Chapter II

Hydrology and the Hydrologic Cycle

Difference between Hydrology and Hydraulics
Hydraulics
Originates from the Greek word hydraulikos that originates from hydor meaning water and
aulos meaning pipe. A branch of science concerned with the practical applications of fluids,
primarily liquids, in motion. It is related to fluid mechanics, which in large part provides its
theoretical foundation. Hydraulics topics range through most science and engineering disciplines,
and cover concepts such as pipe flow, dam design, fluid control circuitry, pumps, turbines,
hydropower, computational fluid dynamics, flow measurement, river channel behavior and
erosion. Consequently, the scope of hydraulics extends to such mechanical devices as fans and gas
turbines and to pneumatic control systems.
Hydrology
The scientific study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other
planets, including the water cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability.
Defined as the circulation of water and its constituents through the hydrologic cycle, or the
quantification of flows that are ultimately produced by precipitation, evaporation, infiltration,
groundwater flow, surface runoff, stream flow, and the substances dissolved or suspended in
flowing water. A practitioner of hydrology is a hydrologist, working within the fields of earth or
environmental science, physical geography, geology or civil and environmental engineering.
Using various analytical methods and scientific techniques, hydrologists collect and analyze data
to help solve water related problems such as environmental preservations, natural disasters, and
water management.
In hydrology scientific knowledge and mathematical principles are applied to solve
problems in society like problems of quantity, quality and availability. Mathematical models of all
hydrological phenomena are made. They may be concerned with finding water supplies for cities
or irrigated farms, or controlling river flooding or soil erosion, or may work in environmental
protection: preventing or cleaning up pollution or locating sites for safe disposal of hazardous
wastes.
Applications of Engineering Hydrology

Hydrology is used to find out maximum probable flood at proposed sites e.g. Dams.
The variation of water production from catchments can be calculated and described by
hydrology.
 Engineering hydrology enables us to find out the relationship between a catchments’
surface water and groundwater resources
The expected flood flows over a spillway, at a highway Culvert, or in an urban storm
drainage system can be known by this very subject.
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 It helps us to know the required reservoir capacity to assure adequate water for irrigation
or municipal water supply in droughts condition.
It tells us what hydrologic hardware (e.g. rain gauges, stream gauges etc.) and software
(computer models) are needed for real-time flood forecasting
Used in connection with design and operations of hydraulic structure
Used in prediction of flood over a spillway, at highway culvert or in urban storm drainage
Used to assess the reservoir capacity required to assure adequate water for irrigation or
municipal water supply during drought
Hydrology is an indispensable tool in planning and building hydraulic structures.
Hydrology is used for city water supply design which is based on catchments area, amount
of rainfall, dry period, storage capacity, runoff evaporation and transpiration.

Hydrologic Cycle and the Human Impact

Hydrologic Cycle
From the beginning of time when water first appeared, it has been constant in quantity and
continuously in motion. Little has been added or lost over the years. The same water has been
transferred time and time again from the oceans and the land surface into the atmosphere by
evaporation, precipitation and back to the sea by rivers and groundwater. This endless circulation
is known as the “hydrologic cycle”.

Fig. 1.1 the hydrologic cycle

The Hydrologic Cycle:
• Begins with the Evaporation of water from the surface of the ocean or earth.
• As moist air is lifted, it cools and water vapor Condenses to form clouds.
• Moisture is transported around the globe until it returns to the surface as Precipitation.

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 • Once the water reaches the ground, one of the two processes may occur; first, some of the
water may evaporate back into the atmosphere or second, the water may penetrate the
surface and become groundwater.
• Groundwater either seeps its way into the oceans, rivers, and streams, or is released back
into the atmosphere through Transpiration.
• The balance of water that remains on the Earth’s surface is Runoff, which empties into
lakes, rivers and streams and is carried back to the oceans.

Human Impact
The mass on Earth remains fairly constant over time, but water moves into different
reservoirs such as glaciers, fresh water bodies, saline water and atmospheric water depending on
climatic variables and processes including some man-made effects interrupting this water cycle.
Two major ways that human interrupts the flow of water.
1. Withdrawals – extraction of water from rivers, lakes, oceans and other bodies of water to
irrigate crops, generate hydroelectricity, for urbanization needs, deforestation, drainage of
wetland and groundwater mining.
2. Discharges – adding substances to the water, whether intentionally or not, through
irrigation, combustion of fossil fuels, urbanization and generating hydroelectricity.

There are many overlapping human actions that are both withdrawals and discharges, which
makes sense because the hydrological cycle is a cycle. For example, increased urbanization
indicates both withdrawals and discharges, first, a necessity for higher levels of water withdrawal
from the level that is currently extracted (more withdrawals), and second, more pollutants from
increased agriculture needs and from increased economic activity. This interconnectedness causes
negative feedback loops that perpetrate the consequences of interruptions in the cycle.

Human activities can influence the hydrologic cycle in many other ways. The volumes and
timing of river flows can be greatly affected by channeling to decrease the impediments to flow,
and by changing the character of the watershed by paving, compacting soils, and altering the nature
of the vegetation. Risks of flooding can be increased by speeding the rate at which water is shed
from the land, thereby increasing the magnitude of peak flows. Risks of flooding are also increased
if erosion of soils from terrestrial parts of the watershed leads to siltation and the development of
shallower river channels, which then fill up and spill over during high-flow periods. Massive
increases in erosion are often associated with deforestation, especially when natural forests are
converted into agriculture.

Some human activities that may interrupt the hydrologic cycle:

Groundwater mining
Combustion of fossil fuels

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 Irrigation
Deforestation

Groundwater mining

Fig. 1.2 Groundwater mining

The withdrawal or removal of groundwater in excess of the natural recharge rate. As the
groundwater supplies are over-extracted, the water table lowers, the availability of freshwater in
lakes and streams declines, water quality declines, and land subsistence occurs or a loss of support
below the ground causing soil to collapse.

Combustion of fossil fuels

Fig. 1.3 combustion of fossil fuels effect on water cycle

The combustion of fossil fuels into the atmosphere causes water to be released along with
carbon dioxide, water and CO2 are also removed from the atmosphere as inorganic bicarbonate
and carbonate ions in the ocean. These water exchanges with the carbon cycle may be negligible,
but are important to note as the carbon cycle and hydrological cycle have important interconnected
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aspects, so interruptions in the water cycle effect the carbon cycle which has profound human-
caused consequences on the climatic crisis. For example, the increasing use of fossil fuels raises
the earth’s temperature through gases better trapping infrared radiation, thus increasing
evaporation, and the melting of ice.

Irrigation

Fig. 1.4 irrigation

A huge human-made impact on the hydrological cycle, and thus on climate change. As we
demand more food for more people, we need more water, and irrigation is used globally to
substitute for insufficient rainfall for crops. Irrigation causes the removal of water from its natural
source (groundwater supplies, streams, lakes, oceans) and can cause leaching and run-off. The
removal of nutrients forces farmers to use more fertilizers which contaminates the water supply.

Deforestation

The removal of trees (deforestation) is having a major impact on the water cycle, as local
and global climates change. Normally, trees release water vapor when they transpire, producing a
localized humidity. This water vapor then evaporates into the atmosphere where it accumulates
before precipitating back to the Earth as rain, sleet or snow. Deforestation in one area can therefore
affect the weather in another area because if trees are cut down, there is less water to be evaporated
into the atmosphere and subsequently less rain. At a local level, the land becomes drier and less
stable. When it rains, instead of the water being soaked up, there is increased run-off and leaching.
Areas can become more prone to both droughts and flooding, impacting on plants and animals,
and also humans living near deforested areas.

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 Fig. 1.5 Deforestation

Interrelationships of Phases of the Hydrologic Cycle: Evapotranspiration,

Precipitation, Infiltration/Percolation, Surface/Subsurface Runoff,
Groundwater

Evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration is the sum of evaporation from the land surface plus transpiration from
plants. Defined as the water lost to the atmosphere from the ground surface, evaporation from the
capillary fringe of the groundwater table, and the transpiration of groundwater by plants whose
roots tap the capillary fringe of the groundwater table. The transpiration aspect of
evapotranspiration is essentially evaporation of water from plant leaves. Studies have revealed that
transpiration accounts for about 10 percent of the moisture in the atmosphere, with oceans, seas,
and other bodies of water (lakes, rivers, streams) providing nearly 90 percent, and a tiny amount
coming from sublimation (ice changing into water vapor without first becoming liquid).

Evaporation - Occurs when radiant energy from sun heats water, causing the water
molecules to become so active that some of them rise into the atmosphere as vapor.

Fig. 1.6 Evaporation

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 Transpiration - Occurs when plants take in water through the roots and release it through
the leaves, a process that can clean water by removing contaminants and pollution.

