Steven R.

Dunbar
Department of Mathematics
203 Avery Hall
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Lincoln, NE 68588-0130
http://www.math.unl.edu
Voice: 402-472-3731
Fax: 402-472-8466

Topics in
Probability Theory and Stochastic Processes
Steven R. Dunbar

Wallis’ Formula

Rating
Mathematically Mature: may contain mathematics beyond calculus with
proofs.

1
Section Starter Question
Can you think of a sequence or a process that approximates π? What is the
intuition or reasoning behind that sequence?

Key Concepts
1. Wallis’ Formula is the amazing limit
 
2 · 2 · 4 · 4 · 6 · 6 . . . (2n) · (2n) π
lim = .
n→∞ 1 · 3 · 3 · 5 · 5 . . . (2n − 1) · (2n − 1) · (2n + 1) 2

2. One proof of Wallis’ formula uses a recursion formula developed from

integration of trigonometric functions.

3. Another proof uses only basic algebra, the Pythagorean Theorem, and
the formula πr2 for the area of a circle of radius r.

4. Yet another proof uses Euler’s infinite product representation for the
sine function.

Vocabulary
1. Wallis’ Formula is the amazing limit
 
2 · 2 · 4 · 4 · 6 · 6 . . . (2n) · (2n) π
lim = .
n→∞ 1 · 3 · 3 · 5 · 5 . . . (2n − 1) · (2n − 1) · (2n + 1) 2

2
Mathematical Ideas
Introduction
Wallis’ Formula is the amazing limit
 
2 · 2 · 4 · 4 · 6 · 6 . . . (2n) · (2n) π
lim = . (1)
n→∞ 1 · 3 · 3 · 5 · 5 . . . (2n − 1) · (2n − 1) · (2n + 1) 2
Another way to write this is
∞
π Y (2j)2
= .
2 j=1 (2j − 1)(2j + 1)

A “closed form” expression for the product in Wallis formula is

24n · (n!)4 π
lim 2
=
n→∞ ((2n)!) (2n + 1) 2
or equivalently
24n π
lim

2n 2
= .
n→∞ (2n + 1) 2
n
Note that Wallis Formula is equivalent to saying that the “central bino-
mial term” has the asymptotic expression
  s
1 2n 2
2n
∼ .
2 n (2n + 1)π

See the subsection Central Binomial below for a proof of an equivalent in-
equality.
In the form
Y
n
(2j)2 24n
wn = =

2n 2
(2)
j=1
(2j − 1)(2j + 1) (2n + 1)
n

3
wn 2

π/2
1.5

0.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
n

Figure 1: Convergence of the Wallis formula to π/2.

4
it is easy to see that the sequence wn is increasing since 4n2 /(4n2 − 1) > 1.
Figure 1 illustrates the increasing sequence.
Doing a numerical linear regression of log(π/2 − wn ) versus log n on the
domain n = 1 to n = 30 indicates that wn approaches π/2 at a rate which is
O(1/n).

A proof using integration and recursion

Theorem 1 (Wallis’ Formula).
 
2 · 2 · 4 · 4 · 6 · 6 . . . (2n) · (2n) π
lim = . (3)
n→∞ 1 · 3 · 3 · 5 · 5 . . . (2n − 1) · (2n + 1) 2
R π/2
Proof. Consider Jn = 0 cosn (x) dx. Integrating by parts with u = cosn−1 (x)
and dv = cos(x) shows
Z π/2 Z π/2
n
cos (x) dx = (n − 1) cosn−2 (x) sin2 (x) dx
0 0
Z π/2
= (n − 1) cosn−2 (x)(1 − cos2 (x)) dx
0
Z π/2 Z π/2
n−2
= (n − 1) cos (x) dx −(n − 1) cosn (x) dx .
0 0

Gathering terms, we get nJn = (n − 1)Jn−2 .

