Analysis:

In this experiment which is about mesh analysis we are required to

investigate the effects of mesh analysis on the multiple active linear source
in a network. We are also required to verify the linear response at any point
in a mesh circuit is similar to Kirchhoff’s voltage law, to investigate the
effects of nodal analysis on multiple active linear source in a network and
lastly, we have to verify the linear response at any point in a nodal circuit is
similar to Kirchhoff’s current law. What first is a mesh analysis? Mesh analysis
is a technique applicable only to those networks which are planar. A planar
circuit is a circuit where no branch passes over or under any other branch. A
mesh is a property of a planar circuit and is not defined for non-planar circuit.
In the experiment what we did first was draw and simulates the first mesh
circuit diagram in the Tina pro worksheet. Then we obtain the mesh currents
I1, I2 , and I3 and the voltages across the resistors V1, V2 , V3 , V4 and V5 and
record the simulated reading on the table. We noted the polarities of each.
After that we calculate the mesh currents and the voltages across the
resistors using mesh analysis technique and record the calculated values on
table 4.1. Then we draw and simulate the second nodal circuit diagram in
Tina pro worksheet. Then we now obtain the node voltages V1, V2 , and V3
and the currents I1, I2 , and I3 from the figure 4.2 and record the measured
readings on the table. We noted the polarities of the responses. Then after
that we calculated the node voltages and the mesh currents nodal analysis
technique and record the calculated values on the table.
Conclusion:

Mesh analysis (sometimes referred to as loop analysis or mesh current

method) is a method that is used to solve planar circuits for the voltage and
currents at any place in the circuit. Planar circuits are circuits that can be
drawn on a plane with no wires overlapping each other. Mesh analysis uses
Kirchhoff’s voltage law to solve these planar circuits. The advantage of using
mesh analysis is that it creates a systematic approach to solving planar
circuits and reduces the number of equations needed to solve the circuit for
all of the voltages and currents

Mesh analysis works by arbitrarily assigning mesh currents in the

essential meshes. An essential mesh is a loop in the circuit that does not
contain any other loop. When looking at a circuit schematic, the essential
meshes look like a “window pane”. Figure 1 labels the essential meshes with
one, two, and three. Once the essential meshes are found, the mesh currents
need to be labelled.

A mesh current is a current that loops around the essential mesh. The
mesh current might not have a physical meaning but it is used to set up the
mesh analysis equations. When assigning the mesh currents it is important to
have all the mesh currents loop in the same direction. This will help prevent
errors when writing out the equations. The convention is to have all the mesh
currents looping in a clockwise direction. Figure 2 shows the same circuit
shown before but with the mesh currents labelled.

The reason to use mesh currents instead of just using KCL and KVL to
solve a problem is that the mesh currents can account for any unnecessary
currents that may be drawn in when using KCL and KVL. Mesh analysis
ensures that the least possible number of equations regarding currents is
used, greatly simplifying the problem.
 A supermesh occurs when a current source is contained between two
essential meshes. To handle the supermesh, first treat the circuit as if the
current source is not there. This leads to one equation that incorporates two
mesh currents. Once this equation is formed, an equation is needed that
relates the two mesh currents with the current source. This will be an
equation where the current source is equal to one of the mesh currents
minus the other. The following is a simple example of dealing with a
supermesh.

Circuit with dependent source. Ix is the current that the dependent

voltage source depends on. A dependent source is a current source or
voltage source that depends on the voltage or current on another element in
the circuit. When a dependent source is contained within an essential mesh,
the dependent source should be treated like a normal source. After the mesh
equation is formed, a dependent source equation is needed. This equation is
generally called a constraint equation. This is an equation that relates the
dependent source’s variable to the voltage or current that the source
depends on in the circuit. The following is a simple example of a dependent
source
 In electric circuits analysis, nodal analysis, node-voltage analysis, or
the branch current method is a method of determining the voltage (potential
difference) between "nodes" (points where elements or branches connect) in
an electrical circuit in terms of the branch currents.

In analyzing a circuit using Kirchhoff's circuit laws, one can either do

nodal analysis using Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) or mesh analysis using
Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL). Nodal analysis writes an equation at each
electrical node, requiring that the branch currents incident at a node must
sum to zero. The branch currents are written in terms of the circuit node
voltages. As a consequence, each branch constitutive relation must give
current as a function of voltage; an admittance representation. For instance,
for a resistor, