Mariners’ Polytechnic Colleges Foundation

Rawis, Legaspi City

MARPOWER
(Basic Marine Engineering)

Submitted By:
SANGGO, SEILFRED B.
MT3A4

Submitted to:
Mr. ABUEL
Instructor

January 2018
 Fuel oil supply for a two-stroke diesel engine

A slow-speed two-stroke diesel is usually arranged to operate continuously on heavy

fuel and have available a diesel oil supply for maneuvering conditions.

In the system shown in Figure, the oil is stored in tanks in the double bottom from
which it is pumped to a settling tank and heated. After passing through centrifuges
the cleaned, heated oil is pumped to a daily service tank. From the daily service tank
the oil flows through a three-way valve to a mixing tank. A flow meter is fitted into
the system to indicate fuel consumption. Booster pumps are used to pump the oil
through heaters and a viscosity regulator to the engine-driven fuel pumps. The fuel
pumps will discharge high-pressure fuel to their respective injectors.

The viscosity regulator controls the fuel oil temperature in order to provide the
correct viscosity for combustion. A pressure regulating valve ensures a constant-
pressure supply to the engine-driven pumps, and a pre-warming bypass is used to
heat up the fuel before starting the engine.

A diesel oil daily service tank may be installed and is connected to the system via a
three-way valve. The engine can be started up and maneuvered on diesel oil or even
a blend of diesel and heavy fuel oil. The mixing tank is used to collect recirculated oil
and also acts as a buffer or reserve tank as it will supply fuel when the daily service
tank is empty.
Fig: Fuel oil system for cargo ships

the system includes various safety devices such as low-level alarms and remotely
operated tank outlet valves which can be closed in the event of a fire.

Operation on Heavy Fuel Oil

Main engines designed to maneuver on heavy fuel oil are to be operated according
to the manufacturer’s instructions. All other types of main engines are to be
maneuvered on diesel oil according to the manufacturers’ instructions.

In the event of problems during maneuvering on engines using heavy oil there must
be no hesitation in changing over to diesel oil irrespective of whether the engines are
being operated using bridge control, or using engine room control.

It is the Chief Engineer's responsibility to inform the Master of the particular engine
type’s maximum period that it can safely remain in the stopped position. He is also
to inform the Master of the procedures which will have to be carried out if the
particular engine type’s maximum period at standstill during maneuvering is
exceeded.
Fuel injection

The function of the fuel injection system is to provide the right amount of fuel at the
right moment and in a suitable condition for the combustion process. There must
therefore be some form of measured fuel supply, a means of timing the delivery and
the atomization of the fuel. The injection of the fuel is achieved by the location of
cams on a camshaft. This camshaft rotates at engine speed for a two-stroke engine
and at half engine speed for a four-stroke. There are two basic systems in use, each
of which employs a combination of mechanical and hydraulic operations. The most
common system is the jerk pump; the other is the common rail.

Various safety devices in a fuel system for a diesel engine are:

1. Quick closing valves on settling/service tanks

2. relief valves on 2 pumps/heaters
3. quick closing valve on mixing/vent tank
4. pipes lagged/save-alls under pumps and heaters
5. low fuel oil pressure alarm
6. high fuel oil pressure alarm
7. low fuel oil temperature alarm
8. high fuel oil temperature alarm
9. emergency remote stops for pumps
10. High pressure pipes between fuel injection pump and injector are double
skinned.

Pipes carrying fuel oil and flammable liquids

There are two principal types of pipes that carry fuel and they are categorized by the
pressure the pipe is designed to withstand. Low-pressure pipes are used to move
fuel from a storage tank to a service tank to an injection pump; high-pressure pipes
are used to deliver fuel from an injection pump to an engine combustion chamber.
Ships’ fuel is usually stored in double-bottom tanks, deep tanks, and side bunker
tanks, settling tanks or service tanks. Piping between a service tank and a fuel
transfer or booster pump is rated as low pressure. However, between each pumping
stage, pressure increases.

It is a mistake to assume that even if a pipe’s pressure is relatively low, fuel will not
spray from a crack or small hole. Pipes from fuel tanks can pass through ballast tanks
and pipes serving ballast tanks can pass through fuel tanks. Because of pollution
risks, classification societies have stringent rules restricting the length of any oil pipe
passing through a ballast tank (and vice versa); it must be short, have increased wall
thickness and stronger flanges.
 ENGINE COOLING SYSTEM

Although there is an abundance of free sea water available, marine diesel engines
do not use it directly to keep the hottest parts of the engine cool. This is because
of the corrosion which would be caused in the cooling water spaces, and the salts
which would be deposited on the cooling surfaces interfering with the heat flow.

Instead, the water circulated around the engine is fresh water (or better still,
distilled water) which is then itself cooled using sea water. This fresh water is
treated with chemicals to keep it slightly alkaline (to prevent corrosion) and to
prevent scale formation. Of course, if distilled water, which some ships can make
from sea water using evaporators, is used then there is a reduced risk of scale
formation.

The cooling water pump which may be engine driven or be a separate electrically
driven pump pushes the water around the circuit. After passing through the
engine, where it removes the heat from the cylinder liners, cylinder heads, exhaust
valves and sometimes the turbochargers, it is cooled by seawater and then returns
to the engine. The temperature of the cooling water is closely controlled using a
three way control valve. If the water is allowed to get too cold then it will cause
thermal shocking which may lead to component failure and will also allow water
and acids to condense on the cylinder bores washing away the lubricating film and
causing corrosion. If it gets too hot then it will not remove the heat effectively
causing excessive wear and there is a greater danger of scale formation. For this
reason the cooling water outlet temperature is usually maintained at about 78-
82°C. Because it is at a higher temperature than the cooling water used for other
purposes (known as the LT cooling), the water for cooling the engine is known as
the HT (High Temperature) cooling water.

Cooling can be achieved by using a dedicated cooler or by mixing in some of the

water from the LT cooling circuit. The LT cooling water is then cooled in the sea
water coolers. The temperature is controlled using cascade control which monitors
both the inlet and outlet temperatures from the engine. This allows a fast
response to any change in temperature due to a change in engine load.

To make up for any leaks in the system there is a header tank, which automatically
makes up any deficiency. Vents from the system are also led to this header tank to
allow for any expansion in the system and to get rid of any air (if you are familiar
with a domestic central heating system then you will see the similarities). The
header tank is relatively small, and usually placed high in the engine room. It is
deliberately made to be manually replenished, and is fitted with a low level alarm.
This is so that any major leak would be noticed immediately. Under normal
conditions, the tank is checked once per watch, and if it needs topping up, then
the amount logged.

The system will also contain a heater which is to keep the cooling water hot when
the engine is stopped, or to allow the temperature to be raised to a suitable level
prior to starting. Some ships use a central cooling system, whereby the same
cooling water is circulated through the main engine(s) and the alternator engines.
This system has the advantage whereby the engines which are stopped are kept
warm ready for immediate starting by the engines which are running.

A fresh water generator (FWG) which is used to produce fresh water from sea
water is also incorporated.

A drain tank has been included. This is for when the engine is drained down for
maintenance purposes. Because of the quantities of water involved and the
chemical treatment, it is not economically viable or environmentally responsible to
dump the treated water overboard each time. This way the water can be re used.
This system shows a typical cooling water circuit
for a single medium speed engine with an engine
driven main pump and an electrically driven
auxiliary circ pump and heater for keeping the
engine warm when stopped.

In this diagram a simple circulation system for an

engine. It is similar to the main diagram, but this
time a dedicated HT cooler is used.
 LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM

Lubricating oil for a marine diesel engine

achieves two objectives; it must cool and
lubricate.

