Contour

Soil
Database GIS Database
Spatial Data

Landuse

Agriculture Census
Soil Type
Contour Heights Non Spatial
data

• Since this is a traditional type of processing, it is commonly understood to be

segregated by department.

1. Controlled file access Since each file is maintained within a specific application,
access can be tightly controlled.
2. Personalized procedures Each of the applications can be customized to suit a
particular set of goals, which may, for particular applications, yield very high
performance.
3. Redundant files Given that much of the information in an organization is of value to
several users, the maintenance of separate files within each application is redundant.
4. Inconsistent data The redundancy introduced by separate maintenance may allow
the same data recorded in different places to have different values.
Inflexibility The potential for the data structure to permit rapid access on an ad hoc
basis is restricted by the segregation of files.
5. Limited data sharing: Sharing data is difficult if applications that cross normal user
boundaries have to be custom written.
6. Difficult standards enforcement Segregated files do not permit the development
and enforcement of standards or conventions such as naming and documentation.
7. Excessive program maintenance Each new application requires that a program be
written that contains many of the same functions as other applications: this level of
program duplication reduces programmer’
productivity.
8. Data dependent applications Each segregated group of files may have different
format, structure, and access strategies which will require application specific
programming.

1
 Definition

A database is a shared collection of data

designed to meet the needs of multiple us. A
does not have to be computerized. However,
due to the high power and relatively low price
of current technology, as well as the
increasing availability of data prepared in the
digital form, most databases are intended for
computer use. Databases all share a number
of characteristics including those listed below.

Properties
1. Reduced data redundancy The use of a single file with multiple user access
reduces the amount of redundancy and increases consistency.
2. Enforced standards A common naming and documentation standard is
easier to develop in a database environment
3. Controlled access Security in the form of qualified access can be enforced
Efficiently extensible The database structure can be monitored and extended
to accommodate new applications while remaining transparent to users.
4. New evaluations Sharing data results in new insights and evaluations; that is,
new information.
5. Easy understanding The use of standard conventions allows a clearer
understanding of the database contents.
6. Expensive conversion Implementing the database structure and operations
might occur in steps and be time-consuming and expensive.
7. Organizational conflict The release of data owned’ by discrete groups within
an organization must be reconciled; this is potentially the most difficult issue to
address in the database construction.
8. Greater vulnerability Data integration ma leave the organization more
vulnerable to all processing errors; backup and recovery strategies are
essential.
9. Management commitment Database construction, maintenance, and liaison
among users are long-term efforts that require a management commitment.
10.Data independent applications Data can be viewed as a resource, the
availability and accuracy of which is fundamental to the organization’s success