Now J1 = 1 so recursively J3 = 23 , J5 = 3·5
2·4
and inductively

2 · 4 · · · (2n − 2) · (2n)
J2n+1 = . (4)
1 · 3 · · · (2n − 1) · (2n + 1)
π 3·π 3·5·π
Likewise J2 = 2·2
, and J4 = 2·4·2
, J6 = 2·4·6·2
and inductively

3 · 5 · · · (2n − 3) · (2n − 1) · π
J2n = .
2 · 4 · · · (2n − 2) · (2n) · 2

For 0 ≤ x ≤ π/2, 0 ≤ cos(x) ≤ 1, so cos2n (x) ≥ cos2n+1 (x) ≥ cos2n+2 (x),

implying in turn that J2n ≥ J2n+1 ≥ J2n+2 . Then
J2n+1 J2n+2 2n + 1
1≥ ≥ = .
J2n J2n 2n + 2

5
 J2n+1
Hence limn→∞ J2n
= 1.
That is,
 
2 · 2 · 4 · 4 · 6 · 6 . . . (2n) · (2n) 2
lim =1
n→∞ 1 · 3 · 3 · 5 · 5 . . . (2n − 1) · (2n + 1) π

or equivalently
 
2 · 2 · 4 · 4 · 6 · 6 . . . (2n) · (2n) π
lim = .
n→∞ 1 · 3 · 3 · 5 · 5 . . . (2n − 1) · (2n + 1) 2

An elementary proof of Wallis formula

The following proof is adapted and expanded from [8]. The proof uses only
basic algebra, the Pythagorean Theorem, and the formula πr2 for the area
of a circle of radius r. Another important property used implicitly is the
completeness property of the reals.
Define a sequence of numbers by s1 = 1 and for n ≥ 2,
3 5 2n − 1
sn = · ··· . (5)
2 4 2n − 2
These are the reciprocals of the subsequence J2n−1 defined in equation (4).
The partial products of Wallis’ formula (1) with an odd number of terms
in the numerator are
22 · 42 · · · (2n − 2)2 · 2n 2n
on = = 2, (6)
1 · 3 · · · (2n − 1)
2 2 sn

while those with an even number of factors in the numerator are of the form
22 · 42 · · · (2n − 2)2 2n − 1
en = = . (7)
1 · 3 · · · (2n − 3) · (2n − 1)
2 2 s2n
(2n)2
Interpret e1 = 1 as an empty product. Since (2n−1)(2n+1)
> 1, clearly en <
(2n)(2n+2)
en+1 . Since (2n+1)2
< 1, clearly on > on+1 . Also, en < on . Therefore

e1 < e2 < e3 < · · · en < on < · · · < o3 < o2 < o1

6
for any n. Furthermore, for 1 ≤ i ≤ n,
2i
= oi ≥ on
s2i

and
2i − 1
= ei ≤ en
s2i
from which it follows that
2i − 1 2i
≤ s2i ≤ . (8)
en on
For convenience, define s0 = 0 so that inequality (8) holds also for i = 0.
Denote the successive difference an = sn+1 − sn so a0 = s1 − s0 = 1 and for
n≥1
 
2n + 1 sn 1 3 2n − 1
an = sn+1 − sn = sn −1 = = · ··· .
2n 2n 2 4 2n

Lemma 2. For the sequence ai we have the identity

j+1 i+1
ai aj = ai aj+1 + ai+1 aj (9)
i+j+1 i+j+1
for any i and j.

