoff to reduce the peak rate
of runoff downstream. Using only the peak rate of runoff, the Rational Method severely
limits the evaluation of design alternatives available in urban and in some instances, rural
drainage design.
Cf values are listed below table 5.8.The product of Cf times C shall not exceed 1.0.
Table 5-5: Recommended Runoff Coefficient C for Pervious Surfaces by
SelectedHydrologic Soil Groupings and Slope Ranges
Soil Type
Terrain Type
A B C D
Flat, <2% 0.04-0.09 0.07-0.12 0.11-0.16 0.15-0.20
Rolling, 2-6% 0.09-0.14 0.12-0.17 0.16-0.21 0.20-0.25
Mountain, 6-15% 0.13-0.18 0.18-0.24 0.23-0.31 0.28-0.38
Escarpment, >15% 0.18-0.22 0.24-0.30 0.30-0.40 0.38-0.48
Recurrence interval Cf
(years)
5 1.00
10 1.00
25 1.10
50 1.20
100 1.25
The results of using the Rational Formula to estimate peak discharges is very sensitive to
the parameters that are used. The designer must use good engineering judgment in
estimating values that are used in the method.
For drainage areas in Ethiopia, you may compute the rainfall intensity at any required time
using the 24hr rainfall depth, which is known as a rainfall intensity-duration-frequency
(IDF) relationship.
7 (9:8);
567 = (5-8)
8 (9:7);
Where:
RRt = Rainfall depth Ratio Rt: R24
Rt = Rainfall depth in a given duration’t’
R24= 24 hr rainfall depth
b and n = coefficients b=0.3 and n=(0.78-1.09).
The general shape of a rainfall intensity-duration-frequency curve is shown in Figure 5-11.
As rain-fall duration tends towards zero, the rainfall intensity tends towards infinity.
Because the rainfall intensity/duration relationship is accessed by assuming that the
duration is equal to the time of concentration, small areas with exceedingly short times of
concentration could result in design rainfall intensities that are unrealistically high. To
minimize this likelihood, use a minimum time of concentration of 10 minutes when using
the coefficients presented in the Hydrology document. As the duration tends to infinity, the
design rainfall tends towards zero. Usually, the area limitation of 50 hectares should result
in design rainfall intensities that are not unrealistically low. However, if the estimated time
of concentration is extremely long, such as may occur in extremely flat areas, it may be
necessary to consider an upper threshold of time or use a different hydrologic method.
In some instances alternate methods of determining rainfall intensity may be desired,
especially for coordination with other agencies. Ensure that any alternate methods are
applicable.
Figure 5-12:Typical
:Typical Rainfall Intensity Duration Frequency Curve
Three methods for determining the runoff coefficient are presented based on soil groups
and land slope (Table 5-5),
5), land use (Table 55-6),
6), and a composite coefficient for complex
catchment areas (Table 5-7).
Table 5-99 gives the recommended runoff coefficient (C) for pervious surfaces by selected
hydrologic soil groupings and slope ranges. From this table the C values for nonnon-urban
areas such as forest land, agricultural land, and open space can be determined.
5.7.7 Hydrological
logical Soil Groups for Ethiopia
Soil properties influence the relationship between runoff and rainfall since soils have
differing rates of infiltration. Permeability and infiltration are the principal data required to
classify soils into Hydrologic Soils Groups (HSG). Based on infiltration rates, the Soil
Conservation Service (SCS) has divided soils into four hydrologic soil groups as follows:
Group A:: Sand, loamy sand or sandy loam. Soils having a low runoff potential due to high
infiltration rates. These soils primarily consist of deep, well-drained
well drained sands and gravels.
Group B:: Silt loam, or loam. Soils having a moderately low runoff potential due to
moderate infiltration rates. These soils primarily consist of moderately deep to deep,
moderately well to well
ell drained soils with moderately fine to moderately coarse textures.
Group C:: Sandy clay loam.Soils having a moderately high runoff potential due to slow
infiltration rates. These soils primarily consist of soils in which a layer exists near the
surface that
hat impedes the downward movement of water or soils with moderately fine to
fine texture.
Group D:: Clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay, silty clay or clay. Soils having a high
runoff potential due to very slow infiltration rates. These soils primarily consist
consist of clays
with high swelling potential, soils with permanently-high
permanently high water tables, soils with a claypan
or clay layer at or near the surface, and shallow soils over nearly impervious parent
material.
Chapter 5
Hydrology Drainage Design Manual – 2013
Data from direct field measurements on soil permeability and infiltration rates for
Ethiopian soils are very limited. Data is generally available only for soil types located near
major irrigation projects and agricultural research stations. The hydrological soils groups
presented in Table 5-10 are based on limited field measurements and from profile
morphology and physical characteristics, and are subject to further review and refinement.
Table 5-10: Typical Hydrologic Soils Groups for Ethiopia
Soil Types Hydrologic Soil Group
Ao Orthic Acrisols B
Bc Chromic Cambisols B
Bd Dystric Cambisols B
Be Eutric Cambisols B
Bh Humic Cambisols C
Bk Calcic Cambisols B
Bv Vertic Cambisols B
Ck Calcic Chernozems B
E Rendzinas D
Hh Haplic Phaeozems C
Hl Luvic Phaeozems C
I Lithosols D
Jc Calcaric Fluvisols B
Je Eutric Fluvisols B
Lc Chromic Luvisols B
Lo Orthic Luvisols B
Lv Vertic Luvisols C
Nd Dystric Nitosols B
Ne Eutric Nitosols B
Od Dystric Histosols D
Oe Eutric Histosols D
Qc Cambric Arenosols A
Rc Calcaric Regosols A
Re Eutric Regosols A
Th Humic Andosols B
Tm Mollic Andosols B
Tv Vitric Andosols B
Vc Chromic Vertisols D
Vp Pellic Vertisols D
Xh Haplic Xerosols B
Xk Caloic Xerosols B
Xl Luvic Xerosols C
Yy Gypsic Yermosols B
Zg Gleyic Solonchaks D
Zo Orthic Solonchaks B
(Source: Ministry of Agriculture)
As the slope of the drainage basin increases, the selected runoff coefficient C should also
increase. This is caused by the fact that as the slope of the catchment area increases, the
velocity of overland and channel flow will increase allowing less opportunity for water to
infiltrate the ground surface. Thus, more of the rainfall will become runoff from the
catchment area.
It is often desirable to develop a composite runoff coefficient based on the percentage of
different types of surface in the catchment area. Composites can be made with Tables 5-5
and 5-6. At a more detailed level composites can be made with Table 5-7 and the
coefficients with respect to surface type given in Table 5-9. The composite procedure can
be applied to an entire catchment area or to typical "sample” blocks as a guide to selection
of reasonable values of the coefficient for an entire area.
5.8.2 Rainfall
The SCS method is based on a 24-hour storm event which has a Type II time
distribution.The Type II storm distribution is a 'typical" time distribution which the SCS
has prepared from rainfall records. It is applicable for interior rather than the coastal
regions and appropriate for Ethiopia. The Type II rainfall distribution will usually give a
higher runoff than a Type I distribution. Figure 5-13 shows this distribution. To use this
distribution it is necessary for the user to obtain 1) the 24-hour rainfall value (from Table
5-19) for the frequency of the design storm desired, and then 2) multiply this value by 24
to obtain the total 24-hour storm volume in millimeters.
Where:
Q = accumulated direct runoff, mm
P = accumulated rainfall (potential maximum runoff), mm
Ia = initial abstraction including surface storage, interception, and infiltration prior
to runoff, mm
S = potential maximum retention, mm.
S is related to the soil and cover conditions of the catchment area through the CN.CN has a
range of 0 to 100, and S is related to CN by:
8$
%= (5-12)
?@=8$
Chapter 5
Hydrology Drainage Design Manual – 2013
Runoff Factors
Runoff is rainfall excess or effective rainfall - the amount by which rainfall exceeds the
capability of the land to infiltrate or otherwise retain the rainwater. The principal physical
catchment area characteristics affecting the relationship between rainfall and runoff are
land use, land treatment, soil types, and land slope.
Land use is the catchment area cover, and it includes both agricultural and nonagricultural
uses. Items such as type of vegetation, water surfaces, roads, roofs, etc. are all part of the
land use. Land treatment applies mainly to agricultural land use, and it includes
mechanical practices such as contouring or terracing and management practices such as
rotation of crops. The SCS uses a combination of soil conditions and land-use (ground
cover) to assign a runoff factor to an area. These runoff factors, called runoff curve
numbers (CN), indicate the runoff potential of an area. The higher the CN, the higher is the
runoff potential.
For antecedent moisture conditions (AMC) in Ethiopia, use dry for Region D1, wet for
Region B1, and average AMC for all other regions. The portion of Region A2 in the
vicinity of Bahir Dar should also be treated as wet. When wet AMC is used, it is unlikely
that the vegetation density will also be poor to sparse.
Average %
Cover type and Hydrologic condition A B C D
impervious area2
1
Average runoff condition, and Ia=0.2S
2
The average percent impervious area shown was used to develop the composite CNs.Other assumptions are
as follows: impervious areas are directly connected to the drainage system, impervious areas have a CN of
98, and pervious areas are considered equivalent to open space in good hydrologic condition.If the
impervious area is not connected, the SCS method has an adjustment to reduce the effect.
3
CNs shown are equivalent to those of pasture.Composite CNs may be computed for other combinations of
open space cover type.
