Bab 2 Ibad

2
CONDUCTIVITY OF METALS
(PART I)
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The most important properties of metals are their high thermal and electrical conductivities.
Silver has the highest electrical conductivity. Copper comes next and is similar to silver from the
point of view of atomic structure; both belonging to the same group of the periodic table. The
conductivity of copper is only a few percent (5 - 10%) less than that of silver. Since supplies of
copper are not abundant in nature, aluminum which is light and has a high conductivity is rapidly
becoming more important as a conductor material. Gold which has a conductivity higher than that of
aluminum but lower than that of silver or copper does not find use in electrical industry because it is
expensive.
Table 2.1 Resistivity of Metals
Metal Resistivity at 0°C Resistivity at 20°C
µ ohm-cm µ-ohm-cm
Aluminium (Pure) 2.62 2.87
Antimoney 39.1
Brass (60/40, rolled) 9
Bronze (Cu 80 Sn 20) 17.8
Carbon (graphite) 800 - 1300
Copper (Annealed) 1.589 1.724
Copper (Electrolytic) 1.56 1.68
Copper (hard drawn) 1.60 1.77
Germanium 89000
Gold 2.22 2.36
Indium 8.37
Iron(Pure) 8.85 9.95
Mild steel 11.8
Cast iron 97.8
Lead 19.8 22
Magnesium 4.6
Mercury 94.07 95.78
Nickel 9
Created with Print2PDF. To remove this line, buy a license at: http://www.software602.com/
67
68 An Introduction To Electrical Engineering Materials
µ ohm-cm µ-ohm-cm
Platinum 7.75 11.7
Silicon 58
Silver 1.51 1.629
Tin 10.5 11.5
Tungsten 5.05 5.51
Zinc 5.38 5.91
Table 2.2 Alloys of High Ohmic Resistance
0°C µ-ohm-cm 20°C µohm-cm
Constantan (Cu60Ni40) 49 48
GermanSilver(Nil8 Cu64Znl8) 33.1 33.8
Manganin (Cu86 Mn 12 Ni2) 42
Monel Metal (Ni67 Cu 28 Mn 5) 40.8 42.6
Nichrome (Ni61 Crl5 Fe24) 112
Metals having complex structures such as As, Sb, Bi, Sn and Hg have lower conductivities which
lie between those of ideal metal (very high conductivity) and of insulators (negligible conductivity).
2.2 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RESISTIVITY OF ELECTRICAL MATERIALS
(1) Temperature: The electrical resistance of most metals increases with increase of temperature
while those of semiconductors and electrolytes decreases with increase oftemperature. Many metals
have vanishing resistivity at absolute zero of temperature. The phenomenon is known as
superconductivity.
(ii) Alloying: A solid solution has a less regular structure than a pure metal. Consequently, the
electrical conductivity of a solid solution alloy drops off rapidly with increased alloy content. In other
words, the addition of small amounts of impurities leads to a considerable increase in resistivity. For
example, brass (63% Cu and 40% Zn), which is widely used as a contact material in power plugs and
sockets has a resistivity of 9 µ .Q..cm which however is not in direct proportion to amounts of the
different metals in the alloy.
c.f. Resistivity of Cu= 1. 73 µ-.0-cm)
( 11 11
Zn = 6µ-.0-cm
In general, if p denotes the resistivity.
P Alloy = Pcopper + XP1

where x = Atomic percent of added impurity.
and Pi = Increase in resistivity for one atomic percent addition of impurity.
Thus if Ni is added to copper the resistivity of Cu goes up by 1.3 µ-.0-cm for each 1 % addition
of Ni or
PNi-Cu = (Pcu +xl.3)µ-.0-cm
Conductivity ofMetals (Part I) 69
There are two kinds of electrons in a body viz bound electrons and unbound electrons. Bound
electrons are component parts of a specific atom, ion or molecule. Unbound electrons belong to the
entire crystal or liquid and move quite freely amongst atoms. Electrons passing from one ion to
another in an ionic crystal do not behave like free electrons because their displacement in such a
crystal is restricted and consists in the transfer ofan electron from one atom to its neighbour. Electrons
in covalent crystals cannot also be termed "free" electrons; e.g., in diamonds, the electrons binding
the carbon atom though not restricted to specific positions, are relayed from one atom to another but
cannot travel throughout the diamond crystal. Metals have a large number of"free" electrons in them.
These free electrons are able to move freely through out the crystal lattice and hence do not belong to
particular atoms. As such the resistivity of metals differs considerably from that of ionic or covalent
crystals.
The high conductivity in metals is associated with the presence of these "free" or conduction
electrons. The only electrons having this high degree of freedom are those corresponding to the
valence electrons in the atoms. Thus, one may think of a metal as consisting of a lattice of positive ion
cores held together by means of a gas electrons. There are constant collisions between the electrons
and the atoms. Lattice spacing in copper is about 3.6 A. Electrons may travel one or two atomic
diameters, but mean free path is several hundred atomic spaces. In a copper nickel alloy, the copper
atoms do not impede the motion of the free electrons, but additional nickel atoms impede their motion.
The temperature coefficient of metals is very small. It is therefore not surprising that the increase
in resistivity due to the addition of impurities is temperature independent. This suggests the existence
of alloys whose resistance varies little with temperature. See Table 2.2.
Thus the resistivity may be said to be composed of two parts, a part that is characteristic of the
particular substance and is zero at the absolute zero of temperature and another part which arises
from crystal imperfections and would be zero only in undistorted crystals. The residual resistance of
alloys obtained by extrapolating the temperature resistance curves to absolute zero, therefore, is quite
appreciable. Further, different atoms dissolved in a given solvent metal, affect the resistivity in different
ways, which is largely dependent upon the valence of the solvent and solute atoms.
(iii) Cold Work: Mechanical distortion of the crystal structure decrease the conductivity of a
metal because the localized strains interfere with electron movement. Thus hard drawn copper wire
has a lower conductivity than annealed copper. Subsequent annealing restores the electrical conductivity
by establishing greater regularity in the crystal lattice.
Hard drawn copper has a resistivity of 1. 9 x 1 o-6 ohm-cm at 20°C whereas annealed copper has
a resistivity of 1. 72 x 10-6 ohm cm at 20°C.
(iv) Age Hardening: Age hardening increases the resistivity of an alloy.
Example 2.1. The resistivity ofpure copper is 1.56 µ.Q-cm. An alloy of copper containing
1 atomic percent nickel has a resistivity of 2.81 µ.Q-cm. An alloy of copper containing 3 atomic
percent silver has a resistivity of1.98 µ.Q-cm. Whats the resistivity ofan alloy containing 2 atomic
percent nickel and 2 atomic percent silver ?
Solution. Pcu = 1.56
p(Cu+Ni) =2.81
Pr- Increase in resistivity for one atomic percent added impurity (Nickel)
Pr(Nickel) = 1.25
= 2.81-1.56 = 1.25
1.98-1.56
Pr(Silver) = = 0.14
3
Pa11oy = 1.56 + 2 x 1.25 + 2 x 0.14
= 4.34 µ.Q-cm.
2.3 THE ELECTRON GAS MODEL OF A METAL
The mechanism inside a current carrying conductor can be explained by the kinetic theory of
gases. This is referred to as the electron gas theory of gases. The valence electrons are supposed to
be completely detached from the atoms. The basis for the electron gas theory is the picture of a
conductor as a lattice (regular arrangement which remains fixed) of positive ions, through which an
electron cloud or gas can move. The number of electrons in such a gas is equal to the number of
valence electrons. If for mono-valent metals one assumes that the number of free electrons in a
given volume is equal to the number of atoms in the same volume, the former can be found by
knowing the Avogadro's number. When not affected by external electric fields the valence electrons
oscillate equally in all directions among the atoms just like the molecules in a gas. The statistics of
this random electron velocity will be analogous to the statistics of the molecular motion in a gas.
In the absence of an electric field, the random velocities of the electrons will be determined by
the temperature of the conductor. The temperature of electrons need not be the same as that of the
conductor. This temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of the electrons. The temperature of
the lattice system and the electron system will try to equalize. The normal gas velocity is approximately
1000 m/sec. and is calculated from Boltzmann constant. The electron velocity in a conductor is
much higher, about 40,000 m/sec. Because of the restrictions placed by the crystal lattice on the
electrons the velocity distribution of the latter in a conductor is different from that in an ordinary
gas. The average velocity of electrons in a conductor can be calculated from thermodynamic
considerations. The figure for most metals is of the order of 106 m/sec, which is 20 to 30 times
higher than the value given by Boltzmann constant.
On the application of an electric field, the electrons acquire additional kinetic energy which is
partly transferred to the lattice resulting in a production of heat.
2.4 MOTION OF AN ELECTRON IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD
In a conductor, the electrons are moving about with random velocity, the magnitude of which
depends upon the temperature. When an electric field is applied to the conductor, the electrons
acquire a systematic velocity which can be calculated. Thus there are two components of motion, as
follows:
(1) Random motion, due to the thermal effects (order 106 m/sec.)
(ii) Directed motion, the direction being determined by the polarity of the electric field.
2.5 EQUATION OF MOTION OF AN ELECTRON
When no electric force is applied, the free electrons move about through the conductor in a
random manner in such a way that the number of electrons moving from right to left is the same as
the number moving from left to right and the resultant current is nil. If an electric force is now
applied to the conductor, each electron has superposed on to its random motion, a motion impressed
on it by the electric force, and the electrons as a whole are driven through the conductor by the
continued action of this electric force. If it were not for their collision with the molecules of the
conductor, the electrons would gain indefinitely in momentum under the action of the impressed
electric force, but the effect of collisions is to check this growth of momentum continually.
d2 x
Suppose that the electron has an average forward acceleration -,,- ( in directionx) through the
dt:
material of the conductor at any moment. If m is the mass of the electron, and e its charge, then
md :x
dt2 = eE, where E is the electric field intensity or the force acting on unit electric charge or,
mdtx = -eEt + K , w here K i· s the constant

d o f imtegrati· on.
eEt
dxldt = --
m +K1 ... (1)
where
The first term on the right hand side of equation (1) represents a velocity which continues to
increase with time. Obviously K1 must represent the random velocity of the electrons. Thus,
dx eE
- = --t+vrandom
t m
vrandom must average to zero for otherwise there would be a net transfer of charge in the absence
of an electric field. Thus on averaging out the result obtained in equation (2) for (a) all instants of
time and (b) all electrons, the following expression is obtained.
vz = - elixlm, where vz is the average velocity in the x-direction. It is called the drift velocity of
the electrons. T. is called the collision time and is the average interval of successive collisions between
the electrons and the molecules.
2.6 THE CURRENT CARRIED BY ELECTRONS
In a current carrying conductor, the electrons drift along with an average velocity which is
generally small compared with their random velocity due to thermal agitation. Let a current /be
carried along a conductor of cross-section A by electrons of charge - e and of average drift velocity
v. In time dt the electrons will travel a distance vdt and the number of electrons crossing any cross•
section A in time dt will be the number contained in the volume Avdt. Thus if there are N electrons
per unit volume of the conductor the total charge flowing through the section in time dt is
dq -e.NA.v.dt
I dq/dt=-eNAv
and current density I/ A =-eNv
+e2NEc/m
Since, v -elii Im
The expression for current density shows that the current density does not depend on the size of
the conductor. It is a general property of the material. Finally, the current density is proportional to
the electric field strength and the constant of portionality e2N/m is called the conductivity of the
material and is denoted by o
or cr = e2N Im
't
It is easy to understand this relation for conductivity, because the charge transported is
proportional to the charge density Ne� the factor elm enters because the acceleration in a given
electric field is directly proportional to charge e and inversely proportional to mass m; the time T.
describes the free time during which the field act on the current carrying electrons. Expression (3)
for conductivity shows how the measurable quantity c is related to the atomic quantities and gives
us a means of calculating the relaxation time from the first principles.
Ohm's law follows as an immediate consequence of the relationJ= aE� because
l=J.A
= aE.A
= (aV 11).A
where l is the length of the conductor and Vis the voltage applied to the conductor ends. Since
aA/l = R where R is the resistance of the conductor, we have the well known relation I= VR..
2. 7 MOBILITY
It has been noted that the average drift velocity of the electrons in an applied field is proportional
to the field, the absolute magnitude of the proportionality factor et/m, being called the mobility of
the electrons which is denoted by u. The mobility may thus be defined as the magnitude of the
average drift velocity per unit field.
The mobility and the conductivity are related by the equation o = NeU, where the units are:
_I_= (Electrons] (Coulombs] ( m/sec J

