275

I BULLETIN of the International Association of ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

de I'Assoclation tnternationaie de GEOLOGIt- DE L'INGENIEUR
NO
19 275 - 270 KREFE
C
D 1979
t

MAPPING OF SOILS FOR ENGINEERING AND PLANNING PURPOSES, APPLICATION OF SI'~IPLE

SEISMIC, RESISTIVITY AND BORING TECHNIQUES. PRELIMINARY RESULTS

CAR]'OGRAPHIE DES SOLS POUR BESOINS DE LA CONSTRtrCTION ET DE LA PLANIFICATION;

APPLICATIONS I)E TECI'INIQUES SIMPLESt SISMIOUE, RESISTIVITE, SONDAGE. RESI;LTATS
PRELIMINAIRES

HUGDAHL tl., DAHL R., Department of Geology. University of Trondheim, Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trend-
helm, Norway

Summary

H a m m e r seismics and electrical resistivity s o u n d i n g s have b e e n used in e n g i n e e r i n g geological field r e s e a r c h w o r k to s t u d y the

a p p l i c a t i o n oi" simple g e o p h y s i c a l m e t h o d s in soil m a p p i n g for land-use planning.
T h e h a m m e r - s e i s m o g r a p h e m p l o y e d , w i t h d e c i m a l time d i s p l a y , is o n the average e H e c t i v e t o d e p t h s o f 25 m e t r e s , but thi.~
t y p e o f i n s t r u m e n t has c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s a d v a n t a g e s c o m p a r e d Io h a m m e r - s e i : , m o g r a p h s witil o i l i e r r e c o r d i n g s y s t e m s .

Electrical resistivity s o u n d i n g s with small, a.c. e q u i p n t e n t ( " E a r t h f e s t e r s " ) tire reliahlc and i n t e r p r e t a b l e to d e p t h s varying
f r o m a p p r o x i m a t e l y 30 m e t r e s m c o n d u c t i v e soils ic) a b o u t 100 m e t r e s in resistant g r o u n d . We have f o u n d that s e m i - e m p i r i c a l
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n m e t h o d s have t h e n e c e s s a r y a c c u r a c y for regional m a p p i n g p u r p o s e s .
A c o m l q n a t i o n o f t h e t w o g e o p h y s i c a l m e t h o d s and s i m p l e m e c h a n i c a l soundip, gs p r o v i d e s n e c e s s a r y basic i n f o r m a t i o n in re-
gional e n g i n e e r i n g geological soil m a p p i n g , anti t h e o u t l i n e d m e t h o d leads to c o n s i d e r a b l e r e d u c t i o n s in field costs.

Rdsumd

La s i s m i q u e au rnarteau et les s o n d a g e s de rdsistivitd ,~lectrique o n t tgtd utilisds au t o u r s d ' u n travail de r e c h e r c h e g d o t e c h -

n i q u e sur le t e r r a i n , p o u r d i u d i e r l ' a p p l i c a t i o n de m 4 t h o d e s g d o p h y s i q u e s s i m p l e s A la c a r t o g r a p h i c des sols en vue de la plani-
f i c a t i o n de l ' u t i l i s a i i o n des terres.
Le s d i s m o g r a p h e A m a r i e a u utilisd a f f i c h e les rdsultais stir une 6chelle d,:}cimale; il est e f f i c a c e j u s q u ' a u x p r o f o n d e u r s de 25 m
en m o y e n n e , mats ce t y p e d ' i n s t r u m e n t pr6sente m a i n t s inconv,}nients par r a p p o r t aux s d i s m o g r a p h e s "<7.m a r t e a u p o u r v u s d ' a u -
ires s y s t e r n e s de l e c t u r e .
Les s o n d a g e s de rdsistivitd d l e c t r i q u e e l f e c t u 4 s avec un t}quipement " a . c . " de petit f o r m a t " E a r t h T e s t e r s " f o u r n i s s e n t d e s in-
f o r m a t i o n s e x a c t e s et i n t e r p r 6 t a b l e s jusqu" ] des p r o f o n d e u r s c o m p r i s e s e n t r e 30 m (darts les sols c o n d u c t e u r s l et 100 m ( d a n s
les sols r,3sistants). Nous a v o n s trouvt} clue l e s m t ~ t h o d e s d ' i n t e r p r d t a t i o n s e n l i - e m p i r i q u e s s o n t s u f f i s a m m e n t e x a c t e s p o u r l e s
b e s o i n s de la c a r t o g r a p h i c rdgionale.
L ' a s s o c i a t i o n d e s d e u x mcgthodes g d o p h y s i q u e s et de s i m p l e s s o n d a g e s m 6 c a n i q u e s f o u r n i t l ' i n f o r m a t i o n d e base n~:cessaire "a
la c a r t o g r a p h i c g d o t e c h n i q u e r~gionale d e s sols, et la m 6 t h o d e esquissde p e r n i e t d ' i m p o r t a n t e s r d d u c t i o n s d e s frais d e terrain.