The oil is taken from the drain tank usually

underneath the engine by a screw type
pump. It is cooled, filtered and supplied to
the engine via the oil inlet pipe or inlet rail at
a pressure of about 4 bar. On a medium
speed 4 stroke engine the oil is supplied to
the main bearings through drillings in the
engine frame to the crankshaft main
bearings. Drillings in the crankshaft then take
the oil to the crankpin or bottom end
bearings. The oil is then led up the
connecting rod to the piston or gudgeon pin
and from there to the piston cooling before
returning to the crankcase.

Oil is also supplied to lubricate the rocker gear

operating the inlet and exhaust valves, and to the
camshaft and camshaft drive.

The oil then drains from the crankcase into the

drain tank or sump.

The oil in the drain tank is being constantly

circulated through a centrifugal purifier. This is to
remove any water and products of combustion plus
any foreign particles which may be in the oil.

The cylinder liner must be lubricated as well. This is

so there will be a film of oil between the piston
rings and the liner and also so that any acid
produced by combustion of the fuel is neutralized
by the oil and does not cause corrosion. Some of
this lubrication will be supplied by so called "splash
lubrication" which is the oil splashed up into the
liner by the rotating crankshaft. However larger
medium speed marine diesel engines also use
separate pumps to supply oil under pressure to the
cylinder liner. The oil is led through drillings onto
the liner surface where grooves distribute it
circumferentially around the liner, and the piston
rings spread it up and down the surface of the liner.

A pre lube pump is sometimes fitted especially to

engines where the main pump is engine driven. This
pump is electrically driven and circulates oil around
the engine prior to starting.

On a two stroke crosshead engine lubricating oil is supplied to the

main bearings and camshaft and camshaft drive. A separate
supply is led via a swinging arm or a telescopic pipe to the
crosshead where some of it is diverted to cool the piston
(travelling up and back through the piston rod), whilst some is
used to lubricate the crosshead and guides, and the rest led down
a drilling in the connecting rod to the bottom end or crankpin
bearing. Oil is also used to operate the hydraulic exhaust valves.

On some engines, the oil supply to the crosshead bearing is

boosted in pressure to about 12 bar by a second set of pumps.
This oil is also used to operate the hydraulic reversing gear for the
engine.

The cylinder liners on a two stroke engine are lubricated using separate injection
pumps which use a different specification of oil. The oil which is led to drillings in
the liner is able to deal with the acids produced by the burning of high Sulphur
fuels.
 AIR STARTING SYSTEM

Starting air system for diesel engine - how it works

Diesel engines are started by supplying compressed air into the cylinders in the
appropriate sequence for the required direction. A supply of compressed air is stored
in air reservoirs or 'bottles' ready for immediate use. Up to 12 starts are possible
with the stored quantity of compressed air. The starting air system usually has
interlocks to prevent starting if everything is not in order.

A starting air system is shown in Figure below. Compressed air is supplied by air
compressors to the air receivers. The compressed air is then supplied by a large bore
pipe to a remote operating non-return or automatic valve and then to the cylinder
air start valve. Opening of the cylinder air start valve will admit compressed air into
the cylinder.

The opening of the cylinder valve and the remote operating valve is controlled by a
pilot air system. The pilot air is drawn from the large pipe and passes to a pilot air
control valve which is operated by the engine air start lever.
When the air start lever is operated, a supply of pilot air enables the remote valve to
open. Pilot air for the appropriate direction of operation is also supplied to an air
distributor. This device is usually driven by the engine camshaft and supplies pilot air
to the control cylinders of the cylinder air start valves. The pilot air is then supplied in
the appropriate sequence for the direction of operation required. The cylinder air
start valves are held closed by springs when not in use and opened by the pilot air
enabling the compressed air direct from the receivers to enter the engine cylinder.