ohm-m m3 electron volt Im
Thus the mobility of the electrons can be determined by knowing the conductivity of the material
and estimating the number of free electrons.
In order to get an idea of the order of magnitude of mobility let us consider copper atom at room
temperature. Each copper atom contributes one valence electron.
Molar volume = Atomic weight I density
63.5 3
_ =7.1 cm
8 94
7.lxl0-6m3
N = Valence electrons per unit volume
Avogadro's number
Molar volume
6.025x 1023
7.lxl0-6
8.5 x 1028m-3
Mobility, U = o I Ne= 1/ pNe
1. 73 x 10-8 x 8.5 x 1028 x 1.6 x 10-19
4.25 x 10-3 m2 I volts-sec.
The order of magnitude of collision time for copper atoms may also be determined from the
relation T = m/Ne2p.
9.1 x 10-31
1. 73 x 10-8 x 8.5 x 1028 x (1.6 x 10-19)2
2.39x 10-14 sec.
The mobility of electrons in a number of metals is given in Table 2.3 below.
Table 2.3: Mobility of electrons in metals (cm2/volt-sec)
Metal Ag Na Cu Au Al Cd Zn
Mobility 56 48 35 30 10 7.9 5.8
The field intensity inside metals rarely exceeds 0.001 V/cm; hence the electron velocities are
numerically much smaller than the values of mobility given in Table 2.3. This can further be verified
by means of the relationJ = eNv on inserting the permissible values of current density given in Table
2.4 below:
Table 2.4: Allowable current carrying capacity of insulated wires for prolonged
operation in amperes
Cross-section 1 1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25

mm2
Material
Cu 11 14 20 25 31 43 75 100
Al 8 11 16 20 24 34 60 80
Fe 8 10 12 17 30
- - -
The average value of collision time -r in most metals is of the order 10-14 second. This suggests
that the conductivity should be independent of frequency throughout the whole range of radio
frequencies. However for very high frequencies the conductor starts behaving differently. From the
relation mVx - = - eEt + vrandom it is observed that when the directed velocity and the random
velocity are equal in magnitude, the current will not increase indefinitely if the applied electric force
is increased. Thus Ohm's Law ceases the hold good at a particular value of the field intensity E.
In the absence of an electric field no electric current is observed in the conductor. When an
electric field is applied to the conductor the electrons moving in the direction of the electric force
acting on them are retarded. Thus the movement of electrons in the direction of the field force
predominates over that which proceeds in the opposite direction, the result being an electric current.
Taking account of the fact that only quantum states of motion are possible for electrons, the
acceleration may be conceived as the transfer of an electron into a new quantum state of greater
velocity and the deceleration as the transfer of an electron into a state of less velocity. The electric
current may thus be treated as the predominance of states that corresponds to the motion of electrons
from one end to another over the opposite states.
In actuality, the movement of electrons among the atoms of a solid is far more complex than in
vacuum and could be taken account of only with difficulty. In a perfectly built crystal the electrons
can move in nearly the same way as in vacuum. But crystal irregularity due to impurities and thermal
agitation distorts the regular flow of charges and produces a local electric field that forces the electrons
out of their initial path. The electrons move freely only in undistorted sections of the crystal. Here
they accumulate energy with the increase of speed. After meeting a particular section of imperfection
in the crystal, the electrons start, as it were, from the beginning again. Each imperfection makes the
electrons deviate in a given direction. The sum total of this action amounts to the scattering of
electrons in all directions. The directing force of the electric field is felt by the electrons during
transit in the free path between successive collisions. This distance is very small, being of the order
of 10-6 cm. For this reason an electric field is able to affect only an insignificant change in the speed
ofthermal agitation ofthe electrons. However, electric current is produced by only this small additional
speed of the electrons in one and the same direction.
The velocity of random motion of the free electrons is believed to be about 105 m/sec. From
Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics for gases, the calculated velocity is 10-20 times smaller. This shows
that the velocities and therefore the energies of electrons in metals do not line up with the corresponding
quantities in gases. This is because the permissible energies of the electrons in the conductor are
restricted to certain discrete values. This is not so in the case of a gas.
2.8 ENERGY LEVELS OF THE MOLECULE
The energy ofan atom changes only by a single means, i.e., a change occurs when one electron
passes from one quantum state into another. However, the energy of a molecule is likely to change in
either one or all of the following three ways:
(i) The energy changes of a molecule may take place like that of an atom.
(ii) Since the atoms of a molecule vibrate with respectto one another, the vibrational energy of
molecule may also assume discrete values.
(iii) Furthermore since the molecule rotates as a whole, the rotational energy is also quantised
and a change in the state of the molecule may result in a change in rotational energy.
The energy states of a molecule are therefore described by indicating the state of its electronic
cloud (electron level) the state of its vibrational motion (vibrational level) and the state of its rotational
motion (rotational level).
Fig. 2.1 shows on energy level diagram which is based on theory and experimental results. In
this figure, two electronic levels e' and e" are shown. Associated with each electronic level are a
number of vibrational levels denoted by v and associated with each of these vibrational levels is a
rotational level denoted by r.
The differences between the rotational levels are smaller than those between the vibrational
levels. Further differences between the vibrational levels are smaller than those between the electronic
levels. This corresponds to a type of house numbering system. Thus the street number may indicate
the electronic level, the house number of vibrational level and the floor number the rotational level.
l�--
V=2
3
I V = 1
r=3-•
r=2--
r=3--
r_=_O_��---V-- e"
---------e'
Fig. 2.1 Energy level diagram
Suppose the electronic levels in a molecule are at 100, 200, 300 ... units, the vibrational levels
at 10, 20, 30, ... units and the rotational levels at 1, 2, 3, ... units. In such a case, a molecule in the
first electronic level, the second vibrational level and the third rotational level will have a total
energy of 123 units.
2.9 FERMI- DIRAC DISTRIBUTION
Applying the ideas of quantum theory to a system of free electrons in a conductor, we can
conceive a single scheme of energy levels, which must be occupied by the free electrons in accordance
with the exclusion principle. A free electron, moving back and forth through the volume of a metal,
has velocity components, each contributing to its kinetic energy. The magnitudes of its velocity
components are restricted to a series of discrete values, which are similar to those defining the orbits
in a single atom. Also, the total kinetic energy of an electron, which is dependent on these velocity
components, can take only those values that correspond to the energy levels in the metal. Every
value of energy is not allowed and the continuous distribution of energies is replaced by a discrete
set of allowed energy levels. The spacing between the energy levels is extremely small, however,
and the difference between this and the classical continuous distribution produces no significant
effect for real gases at ordinary temperatures.
Since the exclusion principle requires that no two electrons shall have the same set of velocity
components, it follows that the number of electrons in a given energy level is limited by the number
of permitted values of the velocity components which give the kinetic energy defined by that level.
More electrons can therefore be accommodated in the higher energy levels, and the energy of free
electrons in the metal is distributed as shown in Fig. 2.2. below.
��;;�;Ll2( un�:��isied
------·-
-------·---·---
- - - • -
------ -·'
- - - - - - - .J
---------------·
at 2500°K
n = No. of electrons/ n
level
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.2 Kinetic energy distribution offree electrons in a

metal as given by Fermi-Dirac statistics.
To make the total energy as small as possible the levels are fully occupied, from the lowest
upwards. When all the electrons have been accommodated the number per level drops abruptly to
zero, at an energy valve, EF' called the Fermi level. The magnitude of EF' increases with the number
of electrons per unit volume of the metal, since extra electrons can only be accommodated in the
higher energy levels.
At the absolute zero of temperature, the electrons have the lowest possible energy allowed by
quantum theory and so will fill the "energy band" up to the value EF" It appears that even at absolute
zero the total energy of the free electrons in a metal is large. It is so large that raising the temperature
of the metal has little effect on the energy distribution; at room temperature the change is negligible,
and even at 2500°K it is very small.
The energy levels in a metal are very much closer and more numerous than could be shown in
the figure; as a result, the distribution of energy can be regarded as continuous. Thus if dN denotes
the number of electrons whose energies lie within the limits E and E + dE, then dN = N. dE, where N
is the abscissae of the curve corresponding to the ordinate E.
The average energy, according to the Fermi-Dirac theory, is a complicated function of
temperature. But at the temperature shown in Fig. 2.2 (b) it is little different from its value at absolute
zero. For comparison, the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution and the Fermi-Dirac distribution have
been sketched together in Fig. 2.3. The great difference between the two types of energy distribution
arises, from the fact that in the days of Maxwell-Boltzmann the quantum theory did not exist. Their
theory succeeded because it happens that the quantum conditions hardly affect the behaviour of a
gas, except at a temperature so low that the gas is about to liquify. It can, in fact, be shown that the
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution is the limiting form of quantum theoretical distribution, when the
temperature is high, or when the concentration of the particles is low. The difference can be explained
qualitatively as follows.
:_.-- Fermi-dirac
/ Maxwell-botzmann
Relative no. of electrons
Fig. 2.3
In a metal, there are about 1023 free electrons per cu-cm whereas in a gas at normal temperature
and pressure their are about 1019 molecules per cu-cm, ten thousand times fewer. In the metal, the
distribution of energy conditioned by the fact that every pair of free electrons must occupy a separate
energy level. All the lower levels are therefore filled up, and most of the electrons occupy the higher
levels. The average energy of the electrons is much greater than the value given by Maxwell-Boltzmann
distribution (3/2K1). K = Boltzmann constant; T= Absolute Temperature.
The way in which these ideas are applied in the energy distribution of collection of particles•
electrons in a metal or gas molecules, depends on the nature of the particles. In the case of electrons
in a metal the number per unit volume is much larger than in any real gas and the electrons having the
same components of velocity. To them the Femi-Dirac distribution applies.
When allowance is made for the intrinsic spin angular momentum of the electrons, this means
that only two electrons can occupy any given translational energy level. Hence the kinetic energy of
the electrons cannot be zero at 0°K (as would be expected on the classical theory) since this would
mean that all the electrons were in one particular energy level. At the absolute zero of temperature,
the electrons have the least possible total energy and occupy the lowest possible set of energy levels
consistent with the exclusion principle. As the temperature is raised, the average energy increases
because some of the electrons gain energy and occupy higher energy levels. This gain in energy,
however, is very small in relation to the total energy at 0°K and leads to a relatively small number of
electrons near the top of the energy distribution curve moving above the Fermi level EF
The value of EF can be determined from a knowledge of the number of free electrons, N, per
unit volume of metal, it being generally assumed that there is one free electron per atom. It is usual
to express EFin terms of the energy acquired by an electron falling through a potential difference of
Vvolts. On this basis, the values of EF in most metals are of the order of 4 to 6 eV, which is a very
large quantity, and which on classical Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics would correspond to a temperature
of about 40000°K.
Deviations from perfect gas laws due to quantum effect are not large for real gases and the value
ofFermi energy for such gases is pretty small and corresponds to the energy obtained from classical
statistics. The low value of EFfor real gases is primarily due to the higher mass of the particles as
compared with the mass of the electrons in a metal, and also due to the smaller number of particles
per unit volume in the former as compared to the number of electrons in the latter.
If EF is less than or of the order of (3/2)KT at ordinary temperature, the classical statistics is a
valid approximation, and if EF is very much greater than (3/2)KT, the quantum effects have to be
taken into account.
The velocity of electrons with the Fermi energy vFis given by Yi mv/ = EF and may be estimated
from the departure from Ohm's law.
2.10 SUMMARY
Conductors are those solids in which the valance and conduction bands overlap such that no
energy band exist so that a large number of valence band electrons could actually be in the conduction
band at room temperature.
The application of an electric field (voltage) across a conductor is associated with the passage
of an electrical current. An electrical current is made of moving electrical charges.
The motion of protons under the influence of an electric field would imply the motion of the
atoms since protons are very tightly fixed in the nucleus. This, in tum, would imply the movement of
matter whenever electrical conduction is taking place. From experience, we know that in metal this
is not the case and no matter is being transported.
Conduction in metals is therefore the result of electron movement.
When discussing the metallic bond (chapter 1) we realized that not all electrons could be
considered free to take part in electrical conduction. Only valence electrons could take part as they
gain enough energy to loosen their attachment to the parent atom and thus becoming conduction