Proof. Make the substitutions

2i + 1
ai+1 = ai
2(i + 1)

and
2j + 1
aj+1 = aj
2(j + 1)
the right side of the proposed identity (9) becomes
 
2j + 1 j+1 2i + 1 i+1
ai aj · + · = ai aj .
2(j + 1) i + j + 1 2(i + 1) i + j + 1

7
Lemma 3.

1 = a20 = a0 a1 + a1 a0
= a0 a2 + a21 + a2 a0
...
= a0 an + a1 an−1 + · · · + an a0

Proof. Start from a20 = 1 and repeatedly apply the identity (9). At stage n
applying the identity (9) to every term the sum

a0 an + a1 an−1 + · · · + an a0

becomes
     
1 n−1 2 1
a0 an + a1 an−1 + a1 an−1 + a2 an−2 + · · · + an−1 a1 + an a0 .
n n n n
Collecting terms, this simplifies to a0 an + a1 an−1 + · · · + an a0 .
Now divide the positive quadrant of the xy-plane into rectangles by draw-
ing the vertical lines y = sn and the horizontal lines y = sn for all n. Let
Ri,j be the rectangle with lower left corner (si , sj ) and upper right corner
(si+1 , sj+1 ). The area of Ri,j is ai aj . Thus the identity 1 = a0 an + a1 an1 +
· · · + an a0 states that the total area of the rectangles Ri,j for which i + j = n
is 1. Let Pn be the polygonal region consisting of all rectangles Ri,j for which
i + j < n. Hence the area of Pn is n.
The outer corners of Pn are the points (si , sj ) for which i + j = n + 1 and
1 ≤ i, j, ≤ n.qBy the Pythagorean theorem, the distance of such a point to
the origin is s2i + s2j . By (8)
s s
2(i + j) 2(n + 1)
= .
on on

bounds this distance from above. Similarly the inner corners of Pn are the
points (si , sj ) for which i + j = n and 0 ≤ i, j ≤ n. The distance of such a
point to the origin is bounded from below by
s s
2(i + j − 1) 2(n − 1)
= .
en en

8
 p
Therefore, Pn contains a quarter circle
p of radius 2(n − 1)/en and is con-
tained in a quarter circle of radius 2(n + 1)/on . See Figure 2 for a diagram
of the polygonal region Pn and the corresponding inner and outer quarter
circles for n = 4.
The area of a quarter circle of radius r is πr2 and the area of Pn is n.
This leads to the bounds
(n − 1)π (n + 1)π
<n< (10)
2en 2on
from which it follows that
(n − 1)π (n + 1)π
< en < on < .
2n 2n
Then as n → ∞, en and on both approach π/2.

Wallis’ Formula and the Central Binomial Coefficient

This subsection gives a detailed proof that Wallis’ Formula gives an ex-
plicit inequality bound on the central binomial term that in turn implies
the asymptotic formula for the central binomial coefficient. The derivation
in [1]. motivates this proof.
Start from the expansion (2) for the Central Binomial Coefficient:
Y
n
(2j)2 24n
wn = =

2n 2
.
j=1
(2j − 1)(2j + 1) (2n + 1)
n

Rearrange it to
 2
16n Y (2j − 1)(2j + 1)
n
2n
=
n 2n + 1 j=1 (2j)2

and use the definitions (6) and (7) of the partial products of the Wallis
formula to obtain  2
2n 16n 2n + 2
=
n (2n + 1) (2n + 1)on+1
and  2
2n 16n 1
= .
n (2n + 1) en+1

9
 y

s4
R0,3

s3
R0,2 R1,2

s2

R0,1 R1,1 R2,1

s1

R0,0 R1,0 R2,0 R3,0

s1 s2 s3 s4
p p
r = 2(4 − 1)/e4 r= 2(4 +x1)/o4

Figure 2: A diagram of the regions Ri,j and the inner and outer quarter
circles for the case n = 4.