Fig. 1.7 Transpiration

Just as humans release water vapor when breathing, plants do, too – although the term
"transpire" is more appropriate than "breathe." This picture shows water vapor transpired from
plant leaves after a plastic bag has been tied around the stem for about an hour. If the bag had been
wrapped around the soil below it, too, then even more water vapor would have been released, as
water also evaporates from the soil.

Fig. 1.8 After a plastic bag is wrapped around part of a plant; the inside of the bag becomes
misty with transpired water vapor.

Plants put down roots into the soil to draw water and nutrients up into the stems and
leaves. Some of this water is returned to the air by transpiration. Transpiration rates vary widely
depending on weather conditions, such as temperature, humidity, sunlight availability and
intensity, precipitation, soil type and saturation, wind, and land slope. During dry periods,
transpiration can contribute to the loss of moisture in the upper soil zone, which can have an
effect on vegetation and food-crop fields.

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Atmospheric factors affecting transpiration

The amount of water that plants transpire varies greatly geographically and over time. There
are a number of factors that determine transpiration rates:

Temperature: Transpiration rates go up as the temperature goes up, especially during

the growing season, when the air is warmer due to stronger sunlight and warmer air
masses. Higher temperatures cause the plant cells which control the openings (stoma)
where water is released to the atmosphere to open, whereas colder temperatures cause the
openings to close.
Relative humidity: As the relative humidity of the air surrounding the plant rises the
transpiration rate falls. It is easier for water to evaporate into dryer air than into more
saturated air.
Wind and air movement: Increased movement of the air around a plant will result in a
higher transpiration rate. Wind will move the air around, with the result that the more
saturated air close to the leaf is replaced by drier air.
Soil-moisture availability: When moisture is lacking, plants can begin to senesce
(premature ageing, which can result in leaf loss) and transpire less water.
Type of plant: Plants transpire water at different rates. Some plants which grow in arid
regions, such as cacti and succulents, conserve precious water by transpiring less water
than other plants.

Precipitation

Precipitation is water released from clouds in the form of rain, freezing rain, sleet, snow,
or hail. One of the most important components of the hydrologic cycle. It is the beginning of a
whole chain event that occurs in watersheds and river basins. Precipitation is the source of water
that replenishes soil moisture, stream flows, lakes, glaciers, etc.

Fig. 1.9 types of precipitation

The clouds floating overhead contain water vapor and cloud droplets, which are small
drops of condensed water. These droplets are way too small to fall as precipitation, but they are
large

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enough to form visible clouds. Water is continually evaporating and condensing in the sky. Most
of the condensed water in clouds does not fall as precipitation because their fall speed is not large
enough to overcome updrafts which support the clouds. For precipitation to happen, first tiny water
droplets must condense on even tinier dust, salt, or smoke particles, which act as a nucleus. Water
droplets may grow as a result of additional condensation of water vapor when the particles collide.
If enough collisions occur to produce a droplet with a fall velocity which exceeds the cloud updraft
speed, then it will fall out of the cloud as precipitation.

Precipitation is all forms of moisture emanating from the clouds and falling to Earth. Some
of the different types of precipitation are as follows:

1. Rain - Rain is any liquid that drops from the clouds in the sky. Rain is described as water
droplets of 0.5 mm or larger. Droplets less than half a millimeter are defined as drizzle.
Raindrops frequently fall when small cloud particles strike and bind together, creating
bigger drops. As this process continues, the drops get bigger and bigger to an extent where
they become too heavy suspend on the air. As a result, the gravity pulls then down to the
earth.

2. Snow - It is precipitation in the form of virga or flakes of ice water falling from the clouds.
Snow is normally seen together with high, thin and weak cirrus clouds. Snow can at times
fall when the atmospheric temperatures are above freezing, but it mostly occurs in sub-
freezing air. When the temperatures are above freezing, the snowflakes can partially melt
but because of relatively warm temperatures, the evaporation of the particles occurs almost
immediately.

3. Sleet (ice pellets) - Sleet takes place in freezing atmospheric conditions. Sleet, also known
as ice pellets, form when snow falls into a warm layer then melts into rain and then the rain
droplets falls into a freezing layer of air that is cold enough to refreeze the raindrops into
ice pellets. Hence, sleet is defined as a form of precipitation composed of small and
semitransparent balls of ice. They should not be confused with hailstones as they are
smaller in size.

4. Hail - Hailstones are big balls and irregular lumps of ice that fall from large thunderstorms.
Hail is purely a solid precipitation. As opposed to sleets that can form in any weather when
there are thunderstorms, hailstones are predominately experienced in the winter or cold
weather. Hailstones are mostly made up of water ice and measure between 0.2 inches (5
millimeters) and 6 inches (15 centimeters) in diameter.

