2.

Walls of larger
CHAPTER 7: SKELETAL TISSUE: CARTILAGE AND respiratory
BONE passages (nose,
larynx, trachea,
bronchi)
Characteristics of Cartilage 3. Ventral ends of ribs
4. Epiphyseal plates
• Cartilage is a special form of connective tissue that of long bones
develops from mesenchymal cells. Main Functions • Provides smooth,
o Consists of cells and an extracellular matrix low friction
composed of connective tissue fibers and surfaces in joints
ground substance. • Structural support
o Characterized by an extracellular matrix for respiratory
(ECM) with high concentration of GAG and tract.
Elastic Cartilage
proteoglycans, which interact with collagen
Main features of the ECM Type 2 collagen, aggrecan
and elastic fibers. and dark elastic fibers
• Non-vascular Major Cells Chondrocytes and
o Receives its nutrition and eliminates its chondroblasts
metabolic waste by diffusion through Arrangement of Small isogenous groups
extracellular matrix Chodrocytes
• Exhibits great tensile strength, Presence of Perichondrium Yes
Main Locations 1. External ear
o Due to firm consistency of cartilage ECM.
2. External acoustic
• Provides structural support for soft tissues, meatus
o Respiratory tract, ears, nose 3. Auditory tube
• Allows flexibility without distortion 4. Epiglottis
• Resilient to compression. 5. Laryngeal
• Provides shock absorbing and sliding regions within cartilages
Main Functions Provide flexible shape and
joints and facilitates bone movements.
support for soft tissues
• Guides development and growth of long bones. Fibrocartilage
• Consists of cells called chondrocytes and Main features of the ECM Type 2 collagen and large
chondroblasts that synthesize the extensive areas of dense connective
extracellular matrix tissue with type 1 collagen
§ Collagen, hyaluronic acid, Major Cells Chondrocytes, fibroblasts
proteoglycans and various Arrangement of Isolated or in isogenous
Chodrocytes groups arranged axially.
glycoproteins
Presence of Perichondrium No
o Located in matrix cavities = lacunae.
Main Locations 1. Intervertebral discs
o Chondrocytes exhibit low metabolic activity. 2. Pubic Symphysis
3. Meniscus
Cartilage Types 4. Insertions of
tendons
Hyaline Cartilage Main Functions • Provides
Main features of the ECM Homogenous, type 2 cushioning,
collagen and aggrecan
• Tensile strength
Major Cells Chondrocytes,
• Resistance to
Chondroblasts
tearing and
Arrangement of Isolated or in small
compression
Chodrocytes isogenous groups
Presence of Perichondrium Yes (except at epiphyses and Perichondrium outerlayer type1 CF
EAC
articular cartilage) InnerLayer Chandrogeniccells
Main Locations 1. Articular surface of - Peripheral layer of vascularized, dense, irregular
movable joints connective tissue.

Reviewer By: Asha M. Acuña

 - Outer fibrous layer contains type 1 collagen fibers and o Nutrients diffuse from the blood to the
fibroblasts perichondrium to reach the deeper
- Inner layer: cellular, contains chondrogenic cells chondrocytes.
which differentiate to form the chondroblasts which
secrete cartilage matrix. Types of Cartilage Growth

Cartilage Matrix 1. Interstitial Growth – involves mitosis of chondroblasts

w/in the matrix and deposition of new matrix
- Produced and maintained by chondrocytes and between and around the newly formed cells
chondroblasts. an - Increases cartilage growth and size from
- Collagen and elastic fibers give cartilage matrix its within.
firmness and resilience a2. Appositional Growth – occurs on the periphery of the
o Extracellular ground substance of cartilage cartilage. Chondroblasts differentiate from the inner
contains sulfated glycosaminoglycans and cellular layer and deposit a layer of cartilage matrix
hyaluronic acid. 7 that is opposed to the existing cartilage layer.
- Highly hydrated because of high water content - Increases cartilage width.
o Allows diffusion of molecules to and from
the chondrocytes, HYALINE CARTILAGE (TRACHEA)
o Allows cartilage to resist compression.
- Can act as a shock absorber. us
o Matrix: varying proportions of collagen and cells
matrix
territorial
between
elastic fibers
Cspaces
§ Proportion of the fibers
characterized the cartilage type. or gymonawaenic

If an
www.ooeaats.fm
- Hyaline Cartilage Matrix perichondrium

k i
o Consists of type 2 collagen fibrils embedded
in a firm amorphous hydrated matrix rich in n
proteoglycans and structural glycoproteins
§ Proteoglycans exist as large
proteoglycan aggregates.
• Binds to the thin fibrils of oOqawnoe
the collagen matrix.
- Cartilage Matrix also contains chondronectin
(adhesive glycoprotein).
o Binds to glycosaminoglycans and collagen
fibers,
o Provides adherence of chondroblasts and
chondrocytes to collagen fibers of the matrix.