Table 5-16: Rainfall Groups for Antecedent Soil Moisture Conditions during
Growing and Dormant Seasons
Where C0, C1 and C2 = regression coefficients given in table 5-17 for various Ia/p ratios:
= unit conversion factor equal to 0.000431 in SI unit.
Rainfall
Ia/P C0 C1 C2
Type
0.1 2.3055 -0.5143 -0.1175
0.2 2.23537 -0.5039 -0.0893
0.25 2.18219 -0.4849 -0.0659
0.3 2.10624 -0.4570 -0.0284
I
0.35 2.00303 -0.4077 0.01983
0.4 1.87733 -0.3227 0.05754
0.45 1.76312 -0.1564 0.00453
0.5 1.67889 -0.0693 0.00000
• Calculate the peak discharge for the watershed for the desired frequency using
Equation 5-13.
5.12 References
1. Mesay Daniel Tulu“Event based rainfall-runoff modelling in semi-arid regions,
September 2010”, PhD Thesis.
2. Mohammed Abdulkadir Abdurahman“Assessment of micro-dam irrigation projects
and runoff predictions for ungauged catchments in Northern Ethiopia ,2009” PhD
Thesis
3. HEC 19.
4. Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume 11, Guidelines for Hydrology, Task Force on
Hydrology and Hydraulics, AASHTO Highway Subcommittee on Design.
5. Federal Highway Administration. 1990.HYDRAIN Documentation.
6. Gebeyehu, Admasu, Regional Flood Frequency Analysis, Hydraulics Laboratory,
Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, 1989.
7. U. S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration.
1984.Hydrology.Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 19.
8. Wahl, Kenneth L. 1983. Determining Stream Flow Characteristics Based on Channel
Cross Section Properties.Transportation Research Board.National Academy of
Sciences, Record Number 922.
9. Sauer, V. B., Thomas, W. O., Stricker, V. A., and Wilson, K. V. 1983.Flood
Characteristics of Urban Catchment areas in the United States -- Techniques for
Estimating Magnitude and Frequency of Urban Floods.U. S. Geological Survey
Water-Supply Paper 2204.
10. Newton, D. W., and Herin, Janet C. 1982. Assessment of Commonly Used Methods
of Estimating Flood Frequency. Transportation Research Board.National Academy of
Sciences, Record Number 896.
11. Water Resources Council Bulletin 17B. 1981.Guidelines for determining flood flow
frequency.
1KL .
= 0.604 J .$ M
%
.8∗. 8 .
Tc = time of concentration (hours) =0.604 = 0.1973 hr
(.N).
L = hydraulic length of catchments, measured along flow path from the catchment
boundary to the point where the flood needs to be determined (km) = 0.7982km
Sav = average slope (m/m)
R.$ − R.
%&' =
(1000)(0.75L)
H 0.10L= elevation height at 10% of the length of the watercourse (m) = 2950.80
H 0.85L = elevation height at 85% of the length of the watercourse (m) = 3058.70
3058.7 − 2950.8
TUV = = Y. Z[ZY\
1000 ∗ 0.75 ∗ 0.7982
.#$
.∗.N8
Tc= time of concentration (hours) = = Y. [Y[\
∗.8 8
200.00
Intensity in mm/hr
150.00 2 years
5 years
10 years
100.00
25 years
50 years
0.00
0 50 100 150 200
Duration in Min
The catchment area were found in rainfall region A1, use the IDF curve of rainfall region
A1 (or use project specific IDF curve) and find the rainfall intensity for different return
periods.
I2=59.5mm/hr ; I5=78.6mm/hr; I10=90mm/hr; I25=107.3mm/hr; I50=119.4mm/hr;
I100=130mm/hr
Return 2 10 25
period 5 Year 50 Year 100 Year
Year Year Year
I =mm/hr 59.5 78.6 90 107.3 119.4 130
Cf 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
3
Q =m /s 8.71 11.50 13.17 17.27 20.97 23.78
Normal
Land Hydrologic Soil Wet Region
Soil Type Rainfall Region AMC Curve
Cover Group Soil Type Curve no.
No
Grass Dystric Rainfall Region
B Wet 69 85
land Cambisols B1
Grass Orthic Rainfall Region
B Wet 69 85
land Acrisols B1
1' L .
= 0.604 J .$ M
%
H 0.10L= elevation height at 10% of the length of the watercourse (m) = 1323.00
H 0.805L = elevation height at 85% of the length of the watercourse (m) = 1411.099
1411.099 − 1323.00
%&' = = Y. Y[[iY
1000 ∗ 0.75 ∗ 10.399
.#$
.∗ .#NN
Tc = time of concentration (hours) = = 2.2613
∗.. #
( − 2l)8
-=
( − 2l) + %
Where: Q = accumulated direct runoff, mm
P = accumulated rainfall (potential maximum runoff), mm
Ia= initial abstraction including surface storage, interception, and infiltration prior
to runoff, mm Ia=0.2*S
8$
%= − 254
?@
S = potential maximum retention, mm
Ia= initial abstraction including surface storage, interception, and infiltration prior
to runoff, mm Ia=0.2*S
CN= Curve Number , in the above catchment characteristics table the area were
located in WET region of the country the normal curve number changed to wet
region as per the manual. = 88
The catchment area located in rainfall region B1 use the 24hr rainfall depth of
Nekempte meteorological station.
