UNIT V

CONTROL CHARTS FOR V ARIABLES SOME STATISTICAL PRINCIPLES

As was mentioned before, the normal curve has certain properties centered around
two identifying characteristics -- the average and the standard deviation.
Ordinarily the values (variables) measured for a given process which is operating
under a chance cause system will generate a normal distribution. This can be
observed in the frequency histogram. There are tests which can be conducted to
measure normality. If there is any suspicion that the distribution is not normal, a
test should be conducted. The average we usually refer to is the arithmetic
mean. There are, however, other "averages" which indicate the central tendency of a
distribution of measures. Two of these measures which are used in quality control
are the median and the mode. The mean is calculated by adding all of the values
and dividing by the number of values added. The equation is: Xbar = sumX/N
Median refers to the middle value of a set of ranked values. As an example, if we
have the values 3,2,4,1,5 and we rank them we obtain 1,2,3,4,5. The median is 3
because it is the middle value. The median for the following set of values, 2,3,4,5
is 3.5 because that is the value which we would find in the middle. Mode is the
most frequently occurring value. Thus in the following data, 2,3,5,1,4,3,6, the
mode is 3 because it occurs two times. V ariation refers to the way the data is
spread or dispersed. If we have 1+2+3+4+5 we have a mean of 3 but we could also
have the same mean if the values were 2+3+3+3+4. One way of expressing the measure
of variability is to use the range. This is the highest value minus the lowest
value. In our first example the range is 4 (5 - 1 = 4). In the second case the
range is 2. It can be seen that in both cases the mean is the same, but we gain
additional information about the nature of the data when we learn something about
its variability. The second case is grouped more closely about the mean than is the
first. Another measure of the spread is the standard deviation which is usually
identified by the lower case Greek sigma ( ). We will use the letters SD to
indicate Standard Deviation. It represents the concentration of values about the
mean. One way to look at the standard deviation is to think of it as representing
the average difference between the mean and each individual value. There are
several forms of the equation for calculating the standard deviation. The basic
form is: SD = sumx2/N. Where x = X-Xbar. It would follow then that another form is:
SD = sum(X - Xbar)2/N. For calculators without the standard deviation function
there is yet another form: SD = sumX2/ - (sumX/N)2. Many calculators today
provide two different standard deviation values. This revolves on statistical
theory. Technically, when we have all possible values for a set of data we use the
form of SD = sum(X-Xbar)2/N and when we have a collection of data which is only
representative of the total population (That is, when we have only a sample of all
the values) we use the form SD = sum(X-Xbar)2/N-1. Generally we do not use the
latter form for quality control calculations even though we are looking at data
which represents a sample of what the total would be. We will not know what the
true number of items will be until we have produced the last item. The
advantage of the standard deviation over the range as a measure of variability is
that it provides a better insight into the pattern of variability. As was stated
earlier, statistical theory tells us that 68% of the population will fall between
one standard deviation unit above the mean and one standard deviation unit below
the mean. Three sigma limits (standard deviation units) will include about 98% of
the values. Knowing this then, it is possible to estimate the percent of values
falling between any set of values. The equation for permitting us to make this
estimate is: z = X-Xbar/SD. Lets look at an example. The average length of
a shaft being manufactured is 9.07 inches and the standard deviation of the process
is 0.40 inches. (A) What percent of the shafts will measure less than 8.30 in.? (B)
What percent of the shafts will measure more than 10.00 in.? (C) What percent of
the shafts will measure between 8.00 and 10.10 kg.? First let's calculate the
z-values for each.
8.30 - 9.07 (A) z = ----------- = -1.925 .4
10.00 - 9.07 (B) z = ------------ = 2.325 .4
8.00 - 9.07 (C) z(8.00) = ----------- = -2.67 5 .4
10.10 - 9.07 z(10.10) = ------------ = 2.57 5 .4 We
now look up the z-value for (A) in the tables and find that for 1.92 the proportion
between the mean and 9.07 is .47 26 or 47 .26%. Since the question was the percent
less than 8.30 kg. we must subtract this percent from 50. This chart is constructed
to represent one side of the distribution. Since a normal distribution is
symetrical about the mean, 50% of the area is above the mean and 50% is below the
mean. Thus we find that: 50 - 47 .26 = 2.7 4 . We say that 2.7 4 percent of the
bicycles will weigh less than 8.30 kg. For the part of the problem we find that
a z-value of 2.32 yields a value of .4898. Subtracting this from .50 tells us that
.0102 or 1.02% will weigh more than 10.00 kg. To determine the percent between
10.10 and 8.00 we look up each z-value and add them together. Following the
accepted rounding rules we raise the odd values to evens when we drop the 5. Thus
we will use the values of 2.68 and 2.58. For 2.68 we get the value of .4963 and for
2.58 we get .4951. Adding the two values gives a total of .9914. We can say that
99.14% of the weights will fall between 10.10 and 8.00 kg.
LIMITS We need to consider three different types of limits as we prepare
to move into the onstruction of control charts. These are SPECIFICATION LIMITS,
CONTROL LIMITS, AND PROCESS LIMITS. Specification limits refer to the maximum
and minimum dimensions permitted by the design of the product. These are the
dimensions set by engineering. The only relationship this bears to what is being
produced is that which pertains to attempts to meet those specifications.
Process limits are the maximum and minimum sizes of the parts being produced. This
is usually represented by three sigma limits either side of the mean generated by
measurements of the parts. If the process limits are less than the specification
limits we have a satisfactory process because all of the parts we make will meet
specification. On the other hand if the process limits are larger than the
specification limits we will be making some product out of specification. Some
action will need to be taken. Some adjustment will need to be made in the chance
cause system. If nothing can be done in this area then either the specification
will need to be changed or it will be necessary to run and sort out the faulty
parts. Control limits are employed in control charts and represent variation
based on the averages of samples taken to monitor the process. Because these
figures represent averages they will naturally be smaller than the actual values
would be. They represent three sigma limits of the AV ERAGES. PURPOSE OF CONTROL
CHARTS We have been discussing how we collect data, analyze it, make
assumptions about the process and compare the process limits to the specification
limits. This is all very good, but it only tells us what has happened to
completed material. We would like to know what is happening to the process while it
is running. We would also like to run the process as close to the mean
specification dimension as possible. This can be accomplished through the
application of control charts. No other tool of statistical quality control has
received the recognition which has been accorded the Shewhart control chart for
variables. This chart has found wide usage and continues to be the "bread and
butter" of nearly every statistical quality control application.