2

Terms in Database
• User group: The group of people accessing the data whether
for reading, add, delete, or modify.
• System interface: The method of communicating with the
database management system which can be a high-level
programming language or a set of menus.
• Database software: The software that physically executes all
user requests made through the system interface.
• Database dictionary: The physical repository of all data about
the database contents, such as data definitions.
• Database: The physical repository of all user-required data.
• Database administration: The organizational group
responsible for the control of data and overall direction of the
database function.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
• Hierarchical Database Management
System
• Network Database Management System
• Object Oriented Database Management
System
• Relational Database Management System
DBMS: To manage a data base, you need specific software, called a
Data Base Management System (DBMS), such as ORACLE, DBASEIV,
etc. A DBMS acts as the central control over all interactions between the
data base and applications (or application program), which in turn
interact with the user via a user-interface.
The principal characteristics of a DBMS are
– Centralized control over data base is possible, allowing for a better quality
management, and operator defined access to parts of the data base.
– Data can be shared effectively by different users for different application
– The access to the data is much easier, due to the use of a user-interface, an
– the user-views (specially designed formats for entering and consulting the
data base).
– Data redundancy (storage of the same data in more than one place in the
database) can be avoided as much as possible. Redundancy, or
unnecessary duplications of data, are an annoyance, since it makes the
updating of a data base much more difficult. One can overlook easily to
change redundant information in all places where it occurs.
– The creation of new applications is much easier with a DBMS.
• The disadvantages relate to the higher cost of purchasing the software,
the increased complexity of management, and the higher risk, as data is
centrally managed.
Hydro Meteorological Data
KTM KTM
Note that the relationship is always from one to many;
the model does not support from many to one.
3
 Hierarchical database
• A hierarchical database organizes data as one object of interest related to
many other objects of interest. The tree-like structure. produced is referred
to as an ordered set of parent/child relationships. In this model, a parent can
have one or more children. Child cannot have more than one parent. When
real world’ data relationships are of this type, the hierarchical model is an
effective representation model.
• Hierarchical are familiar relationships. Examples are plant and animal
taxonomies, a dendritic river drainage pattern, and the organization of a file
cabinet into several drawers, each of which contains a number of folders
which may contain one or more documents, and so on. Note that the
relationship is always from one to many; the model does not support from
many to one.
• The hierarchical model includes an implementation strategy that requires
the extensive use of physical pointers. These pointers become part of the
data structure and are therefore explicit. That is, the relationships that are • Network database extend the hierarchical model and allow from many to one
relationships to be represented. Street patterns, shown in the graphic above, illustrate
believed to exist become hard-wired into the implementation. This may networks. When modelled in this way, many streets can be associated with one
make a hierarchical database very efficient in processing data intersection. The network and the hierarchical model makes extensive use of physical
demonstrating such a relationship, but very difficult to process data which pointers to identify relationships. Because of the requirements to traverse the
does not conform database along physical pointers, hierarchical and network databases have an
embedded implementation scheme.
• The network model is very effective in management of geographic information,
especially for establishing linear features and their relationships

Landuse

• In this model the data re arranged in classes and sub-classes, which are a
set of objects grouped into categories and with link of various kinds. All
objects in the same class share a set of properties (attribute) and methods
(requests)
Forest Agriculture Water body
• The above diagram is normally termed as object model diagram, which
illustrates relationships among classes. The diagram depicts inheritance
type of relationship. Inheritance relationships illustrate the Is Kind Of
relationship and allow for a progressive refinement of classes from the more
general to the more specific. Super-classes define more general aspects
which subclasses inherit and further define additional more specific
characteristics and behavior. When looking for a particular request or
attribute, search the class and then also the super-classes.
• The categories inherit hierarchically the properties and methods of the class
in the preceding rank. For example, a deciduous forest sub-class will inherit
the properties and methods of the forest class.
The principles of object-oriented databases are aimed at overcoming some
of the disadvantages f classic structured (in particular the layer based
system). The object-oriented programming make use of the above concept.
Typically, behave a format like this: Object .Request

4
 Relational Database
1. A relational database is a perception of data as
collections of tables that are logically associated to each
other by shared attributes.
2. A relation can represent all the information that can be
represented in a hierarchy with one less data object, a
physical pointer.
3. Any data element can be found in a relation by knowing
the table name, the attribute (column) name, and the
value of the primary key.
The advantage of these systems is that they are very
flexible and can reply to any kind of query formulated
with logical and mathematical operations.
• A relational database s a collection of files that are perceived as two-
dimensional tables. The columns are referred to as attributes and the rows
are termed tuples. or occurrences. The value for any attribute is termed an
entry and is the smallest unit of data within the database. That is, an entry
cannot be reduced to a smaller structure without loss of information. For
example, if the smallest unit of data is name, then the entry RAM cannot be
reduced to a set of individual characters, R A M, and still maintain the
original meaning.
• The table construction is used in several areas other than relational
database systems. Spreadsheets, arrays, and statistical matrices are, for
example, structured in this way. In these other areas there is a different
terminology, however. Within an array, an individual value is termed an
element; while within statistics, rows, or observations, are distinguished
from columns, or variables. These are not necessarily relational structures,
however, since in addition, a relational table, or relation, must conform to
the following six properties:
•

Primary Key
Relational Database
Foreign Key

Trails# Feature# Latitude Longitude Trail# Name Category Parts

1 Loch Sissoris D 2

1 3 --.—
2 inlonForest E 3

3 : : :

1 4 . . . .