Introduction Invcstigauons concermng the possibilities of using less expensive

l h e technique of engineering geological mapping is a relatively un-
developed sul~iccl m Norway. Priority has been given to conven-
tional Ouatcrnar_~ geological mapping of the dir,tribution of the tic-
posits at the surface. The use of such maps deinands, hoxxever, much
more kno\\ledge of geology chart engLncers and planner <, generally
posscsx. [ i l e incruasm.~ need for i n f o t n l a l i o n about straligrciph_v and
quulJlv o i the dcpo,it, irl land-use plal'~rdilg ha~, bt'en underestinlaled
and overluc)ked.
In 1977 a pro,.!ral/1 o f cn.,aineering geologic'll field research \~ork ii~
thc' >,lcl]lus urcga (tIig. I i x\as oullined at the Departmcnt el" G<_'ology,
NTtl. l'lle LnJver',l{) of lrondhe[nl ]lad choscll the Melhtu, region a,
a Illodel aret! !or rc,>carch i12 hm!-usc pit!mine t1\' tea!us II'~V('llVCtl Ln
tlltTcrelll scicntilic di~cipline~.
The mcthod el" en,alneering geoh)71cal nlappitlg xta~ found to bc a
very itnportanl part o f the prlLeranl cind at the be<_,ii~ning o f 197{4 \t c"
started :i qticly o I the application or" ~implc geoplLwica1111ethods in
onginccrtng geological nlapphlg.
The tccl:niqttcs e l acq,!iri~tg ncccssary data have to a ere;It extent
bcen ha%'tl Oll expel'lMYe borill 7 lllcthod:,. In Ni)rx.xa} ~.elSnlic lllelh-
otis \\ ilh heavy etll.llpnlelll ha\c bcc!l tlSt..d in ~oil illVC',ti~atlonx, but
the l..R-nlcihods have only pla5 ed :l minor role.
.._'eophysical and geotechnical methods ir~ engineering geological
inappln.<.,. are consJdcr0d very important and are one of tile main
aims of the project at the Department of Geology. N'IH.
l'he problelm, as io devch)pnlent of required skills and techniques
IcY. Dcarman and l.ookes. 1974) and adjustment to the existing
geolc~gical inappJng ,,.v,,tclll arc current problems xxllich have to be
solved before ,4yslcmal~c cnglileering geological mapping can !)c
carried out.
In other parts of the \',Grid the conventional Quaternary geologi-
cal maps have an exter~sjvc coverage. I11 Norway, ho\~ever, only a
,,mall part of the cotlntr) is covered with such map:, today. This
give,, a good opportunity to incorporate engineering geological
maps m the prospective nlappil~g pro.gram.
Surficlul deposits map, are ba~,icl.x produced on u scale of
I : 50.000. and it is generally accepted that engineering geological
map<, must be regarded a~, a complcnlent to this \I711-seric~,,
in economically important areas. Ihus tile ainl of the inapping i~
coIl>[rtlctioI1 Of llltl[tl-ptlrposc conlpl-r [llt.'tlitllll'~cald Illap:.,.
ruilccting ihe SigllilIican[ engineering ,._,cological components of
the m o q conllllOll geological condJtiolls in tllir, cotlntry. ()lie of the
I~asic components, is the distrihution and propcr/ie~, of Quatcrnar),
dcpositr. I',elo\~ the upper marine limit. It is nlahlly a question o f
 276

LOCATIONM A P
~:Z~ ?,~ ..':::~- """"

/
/
,/

/
i
. /I
,/
/

Fig. 1

grouping soils into coarse- and fine-grained deposits, the former
including fluvial-, glaciofluviat- and marine shore deposits, the
latter marine silts and clays.
The stratigraphical units introducted by Holmstrand and Wedel
(1977, c.f.Fig. 10) are appropriate also for Norwegian conditions,
and the techniques for acquiring data should be chosen with res-
pect to these units.
It is not the purpose of this paper to discuss m e t h o d s of data
presentation. We have so far adopted a modified type of the "Chal-
mers-model" given by Holstrand and Wedel (1977).
is, however, significant in most cases, and its presence reduces the
117C's effective depth considerably.
Fig. 2 shows a typical example of a 117C travel time graph in an
area of glacio-fluvial deposits and medium-level micro-seismic ran-
dom noise (gain level 4 - 5 / 1 0 ) . At an impact-to-geophone distance
of approximately 50 metres the amplitude of the first impulse of
the compressional wave has decreased below the background noise
level, and the instrument responds to stronger later arrivals. A ran-
dom pattern of the travel time ~ a p h is often observed at increasing
impm'tItO-grnphone distancc~ in ~uch localities.

R e s e a r c h area
The research area is situated about 30 km south of Trondheim. It o
, o
covers approximately 30 sq.km (Fig. 1) of the Gaula valley. The o/
river Gaula flows through the central part of the area. The eastern /
/
side of the valley is steep with altitudes varying from about 25 to /
500 metres. The morphology is hilly, especially on the western side //
of the river.
/ok.~,
A conventional Quaternary geological map has been made by Reite ..~.+
(1976) at a scale of 1 ;50.000.
The Melhus region has an accelerating population growth and new ,L~?"
building areas are under development at Meeggen/Gimsan/Varmbu
(Fig. 10). The area has therefore a specific need of engineering geo-
logical maps, especially because the material and groundwater re-
sources in connection with the glacio-fluvial deposits on the western
side of the river are economically important and objects of conflict- z I0C
ing interests. Furthermore the slope stability conditions have proved o
to be complicated. Lid
0')
-J //
Hammer--seismograph soundings
The seismic equipment used comprises a one-channel hammer-seis- /,, ASLL"-,O~
z
mograph, DynaMctric model [ 17C, vertical 14 cps geophoncs, 8 Ibs
sledgehammer and a steel strike plate (5 x 5 in.). [he instrument
which has a decimal time display, has a value of approximately 30
metres as m a x i m u m penetration depth according to the manufac-
turer. ~+/7"+~
Previous investigations in Sweden (Thoregren 1971) with a similar
X~ Max. source togeophoned~stance
hammer-seismograph ( M D - 3 ) , indicate that the m a x i m u m depth at I ,
which this type of instrument can be considered reliable is 40 me- I
tres.
It is in our opinion sufficient for most purposes to determine bed-
38%162%
rock surface, groundwater table and discontinuities in overburden , , , , 510 '
material down to 3 0 - 4 0 metres: in areas with insignificant micro- DISTANCE IN M E T E R S
seismic random noise these values are reasonable. Background noise l:ig.
 277

As a result of this instrumental disadvantage, about 40 % of the line
~oundings in the Methus area were carried out with impact-to-geo-
phone distances of less than 50 metres (Fig. 2). This leads to an aver-
age reduction of the maximum exploration depth of approximately
1 5 - 3 5 %.
ttammer-seismographs recording seismic impulses on facsimile paper
and recording systems based on superposing impulses from a num-
ber of strokes seem to have considerable advantages with respect to
the possibilities of acquiring relevant readings under difficult field
conditions. The speed at which line soundings can be accomplished
also depends on the type of hammer-seismograph. Johansson (1966)
reports 2 0 - 2 5 line soundings in 8 working hours employing a FS - 2
seismograph. Using the 117C the average number of line soundings
is reduced to 10--15 per 8 working hours. The difference is due to
the great number o f impacts necessary to get adequate readings on
the 117C.
In spite of the above mentioned disadvantages the 117C equipment
is considered to represent a competitive alternative to the conven-
tional boring methods. The hammer-seismograph is light, easy to
work, and additional equipment makes it possible to determine dyna-
mic elastic properties of the subsurface materials, an important
subject of engineering geological studies.
Electrical resistivity s o u n d i n g s
Resistivity soundings and profiling have seldom been used in soil ex-
ploration in Norway, although the methods should be well fitted to
a number of investigation areas. There are in general great con-
trasts in resistivity between soils and bedrock and between marine-,
glacial-- and (glacio)fluvial deposits, a fact that indicates that the
method is a useful tool insubsurface investigations.
In our project we have used an Earth Tester from Metrawatt/Goertz,
Metraterr 2, a small a.c.-equipment with operating frequency of
nominally 108 Hz. The instrument works on the null balance
system, and the power source is operated from dry cells.
This easily operated piece of equipment has of course a limited
penetration depth compared to the more advanced instruments used
in mineral prospecting, and the high operating frequencies introduce
induction phenomena which might distort the results.
Fig. 3 shows that the reliability is limited especially in areas of con-
ductive deposits. The current supply is too small to set up the ne-
cessary potentials when using the Schlumberger array, and the cal-
culated apparent resistivities will be erroneous and noninterpre-
table.
Resistant layers, like sand and gravel, can successfully be investigat-
ed to depths of about 100 metres. The interpreted rcsistivities of the
various layers are however of somewhat higher magnitude than the
true values obtained with a d.c. -instrument. These higher values are
supposed to be due to the induction effects mentioned, but the
comparative curves (Fig. 4) are parallel, and consequently the depth
interpretations will be correct.
The sounding curves recorded with the Metraterr 2 are also smooth-
ed compared to the curve obtained with the d.c.-instrument, a
corroboration of the minor sensitiveness.
A majority of the soundings are carried out by using the Wenner
configuration, as the applied interpretation methods are based on
this array. The "Barnes Layer Resistivity Method" (Barnes, 1954)
and the "Inverse Slope Method of Determining Absolute Resisti-
vity" (Sanker Naryayan & Ramanujachary 1967) are based on the
assumption that the depth of penetration is equal to the electrode
spacing, which is true only if t h e soil is homogeneous. The errors in
interpreted depths and absolute resistivities are generally within rea-
sonable limits for the purpose discussed (c.f. Franklin & McLean,
1973 and Fig. 5). The opinions on this point are however contra-
dictory, and the pitfalls of semi-empirical interpretation methods
must be taken into account in tl'te presentation of results.
Figs. 6 and 7 give examples of the "Inverse Slope" interpretation
method and corresponding soil profiles obtained by mechanical
soundings.
i
G
, J
met
,
~tr5i , I , , t
~
/L " " ~ "
200 9
"-'-100
I
LU
u)] ~"