An interlock is shown in the remote operating valve line which stops the valve
opening when the engine turning gear is engaged. The remote operating valve
prevents the return of air which has been further compressed by the engine into the
system.
Lubricating oil from the compressor will under normal operation pass along the air
lines and deposit on them. In the event of a cylinder air starting valve leaking, hot
gases would pass into the air pipes and ignite the lubricating oil. If starting air is
supplied to the engine this would further feed the fire and could lead to an explosion
in the pipelines. In order to prevent such an occurrence, cylinder starting valves
should be properly maintained and the pipelines regularly drained. Also oil
discharged from compressors should be kept to a minimum, by careful maintenance.
 SCAVENGE FIRE

What is scavenge fire ?

Carbonized lube oil, unburnt fuel oil and carbon from the residual products of the
combustion spaces are accumulated in the scavenge spaces with the running of the
engine. Under certain faulty running condition of the engine, these may ignite
causing a fire in the enclosed scavenge space, known as scavenge fire.

Causes of Scavenge Fire

1. Blow past of combustion products caused by leaky, sticky or broken piston rings,
worn out liner, faulty cylinder lubrication, or insufficient axial clearance of the
piston rings.
2. Overheated piston dissipates heat to the under piston area caused by faulty
atomization and injection pressure, faulty fuel pump timing, loss of compression,
engine overload, failure of coolant circulation or insufficient cooling due to
formation of scale.
3. Blow back of exhaust gases caused by exhaust back pressure or deposits on
exhaust ports, fouling of grid before turbine inlet, fouling of turbine blades,
choking of EGB or economiser gas outlet.
4. Presence of fuel oil in the scavenge spaces due to defective fuel injectors,
incorrect pressure setting of injectors or fuel particles landing on the cylinder
liner due to excessive penetration.
5. Excessive cylinder lubrication which is drained down to scavenge spaces.
6. Oxygen is plenty during engine operation.
7. Fouled scavenge manifold.
Indication of Scavenge Fire

1. Engine revolution drops as the power generation in the affected cylinder is

reduced.
2. Unstable operation of Turbo charger and may cause surging.
3. Exhaust temperature of the affected cylinder increases, as the cylinder is not
receiving fresh air.
4. Black smoke with exhaust due to incomplete combustion in that unit.
5. Discharging of spark, flame or smokes through drain cocks from scavenge air
boxes.
 6. Rise of pressure and temperature of air in the air box below the piston.
7. Visible evidence of fire if a transparent window is fitted.
8. Cooling water outlet temperature of the affected unit is increased.
Action to be Taken

1. Inform bridge and reduce the speed.

2. Cut of fuel supply to the affected unit and shut off valves.
3. Cylinder lubrication is increased.
4. Coolant flow through jacket and piston is maintained.
5. Drains to be shut to prevent flow of spark in engine room.
6. Keep clear of scavenge space relief valve to prevent human injury.
Fire should be extinguished after some time. If the fire spread in the other scavenge
spaces along with the scavenge manifold, then –

1. Inform bridge and stop the engine

2. Stop fuel oil booster pump
3. Open indicator cocks, engage turning gear and turn engine to prevent engine
seizure
4. Normal engine cooling and lubrication are maintained
5. Scavenge air duct flap valve before engine is to be shut
6. Release the smothering gases (Steam or CO2) to extinguish fire
7. Before opening scavenge door ventilate the space thoroughly if CO2 is released.
Inspection after Scavenge Fire

1. Intense fire can cause distortion and may upset piston alignment
2. Check by turning the engine and watch movement of piston in the liner, check
for any occurrence of binding at part of stroke (Binding indicates misalignment
of piston)
3. Check spring on scavenge space relief device, if the device was near the set of
fire
4. Piston rod packing spring also should be checked, which may have become
weakened by overheating
5. Check piston rings and liner for any distortion or reddish burning mark
6. Check diaphragm and frame near affected part
7. Check guides and guide shoes
8. Check tension of tie bolts
Prevention of Scavenge Fire

1. Clean scavenge space and drain at regular intervals

2. Keep scavenge space drain open at regular intervals
3. Excess cylinder lubrication must be avoided
4. In case of timed lubrication, the time has to be checked as per PMS
5. Piston rings must be properly maintained and lubricated adequately
6. Piston rod stuffing box must be maintained to prevent oil ingress in the scavenge
space.
7. Prolong engine or any cylinder over loading to be avoided
8. Cylinder liner wear must be within admissible limits
 GAS TURBINE SYSTEM

The gas turbine is most familiar to people in its application to the aerospace industry.
They are found extensively on a wide range of planes and other aircrafts. Low weight
to power ratio, its compactness and a reliable simple design are some of the major
advantages of these types of engine.

They are a precise machine, demanding precision machining and close tolerances.
On this web page, we will only cover the basic principles of operation in order to
build a knowledge base of marine propulsion plant and their benefits. I believe they
will provide a viable alternative to the more common internal combustion prime
mover and I encourage you to educate yourself more about them.

For the shipping industry, the advantages of the gas turbine have always been
eclipsed by the disadvantages. Principally the high fuel and initial cost have made it
an unattractive option for ship owners. The largest consumers of the marine gas
turbine has traditionally been the navies and military of the world. Recent
developments in gas turbines technology, coupled with lower oil prices (of the late
eighties and nineties) and profitability in certain markets as made ship owners
reconsider the values of the marine gas turbine. Before we get to these
developments and applications, let’s learn more about what is a gas turbine.

How it works...

A turbine is a wheel that absorbs kinetic energy from a fluid stream. Water, steam,
air are some fluids. Turbines can come in the form of a windmill, the water turbine of
an hydroelectric dam, or the more sophisticated steam turbines or turbo fan under a
plane’s wing.
Let’s start simple. With gas turbine, simple involves a kid’s balloon and a pinwheel.
Blow the balloon up, then, while holding the balloon up to the pinwheel, let the air
out. As you see the pinwheel turning from the compressed air of the balloon, you
can observe the basic principle of a gas turbine, gas compression and the harness of
that compression to perform work.

The parts of a gas turbine...

Gas turbine engines are, theoretically, extremely simple. Gas turbine have 3 parts:

A compressor to compress the incoming air to high pressure. A combustion area

to burn the fuel and produce high pressure, high velocity gas. A turbine to extract
the energy from the high pressure, high velocity gas flowing from the combustion
chamber.

Additionally the gas turbine will have these parts:

 An accessory drive gear box, to drive various pumps for fuel, water and oil. A
reduction gear box, to reduce the high revolutions of the turbine to a more efficient
speed for the propeller.

The compressor raises the pressure of the air taken from the atmosphere by a factor
from 5 to 20. It is either a centrifugal or axial flow rotating device. It derives its
driving power directly from the turbine usually mounted on the same shaft.

In the combustion area, the hot compressed air ignites the injected fuel. The fuel is
typically a clean, low viscosity petroleum oil. The air / fuel ratio, most likely being
60:1 (by weight), ignites to produce high pressure gas, slightly contaminated with
products of combustion. The gas temperature varies from 850 to 1100 degrees
Celsius. It is then expanded through a nozzle to convert part of it’s thermal and
pressure energy into kinetic energy. The resulting high velocity air stream impinges
on the blades of the turbine.

Like all things explained they rarely relay the physical appearance and complexity it
seems to have. The gas turbine relies on oil for lubrication of parts. Because of the
high temperature reach by the oil leaving the bearing surfaces, 300 degrees as
opposed to the normal 100 degrees, the preferred medium is synthetic oils. The
passages and conduit for the oil adds to the complex looks, as does the fuel delivery
system which must introduce fuel in a uniform fashion throughout the combustor.
The fuel is also heat treated to obtain the maximum efficiency from it.

Another "complication" often found on marine gas turbine is the use of two turbine
in series. In the above description, the power for the compressor is taken from the
turbine itself. In a series setup, the first gas turbine -also known as the compressor
drive, high pressure or gas generator provides the drive for the compressor. The
second turbine - also known as the low pressure, free or power turbine is better
suited to drive the propeller or generator. This splitting of functions, compressor and
external load, provides a better torque characteristic such as the one needed for a
ship’s propeller. See below for a picture.

The operating environment of the marine gas turbine provides some unique
challenges. Salty air for combustion has never really been a big problem for diesel
engine or steam plants. But the large amounts of air of required by the gas turbine
allows a considerable amount of moisture to enter the engine, therefore the engine
needs to be adapted to prevent corrosion and the
blocking, by salt deposits, of passages. Another challenge
that has to be considered with the gas turbine is the
shock that a turbine is exposed to; pitching rolling,
propeller vibrations and such. Proper care must be
exercised to the design and maintenance of support and
dampening structures. Click on the picture to the right to
view a controls diagram of the marine gas turbine.

Power to the shaft...

One of the gas turbine’s advantage is that power developed is usually what is
wanted; a rotation force to turn a propeller or generator. Its competitor, the internal
combustion engine, operating on the batch process (intake, compression, etc) and its
inherent mechanical losses from the acceleration and decelerations of the pistons
cannot compete with the fluid process of the gas turbine. Unfortunately, the high
rotational speed of the turbine is not the best speed for a propeller; which is most
efficient at around 100 rpm. The remedy for this, is the coupling of a gear box to the
gas turbine’s output. This allows the gas turbine to operate at it’s most comfortable
torque characteristic - high speed. The reduction gear box adds to the complexity of
the set up, but allows the turbine, especially the single shaft gas turbine, which have
poor torque characteristic at lower rpm, to operate at their ideal speed. The speed of
the turbine is less critical in a series turbine which has excellent torque characteristic
at most speeds.

Get moving...

The ship needs to go forward and reverse, how is that done? One way is the
controllable pitch propeller (CPP). It allows the engine to rotate at it’s ideal rpm
independently of the loading on the propeller. Another words, the shaft and
propeller can turn at full rpm yet the propeller is not moving any water - in neutral.
Until such time the controls tell the propeller to change the pitch of the propeller
blades - allowing it to move water. In contrast, diesel engines have the ability to run
in the opposite direction, which means the propeller shaft could be connected
directly to the engine without needing a reversing gear
box or CPP system.

One common setup of gas turbine powered boats is the

use of water jets. This type of propulsion is effectively a
big water pump driven by the gas turbine, with the
water output directed where desired. This type of setup
is common on the fast ferries and private yachts. Water
jets are not exclusively driven by gas turbines, it is quite
common to see a diesel engine driving the water jet unit.

Classifications of Gas Turbines...

Gas turbine prime movers are classified in one of two categories: the aero derivative
and industrial engine. The aero derivative engine is an aircraft engine adapted to
marine service. This is done by changing some components, or even coating them to
properly function in the salty air of the marine environment. One example is the
General Electric LM2500, weighing in at a thrifty 34,000 lbs (with mounts, enclosures
and such) provides one horse power for every 1.5 pounds. In comparison, an
industrial gas turbine like the GE MS5000, used in natural gas compression, provides
20,000 hp but weighs in at 200,000 lbs - 10 pounds for every hp. This is due to it’s
heavier construction. For further comparison; weight and volume of the machinery
required by a 20,000 shp ship is about 100 tons for aero derive gas turbine, 400 tons
for industrial gas turbine, 700 tons for diesel, and 800 tons for a comparable steam
plant.