10
Rearrange the inequality (10) to obtain
2n + 2 1 1 2n + 2
< and < .
π(n + 2) on+1 en+1 nπ

Then
 2
16n (2n + 2)2 2n 16n (2n + 2)
< <
(2n + 1) (2n + 1)(n + 2)π n (2n + 1) nπ

and taking square roots and slightly rearranging again

s   r
n
4 2(n + 1)2 2n 4n (n + 1)
p < <p .
(2n + 1)(π/2) (2n + 1)(n + 2) n (2n + 1)(π/2) n

To simplify, take a series expansion of the square roots of the rational ex-
pressions and truncate, leaving
     
4n 1 2n 4n 1
p 1− < <p 1+ .
(2n + 1)(π/2) 2n n (2n + 1)(π/2) 2n

A proof using the product expansion of the sine function

Theorem 4. The expansion of sin(z) as an infinite product is
∞ 
Y 
z2
sin(z) = z 1− 2 2 .
m=1
mπ

Proof. See [7, page 312] for the proof. The article in the Mathworld.com
article on http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Sine.html also gives references to
Edwards 2001, pages 18 and 47; and Borwein et al. 2004, page 5.
Although the common proof uses complex analysis, as in the texts cited
above, a proof using only elementary analysis is possible. The following proof
is adapted from [4].
Proof. Start with the definition of the Chebyshev polynomials Tn (x) from
the trigonometric identity cos(nx) = Tn (cos(x)). Then

cos(2kx) = Tk (cos(2x)) = Tk (1 − 2 sin2 x).

11
Together with the sine product identity

sin((2k + 1)x) − sin((2k − 1)x) = 2 sin(x) · cos(2kx)

this inductively shows that there is a polynomial Fm of degree m such that

sin((2m + 1)x) = sin(x) · Fm (sin2 (x)).

(In fact, using the definition Un (cos(x)) = sin((n+1)x)

sin(x)
for the Chebyshev poly-
√
nomials of the second kind, it is easy to show that Fm (x) = U2n ( 1 − x).)
kπ
Substituting xk = 2m+1 and noting that sin((2m + 1)xk ) = 0 shows that Fm
2 kπ


has zeros at sin ( 2m+1 for k = 1, 2, . . . , m. These zeros are distinct, so Fm
has no other zeros, then
!
Ym
y
Fm (y) = Fm (0) 1− 2 kπ


k=1
sin 2m+1

and
sin((2m + 1)x)
Fm (0) = lim = 2m + 1.
x→0 sin(x)
Therefore
!
Y
m
sin2 (x)
sin((2m + 1)x) = (2m + 1) sin(x) 1−

k=1
sin2 2m+1
kπ

and changing variables

 Y
m

!
x sin2 x
2m+1
sin(x) = (2m + 1) sin 1−
. (11)
2m + 1 k=1
sin2 kπ
2m+1

The goal now is to estimate the product terms. For all real t, et ≥ 1+t and
therefore e−t ≤ 1+t
1
. For u < 1, the choice t = u/(1−u) gives e−u/(1−u) ≤ 1−u.
Then for every collection of numbers uk ∈ [0, 1), we have
X uk −
P uk Y P
1− ≤ e k 1−uk ≤ (1 − uk ) ≤ e− k uk ≤ 1. (12)
k
1 − uk k
P
If also k uk < 1, then we also know that
P 1
e− k uk
≤ P (13)
1+ k uk

12
and subtracting the first and third terms of (12) from 1 and using (13)
P Y X uk
Pk uk
≤ 1 − (1 − uk ) ≤ . (14)
1 + k uk k k
1 − u k

Let m and N be positive integers with m > N . Take x such that |x| <
1
4
Nπ and πx ∈
/ Z. Then define uk by

x

!2
sin 2m+1
uk = kπ

, k = 1, 2, . . . , m.
sin 2m+1

Use (11) by dividing the leading factor and the first N factors onto the left
side to obtain

sin(x) Y
m

x

QN = (1 − uk ).
(2m + 1) sin 2m+1 k=1 (1 − uk ) k=N +1

Then use the first, third and fifth terms of (12) to see that
X
m
uk sin(x)
1− ≤
QN ≤ 1. (15)
k=N +1
1 − uk x
(2m + 1) sin 2m+1 k=1 (1 − uk )