Am = An ∗ 3 ∗ -
Whereqp = peak discharge, m3/s
qu = unit peak discharge, m3/s/km2/mm
An =∝∗ 10?G:? FGH7:8(FGH7)
Where Co, C1 and C2 = regression coefficients given in table 5… for various Ia/p
ratios: = unit conversion factor equal to 0.000431 in SI unit.
A = drainage area, Km2
Q = depth of runoff, mm
Return 10
period 2 Years 5Years Years 25 Years 50 Years 100 Years
Ia/p 0.130 0.107 0.097 0.087 0.0816 0.0769
Qu 0.0821 0.0837 0.0845 0.0853 0.0861 0.0865
Flood movement through river reaches and reservoirs is simulated by flood routing.Most
of the flood-routing methods available in HEC-HMS are based on the continuity equation
and some relationship between flow and storage (or stage).
HEC-HMS Input Parameters
To compute an SCS synthetic hydrograph for this exercise, the following parameters will
be determined.
Watershed Area
A topographic map is necessary to delineate a watershed for the study area and calculate its
enclosed area.Most of the time, a detailed topographic map of the site does not exist.
However, the available topographical from the Ethiopian Mapping Agency should be
obtained.
Hydrologic Soil Characteristics
The SCS curve number loss rate is used to determine the hydrologic soil characteristics for
the watershed.This book may be obtained from the SCS office in the state or county of
interest.A hydrologic classification of each soil may be determined from reference TR 55
(1986).
Antecedent moisture condition (AMC) II was assumed for this analysis.AMC II should be
selected unless rain records of the site are available.The curve numbers in Table 2 apply
for AMC II.For dry conditions (AMC I) or wet conditions (AMC III), equivalent curve
numbers can be computed (Veissman, Lewis and Knapp (1989)).
Precipitation
There are six methods of precipitation models available.The gage data is not available for
the watersheds and will not be used for the example given.The frequency-based storm will
be used in this illustrative example.This hypothetical storm will be automatically
distributed according to the specified depth/duration data.A triangular precipitation
distribution is constructed such that the depth specified for any duration occurs during the
central part of the storm.
The required inputs are:
Exceed Probability;
Storm frequency; the 100-year storm is used for the example or 1% probability
Storm Area; storm size will be the same as the watershed area.
Series Type; annual or partial.
Duration of Max Intensity; smallest input duration
Storm Duration; maximum input duration
Unit Hydrograph Method
The SCS dimensionless unit hydrograph is used in the illustrative example.The only
parameter necessary to obtain this unit hydrograph is the Time of Concentration (TC),
which is determined by techniques given in TR-55 (1986).For the example watershed,
there are three components of TC: sheet flow, shallow concentrated flow, and open
channel flow.See Table 3 for details in the determination of these values.
Meadow,continuous grass, protected from grazing and generally mowed for hay
30587178
Because of the varied shape and topography of the Stickle Pond watershed, three paths of
flow were selected to determine TC, see Figure 2.These three paths are located in the top,
middle and bottom of the watershed.The TR-55 reference 1 is used to determine TC.
2.Shallow concentrated flow
18 =
#'
Where, v = 16.134s1/2
s = water course slope.
3.Open channel flow
1# =
#'
where, v =(1.49r2/3 s 1/2)/n
and n = 0.03 from site visit, TR55 recommends 0.05;
s = channel slope;
r = hydraulic radius = 0.4(TR55).
45.00
40.00
35.00
Axum
30.00 Maichew
Mekele
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
60.00
50.00
Addis Ababa
40.00
Bahir Dar
Deber Tabor
20.00
Deber Zeit
Fitch
10.00
Gonder
0.00
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
45.00
40.00
35.00
Kulumsa
30.00
Nazeret
Robe
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
30.00
25.00
Dire Dawa
20.00 Metehara
Mieso
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
60.00
50.00
Bedele
40.00 Gore
Jimma
30.00 Nekempte
20.00
10.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
40.00
35.00
30.00
Arbaminch
25.00 Awassa
Wolita Sodo
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
50.00
40.00
Komobolcha
Sirinka
Woldia
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
45.00
40.00
35.00
Keberi Dihar
25.00 Gode
Moyale
20.00
Negele
15.00
Yabello
10.00
5.00
0.00
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec