NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

TECHNICAL TEACHERS
TRAINING AND RESEARCH
CHANDIGARH

12/20/14 1
Vehicle ownership is still growing worldwide
By 2020
– 15% vehicle ownership
– 1.1 billion vehicles
– Circle the earth 125 times
 Purpose of an engine

Converts the heat of burning fuel into

useful energy
Internal Combustion
Engines
When expressed as a percentage, the thermal
efficiency must be between 0% and 100%. Due to
inefficiencies such as friction, heat loss, and other
factors, thermal engines' efficiencies are typically
much less than 100%. For example, a typical gasoline
automobile engine operates at around 25% efficiency.
The largest diesel engine in the world peaks at 51.7%.
6
Basic Terminology

•Bore & Stroke

•Engine Displacement
•Compression Ratio
•Power
•Torque
 Premixed vs. Non-premixed
Charge Engines
Spark plug Flame front Fuel injector Fuel spray flame

Fuel + air mixture Air only

Premixed charge Non-premixed charge

(gasoline) (Diesel)
Internal Combustion Engines
– Carnot cycle
The Ideal Air Standard Otto Cycle
The basic requirements of an engine
are to provide:
• High power output
• High thermal efficiency and low
specific fuel consumption
• Smooth engine operation
• Reduced exhaust pollutants.
2 NITTTR Chandigarh
 Is it Really A Great
Achievement
• In 1893, the Benz Velo became the world's
first inexpensive, mass-produced car.
• 0.7 hp and 958cc !!!
• The Mercedes 35 HP was a radical early car
model designed in 1901.
• Engine volume: 5,918CC.
• A break through in Auto Sports ran a speed
of ~35KMPH.
2 NITTTR Chandigarh
2 NITTTR Chandigarh
 Higher Power Output

1.High Volumetric Efficiency

2.High Compression Ratio
3.No Excess Air
4.Complete Utilization of Air

2 NITTTR Chandigarh
..\AEM Performance Electronics – What is V

2 NITTTR Chandigarh
 Volumetric Efficiency
• Volumetric efficiency (ηv) = (mass of air actually drawn into
cylinder) / (mass of air that ideally could be drawn into cylinder)
m
 air (measured)
ηv ≡
ρ airVd N / n

where ρair is at ambient = Pambient/RTambient and R - 287 J/kgK for air

• Volumetric efficiency indicates how well the engine “breathes” -
what lowers ηv below 100%?
– Pressure drops in intake system (e.g. throttling) & intake
valves
– Temperature rise due to heating of air
– Volume occupied by fuel
– Non-ideal valve timing
– “Choking” (air flow reaching speed of sound) in part of intake
system having smallest area 21
 Engines
Different arrangement of valve and camshaft .
24
 Power and Torque

• Engine performance is specified in both in

terms of power and engine torque - which is
more important?
– Wheel torque = engine torque x gear ratio
tells you whether you can climb the hill

25
– Power tells you how fast you can climb the hill
– Torque can be increased by transmission (e.g.
2:1 gear ratio ideally multiplies torque by 2)
Power can’t be increased by transmission; in
fact because of friction and other losses, power
will decrease in transmission
– Power tells how fast you can accelerate or how
fast you can climb a hill, but power to torque
ratio ~ N tells you what gear ratios you’ll need
to do the job 26
 Power and Torque versus
Engine Speed
There is a maximum in the brake power
Rated brake power versus engine speed called the rated
brake power.
1 kW = 1.341 hp
At higher speeds brake power decreases as
friction power becomes significant compared
to the indicated power

Max brake torque

There is a maximum in the torque versus
speed called maximum brake torque (MBT).
Brake torque drops off:
• at lower speeds do to heat losses
• at higher speeds it becomes more difficult to
ingest a full charge of air.
I.C. Engines Laboratory
 Effect of Fuel-Air Ratio on Power Output
of CI Engine

December 20, 2014 I.C. Engines Laboratory Slide 29

 HIGH THERMAL
EFFICIENCY

• High compression ratio

• A small heat loss during combustion. This is
achieved by having a compact Combustion
chamber which provides small surface –
volume ratio.
• Compact combustion chamber is reduced
flame travel
• Good scavenging of the exhaust gases.
Direct Injection vs. Indirect Injection
 SMOOTH ENGINE
OPERATION
• Moderate rate of pressure rise during
combustion.
• Absence of detonation
• Short distance of flame travel
• Proper location of the spark plug and exhaust
valve.
• Satisfactory cooling of the spark plug points

2 NITTTR Chandigarh
 Engines
Spark Plug
It provides the means of
ignition when the gasoline
engine’s piston is at the end of
compression stroke, close to
Top Dead Center(TDC)

The difference between a

"hot" and a "cold" spark
plug is that the ceramic tip
is longer on the
hotter plug.
 Knock

As the flame propagates away from the spark plug the pressure and
temperature of the unburned gas increases.

Under certain conditions the end-gas can autoignite and burn very rapidly
producing a shock wave

flame shock
P,T P,T
end-gas

time time

The end-gas autoignites after a certain induction time which is dictated by

the chemical kinetics of the fuel-air mixture.