π
For 0 ≤ t ≤ 2
we have sin(t) ≥ π2 t, so we see that

!2
(2m + 1) sin x  x 2
2m+1
uk ≤ ≤ ;
2k 2k

thus
uk x2
≤ fork > N.
1 − uk (2k)2 − x2
Hence
X
m
uk x2
≤ .
k=N +1
1 − uk 2N − |x|

Thus it follows from (15) that

x2 sin(x)
1− ≤
QN ≤ 1.
2N − |x| x
(2m + 1) sin 2m+1 k=1 (1 − uk )

13
Let m → ∞ so that
x2 sin(x)
1− ≤ QN ≤ 1.
2N − |x| x k=1 (1 − uk )
x
Now let N → ∞ and we obtain for π
∈
/Z
Y∞  
x2
sin x = x 1− 2 2 .
k=1
k π
x
For π
∈ Z this equality is also true.
The following somewhat probabilistic proof of Euler’s infinite product
formula is adapted from [2].
Proof. Start with the integral
Z n  x n
xt−1 1 − dx
0 n
and integrate by parts once:
 x n 1
u= 1− v = xt
n t
 x n−1
du = − 1 − dx dv = xt−1 dx .
n

Then
Z Z n
n
t−1
 x n  x n n 1 t x n−1
x 1− dx = 1 −  + x 1− dx
0 n n 0 0 t n
Z
1 n t x n−1
= x 1− dx
t 0 n
Integrate by parts again:
 x n−1 1 t+1
u= 1− v= x
n t+1
n−1 x n−2
du = − 1− dx dv = xt dx
n n

14
so Z  Z
n
t−1 x n (n − 1) n  x n−2
x 1− dx = xt+1 1 − dx .
0 n t(t + 1)n 0 n
After integration by parts n times:
Z n  Z n
t−1 x n (n − 1)!
x 1− dx = xt+n−1 dx
0 n t(t + 1) . . . (t + n − 1)nn−1 0
n
(n − 1)! xt+n 
=
t(t + 1) . . . (t + n − 1)nn−1 t + n 0
n! nt
= .
t(t + 1) . . . (t + n)
Then by dominated convergence it follows that
Z ∞
n! nt
Γ(t) = xt−1 e−x dx = lim .
0 n→∞ t(t + 1) . . . (t + n)

Note that limit definition of the Gamma function is also http://dlmf.nist.gov/5.8

E1. It follows that for −1 < t < 1 that
∞
Y 1
Γ(1 + t)Γ(1 − t) = .
k=1
1 − t2 /k 2

For X and Y independent exponential random variables, both with ex-

pectation 1 we have that
Z ∞
 t
E X = xt e−x dx = Γ(1 + t)
0

and likewise E [Y −t ] = Γ(1 − t). Then using the independence and symmetry
       
Γ(1 + t)Γ(1 − t) = E X t E Y −t = E (X/Y )t = E (X/Y )|t|

The distribution function for the random variable X/Y is

  u
P [X/Y ≤ u] = P [Y ≥ X/u] = E e−X/u =
u+1
for u > 0. Then the probability density is
d 1
P [X/Y ≤ u] = , u > 0.
du (1 + u)2

15
This gives by integration by parts, for −1 < t < 1, that
Z ∞ Z ∞
 |t|
 u|t| |t|u|t|−1
E (X/Y ) = du = du
0 (u + 1)2 0 u+1
The last integral is πt/ sin(πt). For example, this is formula 613, page
445 in the 18th Edition of the CRC Standard Mathematical Tables. It can
also be done with contour integration in the complex plane
Z +∞ Z 0
|t|u|t|−1 |t|−1 |t|u2πi(|t|−1)
du −2πi(−1) + du = 0
0 u+1 +∞ u+1
so Z ∞
|t|u|t|−1

du 1 − e2πi|t| = −2πieπi|t| .
0 u+1
Thus Z ∞
|t|u|t|−1 |t|2πieπi|t| π|t| πt
du = 2πi|t| = = .
0 u+1 e −1 sin(π|t|) sin(πt)
Hence, for −1 < t < 1
  πt
Γ(1 + t)Γ(1 − t) = E (X/Y )t = .
sin(πt)
A standard integration-by-parts gives the fundamental Gamma function re-
cursion Γ(t) = Γ(1 + t)/t. Using this to define Γ(t) for t < 0, it follows that
for all real t,
π
sin(πt) = .
Γ(t)Γ(1 − t)
Combining all results above,
Y∞  
t2
sin(πt) = πt 1− 2 .
k=1
k

Corollary 1 (Wallis’ Formula).

2 · 2 · 4 · 4 · 6 · 6 . . . (2n) · (2n) π
lim = .
n→∞ 1 · 3 · 3 · 5 · 5 . . . (2n − 1) · (2n − 1) · (2n + 1) 2
Proof. Substitute z = π/2 in the product expansion of sin(z).
Remark. In [5] Ciaurri uses Tannery’s Theorem for Infinite Products, a trig
identity for cotangent and tangent, and Wallis formula to provide an ele-
mentary proof of product expansion of the sine function. In this sense, the
product expansion of the sine function is equivalent to Wallis’ formula.

16
A Geometric Interpretation of Wallis’ Formula
This section gives a geometric interpretation of Wallis’ formula, constructing
a subset of the unit square with area 89 · 24 · 48 · · · = 23 · 34 · 45 · 65 · 76 · 87 · · · = 12 · π2 .
25 49
The construction is reminiscent of the construction of the Sierpinski Triangle.
Take a unit square W0 and remove a square of area 31 · 13 from the center.
Label the result as W1 with area 89 . Next remove a square of area 15 · 51 from
the center of each of the 8 small sub-squares of area 19 constituting W1 and
call the result W2 with area 89 · 24
25
. Continuing by removing squares of area
1 1 1 1
· from each sub-square of area 5 · 5 surrounding the hole removed at stage
7 7
2, construct region W3 with area 89 · 24 · 48 . Continue to create W4 , and so
25 49
on. Call the limiting region W∞ which has area 89 · 24 25 49
· 48 · · · = 12 · π2 .
2n n!
The side length of the removed squares at stage n is (2n+1)! . After 3
stages, 201 squares have been removed, and the stage 3 holes have side length
1 1 1 1
· · = 105
3 5 7
. It will be impractical to illustrate more than 3 stages of this
iterative process.

Figure 3: Three stages in the construction of the Wallis sieve.

Here area means the Lebesgue measure of the limiting region W∞ . How-
ever W∞ does not contain any product set A × B with A, B ⊂ R, each with
positive Lebesgue measure. To see this, consider a maximal product subset
of W1 , for example [0, 1]×([0, 31 ]∪[ 23 , 1]) (or equivalently ([0, 13 ]∪[ 32 , 1])×[0, 1]
although from here on, consider only the product sets with first factor [0, 1]).
This product subset has measure 32 . A similar maximal product subset of W2
has measure 32 · 45 . Continuing, a maximal product subset of W∞ has measure
2 4 6
Q
∞
1


·
3 5 7
· · · · = 1 − 2n+1 = 0.
n=1
Thus, W∞ is an example of a subset of the plane R2 with positive Lebesgue
measure, but not admitting any product subset with positive Lebesgue mea-
sure. Note also that W∞ is a “square-like” region with area equal to a circle

17
with radius 12 . In that sense, this is a solution to the ancient problem of
“squaring the circle”.

Sources
This section is adapted from a sketch of the proof of Wallis’ Formula in
Kazarinoff [3] and the short note by Wästlund [8]. The elementary proofs of
the sine product are from [4] and [2]. The geometric interpretation of Wallis’
Formula is adapted from [6].