Chondrocytes

- Loc. Periphery of the cartilage – young chondrocytes

(chondroblasts) have an elliptic shape.
- Deeper in the cartilage, they are round and may
appear in groups of up to 8 cells that originate from
mitotic divisions of a single chondrocyte (isogenous
aggregates).
- Respire under low – oxygen tension
o Hyaline cartilage cells metabolize glucose by
anaerobic glycolysis. Description

Reviewer By: Asha M. Acuña

 Parts 1. Perichondrium w/ fibroblasts
– surround the cartilage.
a. Inner chondrogenic
layer produces
chondroblasts
2. Chondrocytes in lacunae
3. Interterritorial (intercellular)
matrix
4. Territorial matrix
Functional Correlations: Cartilage Cells
- Cartilage develop from primitive mesenchymal
cells that differentiate into chondroblasts.
o These cells divide mitotically and
synthesize the cartilage matrix and
Characteristics of Bone
extracellular material around them.
o As cartilage model grows, the individual
chondroblasts become surrounded by
ECM and trapped in lacunae.develop into
c hondrocytes
- In the Lacunae, chondrocytes (mature cartilage
cells)
- Chondrocytes: maintain cartilage matrix
Elastic Cartilage: Epiglottis
Description - Essentially similar to hyaline
cartilage except that it contains an
abundant network of elastic fibers
in addition to collagen type 2.
Parts 1. Elastic fibers located within the
matrix.
2. Perichondrium
a. Inner chondrenergic layer
of the perichondrium –
where chondroblasts
develop to synthesize the
cartilage matrix.
3. Chondrocytes in the lacunae
BONE
- Bone is a specialized form of connective tissue that
consists of cells, connective tissue fibers and
extracellular matrix
- In contrast to cartilage, as bone develops minerals are
deposited in the matrix and the bones become
calcified.
o Become hard and can bear more weight,
o Serve as rigid skeleton for the body,
o Provide attachment for muscles and organs.
- Because of bone strength, bones also:
o Protect the brain in the skull,
o The heart and lungs in the thorax,
o The urinary and reproductive organs
between the pelvic bones.
- Adult bones contain red marrow serve an essential
function in hemopoiesis blood formation
- Serve as crucial reservoirs for calcium, phosphate and
other essential minerals.

Bone Microarchitecture

-All adult bones exhibit similar histology: cells, bony

of matrix, neurovascular supply.
perichondrium
- 2 types of bone: compact bone and cancellous
www.orawaei (spongy) bone.
perionondium
ponomowMP
e o Long bones:
parrot I chondrocytes
§ Outer cylindrical part – dense
bakes isthelower compact bone.
• Inner surface of the
dunkandupperlimo
compact bone, adjacent to
intereeriloual
the marrow cavity –
cancellous (spongy) bone.
tinhorn
o Cancellous bone – numerous
interconnecting areas and is not dense.
Reviewer By: Asha M. Acuña
 housed cancellousbond
o Bone Marrow cavity
by
§ New borns – red and produce blood
o Encountered in the fetus during initial
skeletal development and in repair of bone
cells fractures
§ Adults – normally yellow and filled o Temporary and as the individual ages, it is
with adipose (fat) cells. replaced by lamellar or mature bone in
- Compact Bone postnatal life.
o Collagen fibers are arranged in thin layers of
bone called LAMELLAE. Functional Correlations: Bone Cells and their functions
§ Parallel arrangement – periphery of Osteoprogenitor - Undifferentiated, pluripotent
Cells stem cells derived from
bone
§ Concentrically arranged – around G mewushmest connective
mesenchyme.
tissue