One benefit of the aero derived engines is the short amount of time for the engine to
reach full operating temperature, this is due to the relative small amount of material
used in it’s construction. As oppose to an industrial turbine, and the more common,
diesel engine or steam plant. These must reach proper temperature before being
fully loaded, this can take, in some cases, many hours.
 Propeller, Types of Propellers and Construction of
Propellers

A propeller is a rotating fan like structure which is used to propel the ship by using
the power generated and transmitted by the main engine of the ship. The
transmitted power is converted from rotational motion to generate a thrust which
imparts momentum to the water, resulting in a force that acts on the ship and
pushes it forward.

A ship propels on the basis of Bernoulli’s principle and Newton’s third law. A
pressure difference is created on the forward and aft side of the blade and water is
accelerated behind the blades.

The thrust from the propeller is transmitted to move the ship through a transmission
system which consists of a rotational motion generated by the main engine crank
shaft, intermediate shaft and its bearings, stern tube shaft and its bearing and finally
by the propeller itself.

A ship can be fitted with one, two and rarely three propellers depending upon the
speed and maneuvering requirements of the vessel.

Material and Construction of Propeller

Marine propellers are made from corrosion resistant materials as they are made
operational directly in sea water which is a corrosion accelerator. The materials used
for making marine propeller are alloy of aluminum and stainless steel. Other popular
materials used are alloys of nickel, aluminum and bronze which are 10~15 % lighter
than other materials and have higher strength.

The construction process of the propeller includes attaching a number of blades to

the hub or boss by welding or forging in one piece. Forged blades are highly reliable
and have greater strength but are expensive as compared to welded ones. A marine
propeller is constructed by sections of helicoidal surfaces acting together to rotate
through water with a screw effect.
Types of Propeller

Propellers are be classified on the basis of several factors. The classification of

different types of propellers is shown below:

A) Classification by Number of Blades Attached:

Propeller blades may vary from 3 blade propeller to 4 blade propeller and sometimes
even 5 blade propeller. However, the most commonly used are 3 blades and 4 blade
propellers.

However, the most commonly used are 4 blades and 5 blade propellers.

The propeller efficiency will be highest for propeller with minimum number of blades
i.e. 2 blade propeller. But to achieve strength factor and considering the heavy loads
subjected by the ship, sea and weather two blade propellers are not used for
merchant ships.

3 blade propeller

A 3 blade propeller has following characteristics:

 The manufacturing cost is lower than other types.

 Are normally made up of aluminium alloy.
 Gives a good high speed performance.
 The acceleration is better than other types.
 Low speed handling is not much efficient.

4 blade propeller

A 4 blade propeller has following characteristics:

 The manufacturing cost is higher than 3 blade propellers.

 4 blade propellers are normally made up of stainless steel alloys.
 Have better strength and durability.
 Gives a good low speed handling and performance.
 Has a better holding power in rough seas.
 4 blade propeller provides a better fuel economy than all the other types.
5 blade propeller

A 5 blade propeller has following characteristics:

 Manufacturing cost is higher of all.

 Vibration is minimal from all the other types.
 5 blade propellers have better holding power in rough seas.

6 blade propeller

 Manufacturing cost is high

 Vibration is minimal from all the other types.
 6 blade propellers have better holding power in rough seas.
 With six blade propeller, the induced pressure field over the propeller
decreases

Large container ships are mainly fitted with 5 or 6-bladed propellers.

B) Classification By pitch of the blade:

Pitch of a propeller can be defined as the displacement that a propeller makes for
every full revolution of 360 ̊. The classification of the propellers on the basis of pitch
is as follows.

Fixed Pitch Propeller

The blades in fixed pitch propeller are permanently attached to the hub. The fixed
pitch type propellers are casted and the position of the blades and hence the
position of the pitch is permanently fixed and cannot be changed during the
operation. They are normally made from copper alloy.

Fixed pitch propellers are robust and reliable as the system doesn’t incorporate any
mechanical and hydraulic connection as in Controlled Pitch Propeller (CPP). The
manufacturing, installation and operational costs are lower than controlled pitch
propeller (CPP) type. The manoeuvrability of fixed pitch propeller is also not as good
as CPP.