Problems to Work for Understanding

1. Show that
24n · (n!)4 2 · 2 · 4 · 4 · 6 · 6 . . . (2n) · (2n)
= .
2
((2n)!) (2n + 1) 1 · 3 · 3 · 5 · 5 . . . (2n − 1) · (2n + 1)

2. Numerically find the rate at which the sequence

2 · 2 · 4 · 4 · 6 · 6 . . . (2n) · (2n)
1 · 3 · 3 · 5 · 5 . . . (2n − 1) · (2n + 1)

approaches π/2 by calculating values and using regression.

3. Use induction to prove

(2n) · (2n − 2) . . . 4 · 2
J2n+1 =
(2n + 1) · (2n − 1) . . . 3 · 1

and
(2n − 1) · (2n − 3) . . . 3 · π
J2n = .
(2n) · (2n − 2) . . . 4 · 2 · 2

18
 4. The simple proof of the sine product formula uses the polynomial Fm
of degree m such that

sin((2m + 1)x) = sin(x) · Fm (sin2 (x)).

Explicitly find F0 (x), F1 (x), F2 (x), F3 (x), F4 (x) and plot them on [−1, 1].

5. Give a detailed proof that

Z n  x n n! nt
xt−1 1 − dx = .
0 n t(t + 1) . . . (t + n)

6. Provide a careful and detailed proof that if X and Y are independent

exponential random variables, both with expectation 1 we have that
   
E (X/Y )t = E (X/Y )|t| .

7. Provide a detailed proof using contour integration in the complex plane

to show that
Z ∞
|t|u|t|−1 |t|2πieπi |t| πt
du = 2πi|t| = .
0 u+1 e −1 sin(πt)

Reading Suggestion:
References
[1] Michael D. Hirschhorn. Wallis’s product and the central binomial coef-
ficient. American Mathematical Monthly, 122(7):689, August-September
2015.

[2] Lars Holst. A proof of Euler’s infinite product for the sine. American
Mathematical Monthly, 119:518–521, June-July 2012.

19
[3] Nicholaus D. Kazarinoff. Analytic Inequalities. Holt, Rinehart and Win-
ston, 1961.
P∞ 1 2
[4] R. A. Kortram. Simple proofs for k=1 k2 = π6 and sin x =
Q
x ∞ x2
k=1 1 − k2 π 2 . Mathematics Magazine, 69(2):123–125, April 1996.

[5] Óscar Ciaurri. Euler’s product expansion for the sine: An elemen-
tary proof. American Mathematical Monthly, 122(7):693–695, August-
September 2015.
[6] Hansklaus Rummler. Squaring the circle with holes. American Mathe-
matical Monthly, 100(9):858–860, November 1993.
[7] S. Saks and A. Zygmund. Analytic Functions. Elsevier Publishing, 1971.
[8] Johan Wästlund. An elementary proof of the wallis product formula for
pi. American Mathematical Monthly, 114(10):914–917, December 2007.

Outside Readings and Links:

1.
2.
3.
4.

I check all the information on each page for correctness and typographical
errors. Nevertheless, some errors may occur and I would be grateful if you would
alert me to such errors. I make every reasonable effort to present current and
accurate information for public use, however I do not guarantee the accuracy or
timeliness of information on this website. Your use of the information from this
website is strictly voluntary and at your risk.

20
 I have checked the links to external sites for usefulness. Links to external
websites are provided as a convenience. I do not endorse, control, monitor, or
guarantee the information contained in any external website. I don’t guarantee
that the links are active at all times. Use the links here with the same caution as
you would all information on the Internet. This website reflects the thoughts, in-
terests and opinions of its author. They do not explicitly represent official positions
or policies of my employer.
Information on this website is subject to change without notice.
Steve Dunbar’s Home Page, http://www.math.unl.edu/~sdunbar1
Email to Steve Dunbar, sdunbar1 at unl dot edu
Last modified: Processed from LATEX source on November 2, 2017

21