electrons.
The number of conduction electrons that take part in electrical conduction is therefore clearly
related to the number of valence electrons per atom since these valence electrons take part in
conduction when an electrical field is supplied. It should not be thought however, that the number of
valence electrons is a measure of how good conductor is. Copper with one valence electron per atom
is a better conductor than Aluminium that has three valence electrons per atom. On the other hand,
Aluminium is a better conductor than Zinc that has two valence electrons per atom.
We considered the initial situation within the crystal when no external field affects its internal
behaviour. We were also only concerned with the behaviour of valence electrons, not others since
these will be the ones responsible for carrying an electric current.
In our discussion of the metallic bond, we described how the valence electrons have orbits
greater than the equilibrium distance between adjacent atoms. We showed how these electrons could
be considered to move within the crystal as if the atoms were not present to obstruct their movement.
The electrons could then behave in such a way resembling an electron gas.
Much of the assumptions made when describing the behaviour of atoms or molecules of gas
applied to the case of electron behaviour in a field-free crystal.
Valence electrons in field-free metallic crystal could therefore move in such a way as if each
electron is orbiting all atoms of the solid without actually colliding with them. The movement followed
a random path which eventually must close upon itself since electrons must be confined within the
boundaries of the solid.
The energy gap is practically non-existent in a conductor. Therefore, the almost continuous
(energy-wise) valence band is gradually filled with electrons beginning with the lowest energy
upwards. This is shown in Fig. 2.2 together with the Femi level (highest completely filled level).
From this figure we concluded that the electrons have a wide range of kinetic energies. Since
kinetic energy = Yi mv", then there are a correspondingly wide range of velocities although the
average velocity is zero single no net velocity is experienced in an electron gas. If we considered
speed, however, we could picture of electrons to move randomly at a very high average speed.
A zig-zag movement of the electrons appears in an electron gas but it is hardly reasonable to
expect the collisions to be between the electron themselves. The equal negative charges on electrons
result in electrons repelling each other strongly as they approach each other. What in fact affects the
electron movement is the irregularity in the crystal itself.
Irregularities such as interstitials, vacancies, dislocations, impurities, grain boundaries .... , etc.
result in an imperfectly regular lattice; thus electrons are scattered and their directions altered.
Therefore the valence electron in a metal moves in a random way due to the irregularity of the
crystal which results, as in gases, in a mean free path and a mean free time.
A potential difference applied to a conductor has the effect of accelerating an electrical charge,
if the charge is free to move. This situation applies to the free valence electrons in the crystal since
in between collisions they act as if they were completely free charges and are therefore accelerated
by the potential difference.
Since electrons are minute particles having mass and negative charge, their movement in electric
fields can be determined by the application of the laws of electricity and mechanics.
One could imagine the whole electron gas, originally having zero average velocity in a field•
free crystal, to be drifting with a certain average drift velocity v d after the application of an electric
field.
On the other hand due to the many collisions, the electron is liable to make with lattice
imperfections, there is a decrease in the drift velocity. It can be shown that drift velocity attains
values usually much smaller than random velocities of electrons. It is not unusual for random velocities
to be a million million (1012 ) times as large as drift velocities. Thus the random behaviour of electrons
due to collisions is not affected to any noticeable degree when the electron has gained a comparatively
minute drift velocity due to the application of an electric field. Therefore for the sake of analysis it
is reasonable to assume that at each collision the drift velocity previously acquired by the electron is
completely lost and after each collision the electron is considered to start off again with zero drift
velocity.
(PROBLEMS)
1. The temperature coefficient of pure copper at 20°C is 0.0039 per °C. Using the data of the
previous question estimate the resistivity and the temperature coefficient of an alloy of copper
containing 10 atomic percent nickel. [Ans. 14.1 µ- n -cm; 00043]
2. The density of silver is 10.5 gm/c.c. The atomic weight is 107.9. Assuming that each silver atom
provides one conduction electrons, calculate the number of conduction electrons per c.c. The
conductivity of silver is 6.8 x 107 mho/m. Calculate also the mobility of conduction electrons.
(e = 1.6 x 10-19 coulombs). [Ans. 5.74 x 1022 ; 7.4 x 10-3 m2 /v-sec]
3. Using the data in the previous question, estimate the collision time for electrons in silver. (Electron
mass= 9.1 x 10-31 kg.)
What is the corresponding mean free path? (KT = 4 x 1021 joules at room temperature).
[Ans. 4.2 x 10-14 sec; 28 A]
4. The Fermi energy for silver is 5.5 eV. Calculate the velocity of an electron which has the Fermi
energy. It the conductivity of silver is 6.5 x 107 U Im and the number of conduction electrons
per m3 is 6 x 1028, calculate the mobility of the conduction electrons and the drift velocity in an
electric field of Vcm' [Ans. 1.33 x 106 m/sec; 0.00677 m/sec; 00677 m2/ volts-sec.]
5. Taking the electron-gas model for conduction and assuming that the collision interval is the
constant time -r show that the extra energy required by an electron in the time between successive
collisions in an electric field Eis e2 E2 r2/2m. (It may be shown that the average effect of the
thermal velocity on this figure is zero and the calculation can be carried out by assuming the
thermal velocity to be zero). Hence show that if the extra energy required by all the electrons is
converted to heat, the rate of heating is o E2 watts/ cu.m where o is the conductivity.
6. The following data are obtained by measurements on gold :