5. Drizzle - Drizzle is very light rain. It is stronger than mist but less than a shower. Mist is a
thin fog with condensation near the ground. Fog is made up of ice crystals or cloud water
droplets suspended in the air near or at the earth’s surface. Drizzle droplets are smaller than
0.5 millimeters (0.02 inches) in diameter. They arise from low stratocumulus clouds. They
sometimes evaporate even before reaching the ground due to their minute size. Drizzle can be
persistent is cold atmospheric temperatures.

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Infiltration/Percolation

Infiltration – the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil. Infiltration
rate in soil science is a measure of the rate at which soil is able to absorb rainfall or irrigation. It is
measured in inches per hour or millimeters per hour. The rate decreases as the soil becomes
saturated. If the precipitation rate exceeds the infiltration rate, runoff will usually occur unless
there is some physical barrier. The rate of infiltration can be measured using an infiltrometer.

Fig. 1.10 Infiltration`

Some water that infiltrates will remain in the shallow soil layer, where it will gradually move
vertically and horizontally through the soil and subsurface material. Some of the water may
infiltrate deeper, recharging groundwater aquifers. If the aquifers are porous enough to allow water
to move freely through it, people can drill wells into the aquifer and use the water for their
purposes. Water may travel long distances or remain in groundwater storage for long periods
before returning to the surface or seeping into other water bodies, such as streams and the oceans.

Percolation – the movement of water through the soil, and its layer, by gravity and
capillary forces. Percolation is part of the water cycle that occurs after precipitation and before
storage during which water filters down through aerated soil due to gravity. After percolation,
water is stored in groundwater reservoirs until it reaches a point where sunlight warms it and the
water evaporates. Much like a coffeemaker percolates water from top to bottom, water percolates
down through soil until it reaches the water table.

Surface/Subsurface Runoff

Surface Runoff - is the flow of water that occurs when excess storm water, meltwater, or
other sources flows over the Earth's surface. This might occur because soil is saturated to full
capacity, because rain arrives more quickly than soil can absorb it, or because
impervious areas (roofs and pavement) send their runoff to surrounding soil that cannot absorb all
of it. Surface runoff is a major component of the water cycle. It is the primary agent in soil
erosion by water.

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 Fig. 1.11 A rain surface runoff

Surface runoff occurs when rainfall exceeds a soil's maximum saturation level and all
surface depressional storage is filled to capacity. The rate of runoff flow depends on the ratio of
rain intensity to the infiltration rate. If the infiltration rate is relatively low, such as when a soil is
crusted or compacted, and the intensity is high, then the runoff rate will also be high. High runoff
rates can both detach and transport large amounts of soil, as well as transport the associated
nutrients and pesticides.

Subsurface Runoff - is the flow of water beneath earth's surface as part of the water
cycle. In the water cycle, when precipitation falls on the earth's land, some of the water flows on
the surface forming streams and rivers. The remaining water, through infiltration, penetrates the
soil traveling underground, hydrating the vadose zone soil, recharging aquifers, with the excess
flowing in subsurface runoff.

Groundwater

Groundwater – is water that has not precipitated or runoff into streams or rivers, but instead
moves deep underground forming pools known as “groundwater storage”.

Fig. 1.12 Drawing showing how surface water infiltrates into the ground to be stored in aquifers

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 Large amounts of water are stored in the ground. The water is still moving, possibly very
slowly, and it is still part of the water cycle. Most of the water in the ground comes from
precipitation that infiltrates downward from the land surface. The upper layer of the soil is the
unsaturated zone, where water is present in varying amounts that change over time, but does not
saturate the soil. Below this layer is the saturated zone, where all of the pores, cracks, and spaces
between rock particles are saturated with water. The term groundwater is used to describe this area.
Another term for groundwater is "aquifer," although this term is usually used to describe water-
bearing formations capable of yielding enough water to supply peoples' uses. Aquifers are a huge
storehouse of Earth's water and people all over the world depend on groundwater in their daily
lives.

Philippine Watersheds: Delineation of Drainage Area

Watershed - describes an area of land that contains a common set of streams and rivers
that all drain into a single larger body of water, such as a larger river, a lake or an ocean. A
watershed is a basin-like landform defined by highpoints and ridgelines that descend into lower
elevations and stream valleys. A watershed carries water "shed" from the land after rain falls and
snow melts. Drop by drop, water is channeled into soils, groundwater, creeks, and streams, making
its way to larger rivers and eventually the sea.