If the flame burns all the fresh gas before autoignition in the end-gas can
occur then knock is avoided.

Therefore knock is a potential problem when the burn time is long!

December 20, 2014 I.C. Engines Laboratory Slide 38
 Fuel Requirements

• Gasoline is a mixture of hydrocarbons (with 4 to

approximately 12 carbon atoms) ,SIT 450 oC
• Diesel fuel is a mixture of higher molar mass
hydrocarbons (typically 12 to 22 carbon atoms), SIT
200 oC.
• Fuels for spark ignition engines should vaporize
readily and be resistant to self-ignition, as indicated
by a high octane rating.
• Fuels for compression ignition engines should self-
ignite readily, as indicated by a high cetane number.
• Equivalence Ratio:

• Lambda is the ratio of the actual air-fuel ratio

to the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio defined as
Methods of Quantifying Fuel and Air
Content
of Combustible Mixtures
• If less air than the stoichiometric amount is
used, the mixture is described as fuel rich.
• If excess air is used, the mixture is described as
fuel lean.
• Fuel-Air Ratio (FAR): The fuel-air ratio, f, is
given by
December 20, 2014 I.C. Engines Laboratory Slide 42
 Octane number

Standard measure of the anti-knock

properties (i.e. the performance) of a
motor or aviation fuel. The higher the
octane number, the more
compression the fuel can withstand
before detonating.
 Cetane Number

CN is a measurement of the combustion

quality of diesel fuel during compression
ignition.
 Cetane Number

• Measures readiness of fuel to auto-ignite.

• High cetane means the fuel ignite quickly
• Most fuels have cetane numbers between 40
and 60.
• ASTM requires a minimum cetane number of
40
• Premium Diesel fuel typically has a cetane of
47
Cetane Cetane

Ignition Delay: The period that occurs

between the start of fuel injection and the
start of combustion; the higher the cetane
number, the shorter the ignition delay and
the better the quality of combustion.
Dr. J. M. Mallikarjuna
Internal Combustion Engines Laboratory, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai - 600036
December 20, 2014
Slide 47
 Stages of Combustion in CI Engines

December 20, 2014 I.C. Engines Laboratory Slide 48

Type of Combustion Chambers for
SI engines
2 NITTTR Chandigarh
 Reduced Exhaust
Pollutants

Exhaust pollutants can be reduced

by designing a combustion chamber
that produces a faster burning rate of
fuel

2 NITTTR Chandigarh
12/20/14 Prof. M.P.Poonia, Director,
NITTTR, Chandigarh
12/20/14 Prof. M.P.Poonia, Director,
NITTTR, Chandigarh
12/20/14 Prof. M.P.Poonia, Director,
NITTTR, Chandigarh
12/20/14 Prof. M.P.Poonia, Director,
NITTTR, Chandigarh
12/20/14 Prof. M.P.Poonia, Director,
NITTTR, Chandigarh
Emission sources in a
gasoline fuelled car

Ref : http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/112104033/2
Emission Sources in a Diesel
Engine Powered Bus

58
12/20/14 Prof. M.P.Poonia, Director,
NITTTR, Chandigarh
 o l l u t a n t s :
5 M a j o r P
M o n o x i d e
1..) C a r b o n
D i o x i d e
2.) Sulfur
e n D i o x i d e
3.) N i t r o g
a t e M a t t e r
r t i c u l
4.) Pa
n d L e v e l
5.) Grou
Ozone
Hydrocarbons – Lung
Cancer
12/20/14 Prof. M.P.Poonia, Director,
NITTTR, Chandigarh
 Emission norms for
passenger cars ( Petrol)

Norms CO( g/km) HC+ NOx)(g/km)

1991Norms 14.3-27.1 2.0(Only HC)
1996 Norms 8.68-12.40 3.00-4.36
1998Norms 4.34-6.20 1.50-2.18
stage 2.72 0.97
2000 norms

Bharat stage-II 2.2 0.5

Bharat Stage-III 2.3 0.35(combined)
Bharat Stage-IV 1.0 0.18(combined) 65
 Emission norms for
Heavy diesel vehicles:
Norms CO HC Nox PM
(g/kwhr) (g/kwhr) (g/kwhr) (g/kwhr)

1991 Norms 14 3.5 18 -

1996 Norms 11.2 2.4 14.4 -

stage 2000 Norms 4.5 1.1 8.0 0.36

Bharat stage-II 4.0 1.1 7.0 0.15

Bharat Stage-III 2.1 1.6 5.0 0.10
Bharat Stage-IV 1.5 0.96 3.5 0.02 66
• Who wants to go on a break

• Everyone!!!!
 I.C. ENGINE TESTING

Measurement of Air
Supply of an I.C.
Engine:

Measurement
of Air
by Air Box
Method.
51
 Indicated Work
Given the cylinder pressure data over the operating cycle of the engine one can
calculate the work done by the gas on the piston.

The indicated
i= PdV
W work per cycle is
∫

WA > 0

WB < 0

Compression Power Exhaust Intake

W<0 W>0 W<0 W>0
Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (Pim):

p-V diagram for an ideal four-stroke cycle

70
engine
71
72
73
74
tungal/presentations/ad2012
75