the blood vessels. andgrowth of - Loc.: inner layer of periosteum,

o Long bone: osteoblasts internal endosteum that lines
§ Outer circumferential lamellae – the marrow cavities, osteons,
deep to the surrounding
bone repair perforating canals in the bone.
- Function of periosteum and
periosteum
endosteum:
§ Inner circumferential lamellae – o Provide nutrition for
located around the bone marrow the bone
cavity o Continuous supply of
§ Concentric lamellae [osteon new osteoblasts for
(harversian system)]– surround the growth, remodeling
canals that contain arteries, veins, and bone repair.
- Bone repair: proliferate by
nerves and loose CT [central
mitosis, differentiate into
{haversian} canal] osteoblasts, secretion of
collagen fibers and bony
Bone Types matrix.
Osteoblasts - Derived from osteoprogenitor
- Distribution and orientation of the collagen fibers in
therebyI
cells
the bone matrix indicate the bone type. - Present on the surface of bone.
- Compact and cancellous bone of an adult exhibit a Recreteasteroid - Synthesize, secrete and deposit
consistent structural pattern that is seen following osteoid, the organic
calcification
the maturation and mineralization of bone. components of new bone
o Exhibits highly organized lamellae matrix (type 1 collagen fibers,
glycoproteins
o Exhibits multiple parallel or concentric layers
(OSTEONECTIN),proteoglycans.
of calcified matrix called lamellae Osteoid: uncalcified and does not
§ Arranged in an orderly manner contain any minerals, however after
around central canals that contain deposition it becomes hard bone.
the neurovascular bundle or - Regulate mineralization by
osteons. releasing matrix vesicles.
§ Exhibit a parallel arrangement of o Serves as centers for
formation of
the collagen fibers that follow a
hydroxyapatite
helical course. crystals and the first
o Osteocytes – found in lacunae at regular steps of calcification
intervals between the lamellae. - When actively engaged in
§ Arranged circumferentially around matrix synthesis: cuboidal to
the central canal. columnar shape and basophilic
- Woven (immature or primary) bone shows random cytoplasm.
- When synthesizing activity
arrangement of collagen fibers that are oriented in
declines: flatten, basophilia is
different directions. reduced.
o Non-lamellar arrangement
Reviewer By: Asha M. Acuña
 Osteocytes -Mature forms of osteoblasts
that become surrounded by
containscahaliculi the mineralized bone matrix.
complex for efficient
mechanism
- Also smaller than osteoblasts
and become principal cells of
Kchange the bone.
- Trapped in the surrounding
communication bone matrix that was produced
by osteoblasts.
Manila's homeostasis o Located in the
cavelike lacunae (1
ofKohl Aratus and osteocyte = 1 bony
lacuna)
of
bloodcontributions Nutrients and metabolites cannot freely
diffuse through the osteocytes, but the
calcium and bone is highly vascular and possesses a
system of channels called canaliculi.
flhosflhh.lv - Allow passage of ions and small
molecules from cell to cell.
- Allow individual osteocytes to
communicate with adjacent
osteocytes and with materials
in the nearby blood vessels of
the central canal.
Canaliculi form complex connections
around the blood vessels in the osteons
and constitute an efficient exchange
mechanism.
- Canaliculi system
osteocytes alive, osteocytes
keeps
maintain homeostasis of the
surrounding bone matrix and
blood concentrations
phosphate and calcium.
When the osteocyte dies, the
surrounding bone matrix is reabsorbed
by osteoclasts.
Compared to osteoblasts:
- Exhibit significantly less RER,
- Small Golgi complexes,
- More condensed nuclear
chromatin.
Osteoclasts - Large, multinucleated cells
found along bone surfaces
toneresorption where resorption, remodeling,
and repair of bone take place.
duringremodeling Belong to the hemopoietic progenitor
cells (from the mononuclear
macrophage – monocyte cell line of the
red bone marrow).
- Main function: Bone resorption
during bone remodeling.
- Loc: howship lacunae
(resorption cavities)
Osteoclast development requires 2
polypeptides produced by osteoblasts :
Reviewer By: Asha M. Acuña
(1) macrophage colony stimulating
factor (M-CSF), (2) Receptor activator of
nuclear factor – kB ligand (RANKL)
Active osteoclasts – forms ruffled
borders (site of adhesion to the matrix)
- Creates a microenvironment
between osteoclasts and the
matrix in which bone
resorption occurs.
- Secretes collagenase,
cathepsin K, and other
enzymes and pumps protons to
produce
environment.
an acidic
Bone Matrix
- Consists of inorganic (minerals) and organic (collagen
fibers) components.
o Also consists of living cells and extracellular
material.
o Organic – enable bones to resist tension
CFSan a HA § Type 1 Collagen Fibers
up
§ Sulfated glycosaminoglycans
987MC
Gpf E
§ Hyaluronic acid
sp BO § Glycoproteins
• Osteocalcin
• Osteopontin
of
o bind tightly to
calcium crystals
and promote
mineralization
and calcification
of the bone
matrix.
• Sialoprotein – binds
osteoblasts to the ECM
through the integrins of
the plasma membrane
I CalPo proteins.
o Inorganic – resist compression
§ Calcium and phosphate in the form
of hydroxyapatite crystals.
• Provides the bone with its
hardness, durability and
strength.
- Due to calcification, diffusion is not possible through
the calcified matrix, bone matrix is highly vascularized.
- Surrounded by dense connective tissue: PERIOSTEUM
 Tenters
Mfdlmalimaumot
Cartilage
o Perforating (Volkmann) Canals – where blood vessels penetrate and enter the bones
qtyaline
The process of Bone Formation (Ossification) 7) Mesenchymal cells
Mesenchymalcells
Endochondral Intramembranous differentiate into 1
Ossification Ossification osteoprogenitor cells. osteoblast
Origin - A temporary - Bone a. Blood vessels
2 calcification
hyaline development is from the
cartilage model not preceded vascular formation of
periosteum
ossification center
precedes bone by a hyaline
formation cartilage. invade the
1 mesenchymalbells chondroblasts - Bone develops calcified and
4 9
Osteoblast OHHH
2 Chondwblasts 7Chondrocytes from the degenerating
calcification condensation cartilage model. 9 canaliculi
of the 8) Osteoblasts attach to the
3 Mesenchymalcells osteopw
connective calcified cartilage
genitor cells
tissue remnants and begin to
4 bells 7 Osteoblasts
O mesenchyme synthesize the bone
5 osteoblasts osteoid Mdma that forms an matrix.
Osteoblasts osteocytes
7 establishment celltocell
of
ossification
center.
a. Osteoprogenitor
cells continue to
gType
communication canaliculi
of Short and long bones Flat bones, Mandible, proliferate and
Bone Maxilla, Clavicles. differentiate
1) Mesenchymal cells 1) Mesenchymal into osteoblasts
proliferate and cells that secrete
differentiate into differentiate osteoid matrix.
chondroblasts, which directly into 9) Osteoblasts become
form the cartilage model. osteoblasts surrounded by bone in
2) Continues to grow by that produce lacunae, are now
interstitial and the considered osteocytes.
appositional means surrounding 10) Establish a complex cell-
3) Chondroblasts divide, osteoid matrix. to-cell connection
hypertrophy (enlarge) 2) Calcification through canaliculi.
and mature and the 3) Ossification 11) Formation of the primary
hyaline cartilage model centers are ossification center
begins to calcify. formed, (diaphysis)
4) Diffusion of nutrients anastomose 12) Formation of the
degenerate and die, and produce a secondary ossification
leaves fragmented network of (epiphysis)
calcified matrix as spongy bone
scaffolding. with zone ofreserve perichondrium
a. Serves as trabeculae. cartilage innerperichondrial
cells
potential
exhibitosteogenic
structural 4) Osteoblasts
framework on become chondrocytes
which the osteocytes.
deposition of 5) Establish of cell
bony material to cell hnofcartilage
ossification
will take place.
5) Layer of bony material is
communication
through zoneof outerperiosteum
deposited around the canaliculi. I I Il
innerperiosteum
calcifying cartilage, inner periostedlbonecollar
perichondrial cells exhibit
osteogenic potential.
6) Thin periosteal collar of
bone forms around the
midpoint of the shaft of
the bone.

Reviewer By: Asha M. Acuña

Primaryossificationcenter
diaphysis
9
9 Secondaryossification centercepiphysis
 SLIDES Description - Shows the primitive bone
marrow.
- Vascular groups of connective
tissue from the periosteum and
Bone Formation: Development of Osteons endosteum invade and erode the
More
osteoblasts path bone and forms primitive
osteons.
- Bone reconstruction will
Y continue as the initial osteons,
osteoncanal de but will be broken down followed

perversion
Mlk
la -
by the formation of new osteons.
Bone deposition is evident with
primitive
noentric the presence of osteoblasts
gauge around haversian canal and the

q Parts 1.
margin of the innermost
lamellae.
Bone Matrix with Bone spicule
2. Primitive osteons with large
Haversian canals surrounded by
osteotome
bow concentric lamellae.
I 3. Osteoclasts with Howship
primitive
marrow
qoun.name Lacunae
4. Red Marrow
c
I a. Location for blood cell
formation.

Reviewer By: Asha M. Acuña

 production of
qdve.to
Alkalinephosphatase
Endochondral Ossification: Development of a Long Bone 3. Zone of Chondrocyte Hypertrophy
– chondrocytes in lacunae
increase in size as a result of
piddle swelling of the nucles and
cytoplasm
4. Zone of Ossification – forming of
resew thin plates of calcified cartilage
matrix. Bony material is deposited
w on the plates of calcified cartilage
we power matrix.
5. Perichondrium (1-3)
of nonawapesin

uproot 6. Periosteum (4)

zone a. Outer periosteum
it
perichondrium
w
goodd b. Inner periosteum
c. Periosteal bone collar
µ qq.a.pro
pgperwopM
d. Osteoid and Bone
kaffffneaffyminfeggiovionnaptgao

088
of perichondrium

impedesdiffusionofO2and
none nutria

theunderlyingcartilageandpromote
into
there
degenerativechanges

EoT
s
to
iii
erE Pofpet

Description - During endochondral ossification,

the bone is first formed as a model
of embryonic hyaline cartilage.
- As bone development progresses,
the cartilage model is replaced by
bone.
Parts 1. Zone of Reserve Cartilage – shows
chondrocyte in their lacune.
2. Zone of proliferating
chondrocytes – where the
chondrocytes divide and become
arranged in vertical columns.
Reviewer By: Asha M. Acuña
 helpinhemopoiesisC
bfffdmfe.fi
enclosesbone
marrow
CSpongy Bone on a. Lined by endosteum –
contain cells that give
rise to osteoblasts
3. Periosteum - contain cells that
give rise to osteoblasts
a. Connective tissue
4. Osteons (w/Haversian system)
5. Osteocytes
6. Hemopoietic tissue

Functional Correlation: Bones

- Bones are dynamic structures
o Continually renewed or remodeled as
trabeated response to mineral needs of the body,
BONY mechanical stress, thinning as a result of
age or disease and fracture healing.
- Calcium and phosphate: stored in the bone matrix
tissue or released into the blood to maintain proper
Hemopoietio levels.
o Normal blood calcium levels is critical to
life: calcium is essential for muscle
contraction, blood coagulation, cell
membrane permeability, transmission of
periosteum nerve impulses.

y
- Hormones regulate calcium release into the blood
stream and its deposition in the bones.
o Calcium levels fall below normal –
parathyroid hormone indirectly promote
an increase in osteoclast numbers and
osteoclast activity by stimulating
osteoblasts to produce osteoclast
stimulating (differentiating) factors.
§ Causes increase breakdown of
endosterk bone matrix by the osteoclasts
and release of calcium
§ Increase calcium reabsorption in

w the kidneys and small intestine.

04Blood
cavities o Calcium levels above normal – Calcitonin
(relased by parafollicular cells) inhibit
manow osteoclast activity, decreases bone
Vessels reabsorption and decreases blood
calcium levels.
§ Kidneys increase excretion of
calcium and phosphate.

Description - Consists primarily of slender bony

Calciumdues
belownormalCiparathyroidhormone
trabeculae
anastomose
that
and
ramify,
enclose
a fall
promotes anincreasein
osteoclastnumbers
irregular marrow cavities with
blood vessels. Andosteoclastactivity theosteoclasts
Parts 1. Marrow Cavities with Blood increasebreakdownofbase by
matrix
Vessels
2. Bony Trabeculae
and ofcalcium
release
reabsorption
sincrease calcium
osteoclast
Reviewer By: Asha M. Acuña b levelabovenormal calcitonininhibits
activity
decrease
adecreased bonereabsorption
bloodcalcium
 Compact Bone, Dried b. Haversian Canal –
contains reticular,
connective tissue, blood
vessels and nerves.
i. Volkmann canals
c. Canaliculi – radiate from
lacunae. Penetrates the
lamellae, anastomose
with canaliculi and form a
network of
communicating channels
with other osteocytes.
d. Interstitial Lamellae –
small irregular areas of
bone between osteons.
Represent the remnants
of eroded or remodeled
osteons.
e. External Circumferential
Lamellae – forms the
external wall of a
compact bone.
f. Internal Circumferential
Lamellae – lines the
internal wall of the bones.
3. Cement line – boundary between
each osteon.

Typesof lamellae
concentriclamellae
interstitiallamellae
External circumferential lamellae
Internalcircumferential lamellae

Description
Parts 1. Haversian System (osteon) –
structural unit of compact bone
matrix.
2. Osteon
a. Concentric Lamellae
i. Lamellae – thi
plates of bone
that contain
osteocytes in
almond shaped
spaced called
lacunae.

Reviewer By: Asha M. Acuña