3000] , . , -,
,

2000I!i ?~'~ IE
, I,S fo 10.5

I ,
'E
J~
1000r
Fig. 5

"h

fLU

7~

We/3ng/"
i<
t
ELECTRODE SPACING, a , AB/2, meters
Fig. 3

i , 9 i , |

,/ //kk,~ I: r \

;0 23 3C
ELECTROE~ SPACING (DEPTH). meters
,t~ ,go

Fig. 4 Fig. 6

% areas of deltaic deposits with the general trend o f velocities increas-
~o
/; ,oo
/
le
a [ r n e t ors)
CL~Y
o 2b
ELECTRODE SPACING(DEPTH, ,meters
Fig. 7
Comparison of the two applied methods
Seismic methods are generally considered more reliable than ER-
methods if the main purpose is to determine the bedrock surface,
but the crystalline nature o f most Norwegian rocks provides distinct
resistivity contrasts between soils and bedrock, and this offers a
more outstanding application o f ER-methods.
According to Korpela (1976), determination of depth to bedrock
surface is considered to be reliable in areas with a m a x i m u m of 8
metres of overburden using hammer-seismic equipment. We have so
far no evidence of the significance o f this value, but other authors
(Hobson 1967; Johansson 1966; Thoregren 1971l have reported
bedrock determinations with acceptable errors (• 10 %) to greater
depths.
Interpretation of overburden thickness based on resistivity sound-
ings is generally possible because of the high bedrock resistivities,
but certain conditions, like conductive layers near the bedrock
surface, distort the results and present an interpretation pitfall. The
accuracy of depth determination is also dependant on the interpre-
tation m e t h o d , as the error increases with increasing resistivity
contrasts when applying direct m e t h o d s like "Barnes" or "Inverse
Slope".
The choice of method basically depends on the interpreted geology
in the research area and the surface conditions, such as moisture
content and horizontal variations in the topsoils. The moisture con-
tent restricts the application o f h a m m e r seismics, the horizontal va-
riations affects the reliability o f Wenner sounding curves.
RESULTS
5-M WENNER
a - spacing
HIGH RESISTMTYAREA
D{1OOO.q.rn or more)
LOWRESISTIVITYAREA
[](100~m
1kin
Fig. 8 Association o f Engineering Geologists, X, No. 1 , 6 5 - 7 5 .
278
Exploration of soil strata with geophysical m e t h o d s requires con-
trol borings at a number of points. The advantage of simple geophy-
sical m e t h o d s is their applicability in tracing soil boundaries be-
tween established checkpoints. H a m m e r seismics are superior in
ing with depth, while electrical resistivity soundings are a more con-
venient tool in areas of hidden sand a n d gravel deposits. The possi-
bilities of detecting hidden eskers by a p p l y i n g resistivity profiling is
an actual example.
Detection of groundwater is another a s p e c t of engineering geologi-
c:fl mapping. The groundwater table c a n generally be detected by
using smsmm equipment, but only a f e w authors claim that resistivi-
ty m e t h o d s can be used to establish the position of the groundwater
table (Lennox & Carlson 1967). Resistivity m e a s u r e m e n t s are on the
other hand the most convenient line o f approach in prospecting for
potential aquifers, and for this purpose the Metratcrr 2 has proved
to be successful.
N
Ib " 2b )
k , - - .... -.
io RESISTIVITY
RESULTS