Controllable Pitch Propeller

In Controlled Pitch type propeller, it is possible to alter the pitch by rotating the
blade about its vertical axis by means of mechanical and hydraulic arrangement. This
helps in driving the propulsion machinery at constant load with no reversing
mechanism required as the pitch can be altered to match the required operating
condition. Thus the manoeuvrability improves and the engine efficiency also
increases.

This drawback includes the possibility of oil pollution as the hydraulic oil in the boss
which is used for controlling the pitch may leak out. It is a complex and expensive
system from both installation and operational point. Moreover, the pitch can get
stuck in one position, making it difficult to manoeuvre the engine.

However the propeller efficiency for the CP propeller is slightly lower than the same
size FP propeller due to the larger hub to accommodate the blade pitch mechanism
and pipings.

Reason for Heavy Running of Propeller

A propeller is supplied with engine power to rotate and propel the ship in desired
direction. If the Amount of power provided to the propeller is not generating the
same rate of revolution, the propeller is considered to be in heavy running state
which may be due to following reason:

 Damage to propeller blades

 Increase in hull resistance due to hull fouling resulting in change in wakefield
 During rough / heavy seas
 Ship sailing against the current
 Ship sailing in light ballast condition
 Ship Sailing In Shallow Water
 Ship with flat stern
Controllable Pitch Propeller (CPP) Vs Fixed Pitch Propeller
(FPP)

The following points will discuss the applications and their relations with the
advantages and disadvantages of CPP and FPP systems:

 The controllable pitch propellers can be used to run the ship in forward and
astern direction both, without the requirement to change the direction of
rotation of the engine. How? Well, the propeller works on the principle of lift
generated by each aerofoil section of the blade. What if we can change the
orientation of the blade, such that the direction of life force is opposite to
what it was during forward running of the ship? That’s exactly what is
achieved by changing the pitch angle of the blades, as shown in Figure 2.

Blade sections shown in various pitch orientations

 A non-reversible engine can be used for both forward and astern operation of
the ship. Hence, the weight of the engine and propulsion machinery is
reduced considerably when compared to what is required in propulsion
systems equipped with fixed pitch propellers.
  Since the pitch of the propeller determines the amount of thrust generated by
the propeller, a change in the pitch angle can bring about a change in the
speed of the ship. So, a controllable pitch propeller is useful in changing the
speed of the ship without changing the speed or rpm of the main engine. But
why are we focusing on this advantage? What happens if we need to reduce
the engine rpm to reduce the ship’s speed? Well, many ships have a shaft
driven diesel alternator system. So the rpm of the main engine shaft controls
the electric power production on board. In that case, if the speed was to be
reduced using a fixed pitch propeller, it would require a reduction in the shaft
rpm, which would result in reduction of power generated.

 Due to the above reason, the speed of the ship can be handled from the
navigation bridge directly. In case of fixed pitch propellers, the marine
engineer needs to be intimidated in order to change the ship’s speed.
Therefore CPP technology is used for obtaining faster response of speed
change.

 The efficiency of astern condition in case of fixed pitch propellers is less than
that of controllable pitch propeller in astern condition.

However, there are many disadvantages of using a controllable pitch propeller to a

fixed pitch propeller. It is important to know them too.

 The pitch control mechanism installed in the hub is complicated enough to

demand proper inspection at regular intervals. The installation process is also
more complicated as compared to that of fixed pitch propeller system.

 Controllable pitch propellers have a very high initial cost. And this cost
increases rapidly with increasing diameter of the propeller.

 Due to pitch control mechanisms housed inside the hub, the length and the
diameter of the hub is also high as compared to the fixed pitch propeller
systems.

To conclude, it is vital to know the applications of controllable pitch propellers. These

are used in ships that are required to operate at variable speeds even when
operating at constant power requirements. Such ships are tugs, trawlers, ferries, ice
breakers, and small scale warships that are equipped with gas turbines.