• • Each column, termed an attribute, has a unique name. I2 2

• The left-to-right order of columns is irrelevant.

• Each attribute entry is single valued; no repeating groups or arrays are Feature# Type Origin
allowed.
• Entries in any one column are of the same kind.
• The top-to-bottom order of rows is also irrelevant. 1 drumlirs glacial
2 brakladchnnel fluvt&
• Each row is unique, and is called a record

5
 Types of Variable/Fields in About Relationships in a
ARCVIEW Database
1. Name Type in the name of the new field. Field names cannot
contain square brackets ( [ ] ) A relationship works by matching
2. Type Use this box to choose the type of field you wish to add to
the table. The possible types are: data in key fields - a field with the
1. Number. Specify the width of the field in digits in the Width field, and
the number of decimal places in the Decimal Places field. Typing 0
will make the field an integer.
same name in both tables
2. String. Specify the width of the field in characters in the Width field
3. Boolean. Each value in a Boolean field is either True or False. When 1. One-to-one relationship (1:1)
you type values into a Boolean field you can either type True or False
in full, or just type t or f which ArcView will immediately convert to
True or False for you.
2. One-to-many relationship (1 :m)
4. Date. Each value in a date field is eight digits in the format
YYYYMMDD. For example, the 2nd of May 1961 would be 3. many-to-many-relationship (m:m)
represented as 19610502. When you type dates into a date field they
must be in this format.
•

Figure -: An example entity—relationship model for a national parks database.

Legends

Relationships

I---N One-to –many

mappings
N—M Many-to-
many mapping

6
 One to Many relation

Most common type

A record in Table A can have many

matching records in Table B,
• Each record in Table A can have but a record in Table B
only one matching record in Table B and vice-versa has only one matching record
• like dividing a table in Table A

Order Table
Many to Many Relationship Order_ID CustmerID EmployeeID
Order Detail Table
Order_I 10000 Frank 6
D Product_ID quantity 10001 MEREP 8
10001 104 3
10002 Frank 3
10001 108 19
10003 MARRY 3
10001 122 2
10003 104 10
10003 110 5 Product Detail Table
Product Item_
_ID Product_Name Price

104 Saving cream zelate 68

108 Nescafe 106

122 Panasonic Radio 11187

110 Freeze samsung 32000

7
 SQL SQL
• SQL is an industry standard database query language used to
fetch records from tables and to present those records with • With SQL we can add multiple sets of
the fields desired. SQL may also be used to create new tables criteria using the AND operator and
by combining existing tables, and may even be used to alter
the structure of the database and the data it contains. the WHERE clause
• Select queries show results in tables and always begin with
the SQL word select. Select queries choose data from one or SELECT * FROM PARCELS
more tables and display it in tabular form. Select queries do
not change any data in the tables. WHERE
SELECT * FROM PARCELS WHERE PROPCLASS = PROPCLASS = 210 AND VALUE
210
• Action queries do not display data but rather perform a task > 100,000
when they are run. Action queries change data in existing
tables by appending, updating or deleting records. Action
queries can also create new tables. Action queries start with
Similarly, we can use OR, NOT, or IN
words other than select. For example, an update query starts
with the word Update.
UPDATE PARCELS SET PROPCLASS = 210

SQL with Spatial Extensions

• Perhaps the most powerful advantage of using
SQL with GIS is when you can add spatial
criteria too. For example, in addition to meeting
some attribute query, we can also meet a
spatial query
SELECT PARCELS.* FROM PARCELS,
WATER WHERE PROPCLASS = 210 AND
DISTANCE(PARCELS.ID, WATER.ID) <
300
This query selects the parcels that meet the
property class criteria in addition to being within
a particular distance of another feature.