Density= 19.32 gm./c.c.
Resistivity= 2.42 µ Q /cm.

Atomic weight = 197 .2
Calculate the mobility of electrons in gold.
[Ans. 4.39 x 10-3 m2/volt-sec.]
7. The Fermi energies and interatomic distances in several metals are given below. Check in each
case that the electrons of highest energy have a wavelength greater than twice the distance
between atomic planes, and hence are not diffracted by the lattice.
Metal K Cu Ag
Fermi energy (eV) 2.14 7.04 5.51
Interplanar spacing (A) 3.88 2.09 2.35
8. By how many orders of magnitude is the mean free path reduced in a certain metal when
temperature increases from O to 340 °C? Take the temperature coefficient of resistivity to be
5 x 10-3 OK-1.
9. If one out of every 1000 4s electrons is a charge carrier, what is the drift velocity in a copper
wire where the electron flux density is 1.5 x 1024 m? s'. Assume a reasonable value for the
number of atoms in every m3 of copper.
( SELF - ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS)
1. Which statement is correct?
(a) Ohm's law applies to conductors only.
(b) Ohm's law applies to conductors and semiconductors only.

(c) Ohm's law applies to all materials.
(d) Ohm's law applies only to metals since they are the best conductors.
2. The random zig-zag motion of an electron in an electron gas is due to same of the following
reasons. Which ones?
(a) Collisions with other electrons.
(b) Collisions with atoms in their normal crystal positions.
(c) Collisions with atoms vibrating about their normal crystal positions.
(d) Collisions with impurity atoms in the crystal.
(e) Collisions with grain boundaries.
3. When a noble gas solidifies, would you expect it to be a conductor or a non-conductor of
electricity? Why?
4. Which of these statements are correct? The Fermi level is:
(a) An average value of all available energy levels.
(b) The highest occupied energy level at 0°K.
(c) An energy level at the top of a valence band.
(d) The largest available energy level

Bab 2 Ibad

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bab 2 Ibad

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2

Table 2.1 Resistivity of Metals

Metal Resistivity at 0°C Resistivity at 20°C

Metal Resistivity at 0°C Resistivity at 20°C

Table 2.2 Alloys of High Ohmic Resistance

Metal Resistivity at 0°C Resistivity at 20°C

0°C µ-ohm-cm 20°C µohm-cm

2.2 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RESISTIVITY OF ELECTRICAL MATERIALS

different metals in the alloy.

In general, if p denotes the resistivity.

P Alloy = Pcopper + XP1

and Pi = Increase in resistivity for one atomic percent addition of impurity.

PNi-Cu = (Pcu +xl.3)µ-.0-cm

a resistivity of 1. 72 x 10-6 ohm cm at 20°C.

(iv) Age Hardening: Age hardening increases the resistivity of an alloy.

Solution. Pcu = 1.56

Pa11oy = 1.56 + 2 x 1.25 + 2 x 0.14

2.3 THE ELECTRON GAS MODEL OF A METAL

2.4 MOTION OF AN ELECTRON IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD

2.5 EQUATION OF MOTION OF AN ELECTRON

mdtx = -eEt + K , w here K i· s the constant

2.6 THE CURRENT CARRIED BY ELECTRONS

and current density I/ A =-eNv

Ohm's law follows as an immediate consequence of the relationJ= aE� because

_I_= (Electrons] (Coulombs] ( m/sec J

Molar volume = Atomic weight I density

N = Valence electrons per unit volume

Mobility, U = o I Ne= 1/ pNe

1. 73 x 10-8 x 8.5 x 1028 x 1.6 x 10-19

4.25 x 10-3 m2 I volts-sec.

1. 73 x 10-8 x 8.5 x 1028 x (1.6 x 10-19)2

2.39x 10-14 sec.

The mobility of electrons in a number of metals is given in Table 2.3 below.

Table 2.3: Mobility of electrons in metals (cm2/volt-sec)

Cross-section 1 1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25

2.8 ENERGY LEVELS OF THE MOLECULE

Fig. 2.1 Energy level diagram

2.9 FERMI- DIRAC DISTRIBUTION

Fig. 2.2 Kinetic energy distribution offree electrons in a

Relative no. of electrons

Conduction in metals is therefore the result of electron movement.

(e = 1.6 x 10-19 coulombs). [Ans. 5.74 x 1022 ; 7.4 x 10-3 m2 /v-sec]

[Ans. 4.2 x 10-14 sec; 28 A]

6. The following data are obtained by measurements on gold :

Resistivity= 2.42 µ Q /cm.

Calculate the mobility of electrons in gold.

[Ans. 4.39 x 10-3 m2/volt-sec.]

( SELF - ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS)

1. Which statement is correct?

(a) Ohm's law applies to conductors only.

(b) Ohm's law applies to conductors and semiconductors only.

(a) Collisions with other electrons.

(b) Collisions with atoms in their normal crystal positions.

(d) Collisions with impurity atoms in the crystal.

(e) Collisions with grain boundaries.

4. Which of these statements are correct? The Fermi level is:

(a) An average value of all available energy levels.

(b) The highest occupied energy level at 0°K.

(c) An energy level at the top of a valence band.

(d) The largest available energy level

You might also like