Fig. 1.13 illustration of a watershed

Topography determines where and how water flows. Ridge tops surrounding a body of
water determine the boundary of a watershed. Imagine turning an open umbrella upside down in the
rain. Rain that hits anywhere within the umbrella’s surface area would go to the bottom at the
center of the umbrella. The umbrella is like a watershed; it collects everything that falls into it.

Watersheds are important. A watershed provides habitats to plants and animals. Some of the plants
and animals that live in these places are different types of fishes. Watersheds need to be healthy
so that animals and plants may survive.

Protected Watersheds in the Philippines

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Watersheds need to be protected in order to maintain the uses it can provide to humans.

Fig. 1.14 Map of protected watersheds in the Philippines (Luzon)

Fig. 1.15 Map of protected watersheds in the Philippines (Visayas)

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 Fig. 1.16 Map of protected watersheds in the Philippines (Mindanao)

Fig. 1.17 Legends

Delineation of Drainage Area

Drainage Area - The term "drainage area" is defined as the land area where precipitation
falls off into creeks, streams, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. It is a land feature that can be identified
by tracing a line along the highest elevation between two areas on a map, often a ridge.

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Fig. 1.18 Topography map of Johnson Shut-Ins

Drainage divide - is the line that separates neighboring drainage basins. In hilly country,
the divide lies along topographical ridges, and may be in the form of a single range of hills or
mountains, known as a dividing range.

A drainage area can be calculated pre-development or post-development. It is perfect tool

in providing storm water management analysis for a land development project. A drainage area is
a boundary in which theoretically any drop of rain that falls will eventually make its way to a
single known point.

Drainage area are determined by tracing all the water bodies flowing into the stream or river
upstream of the proposed site. A divide or ridge surrounds every drainage basin. A divide is defined
as “the line separation or dividing ridge marking the boundary between two drainage systems”.

Procedures on how to Delineate a Drainage Area:

1. Draw a circle at the outlet or downstream point of the wetland in question (the wetland is
the hatched area shown in Figure E-4).

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2. Put small "X's" at the high points along both sides of the watercourse, working your way
upstream towards the headwaters of the watershed.

Fig 1.19 a diagram showing the high points or top of the hills

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 3. Starting at the circle that was made in step one, draw a line connecting the "X's" along one
side of the watercourse (Figure E-5). This line should always cross the contours at right
angles (i.e. it should be perpendicular to each contour line it crosses).

4. Continue the line until it passes around the head of the watershed and down the opposite
side of the watercourse. Eventually it will connect with the circle from which you started.

Below are the indications in a topographic map that can be used to delineate a drainage area:

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Fig. 1.20 a diagram that shows the indication of a drainage path

Fig. 1.21 a diagram that shows indication of ridges

A drainage area can be related to a bowl. The drainage area boundary is the rim of the bowl,
and a rain drop on the rim will either fall into the bowl or out. Engineers use the delineated

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watershed boundary in conjunction with precipitation, infiltration, and evaporation rates to
determine water balances in drainage areas.

These calculations can be used to effectively size storm water management facilities like
ponds and basins. They can be used to determine dam, bridge, and culvert sizes. In general,
drainage area calculations are very critical to the water engineering aspect of a job.

Fig. 1.22 Example of a Delineated Drainage Area

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References:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulics

http://sanuja.com/blog/importance-of-hydrology

https://www.aboutcivil.org/uses-of-engineering-hydrology.html

https://www.quora.com/Whats-the-difference-between-hydrology-and-hydraulics

https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-
change/services/water- overview/basics/hydrologic-cycle.html

https://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycleevapotranspiration.html

https://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycleprecipitation.html

https://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycleinfiltration.html

https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/726-humans-and-the-water-cycle

http://science.jrank.org/pages/3470/Hydrologic-Cycle-Influences-human-activities-
on- hydrologic-cycle.html

https://mrgeogwagg.wordpress.com/2015/04/02/human-interference-with-the-
hydrological- cycle/

https://waterdata.usgs.gov/wa/nwis/current?type=basinda

https://fpe.ph/biodiversity-conservation-strategies.html/view/the-watershed-perspective-
in- forest-resource-conservation/all/0

https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/nh/technical/?cid=nrcs144p2_015680

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drainage_divide
http://www.soilandwater.nyc/uploads/7/7/6/5/7765286/watershed_delineation.pdf

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