2 5 - M WENNER
a-spacing
HIGHRESISTIVITYAREA
[] [> 10001")m]
LOWRESISTIVITYAREA
[] [< 100D.m)
Fig. 9
Discussion
Several problems concerning m e t h o d s of engineering geological
mapping have to be subjects of more detailed studies. Our prelimi-
nary investigations indicate, however, t h a t a combination of ham-
mer-seismograph soundings and electrical resistivity soundings can
provide the necessary basic information for regional engineering geo-
logical soil mapping and reduce the field costs approximately 80
per cent compared to conventional m e c h a n i c a l soundings, measured
per sounding metre.
As a general rule one control b o r i n g / s o u n d i n g is enough to complete
5 - 1 0 geophysical soundings, and the o u t l i n e d combined m e t h o d en-
ables a mapping team to cover extensive areas in a m i n i m u m of
time. The somewhat lesser exactness o f d o c u m e n t a t i o n is well com-
pensated by a considerable time benefit.
The engineering geological map (Fig. 10) is based on the Quater-
nary m a p (Reite 1976) and our geophysical exploration. The most
outstanding difference between the two types of map is the occur-
rence of coarse-grained deposits b e n e a t h fine grained soils. Sand and
gravel are partly overlain by a thin cover of marine silts and clays,
and the knowledge o f their existence is of great importance in engi-
neering and land-use planning. Such a stratigraphy is easily mapped
with ER-methods.
A n o t h e r aspect of electrical resistivity m e t h o d s is geological inter-
pretation of apparent resistivity maps. In the Melhus area such maps
(Figs. 8 and 9) have proved successful in tracing a hidden marginal
deposit from Meeggen via Varmbu, to the bedrock ridge West of
Holem (Fig. 10).
References
BARNES H.E.(1954) : Electrical Subsurface Exploration Simpli-
fied. Roads and Streets. May 1954, pp. 8 1 - 8 4 .
D E A R M A N W.R. - FOOKES P.G. (1974) : Engineering Geologi-
cal Mapping for Civil Engineering Practice in the United
Kingdom. Q. Jl. of Engng Geol., 7 , 2 2 3 - 2 5 6 .
or less
F R A N K L I N A.G. - McLEAN F.G. (1973) : A test of tile Barnes
Layer Method of Resistivity Interpretation. Bulletin o f the
 279
Fig. 10
HOBSON G.D. (1967) : Seismic Methods in Mining and Ground-
water Exploration. Economic Geology Report No. 26, Geo-
logical Survey of Canada, 1 4 8 - 1 7 6 .
HOLMSTRAND O. - WEDEL P.O. (1977) : Ingenj~Srgeologisk
kartering. Redovisning av i f6rsta hand jordlager och grund-
vatten. Chalmers Tekniska H6gskola, publ. AI7, G6te-
borg.
JOHANSSON S. (1966) : On the hammer-seismog*aph model
F S - 2 and its use in Finland. Geophysical Prospecting, 14,
185-194.
KORPELA K. (1976) : tlamrner seismic sounding as an engineer-
ing -geologic investigation method. Papers of the Engineer-
ing Geological Society o f Finland, 10, Helsinki.
LENNOX D.H. - CARLSON V. (1967) : Geophysical Explora-
tion for Buried Valleys in an Area North of Two Hills, Al-
berta. Geophysics, XXXII, No. 2, 3 3 1 - 3 6 2 .
REITE A.J. (1976) : TRONDHEIM, Kvartaergeologisk kart 1621
IV - M 1:50.000. Norges geologiske unders~kelse.
SANKER NARAYAN P.V. - RAMANUJACHARY K.R. (1967) :
An Inverse Slope Method of Determining Absolute Re-
sistivity. Geophysics, 32, No. 6, 1036-1040.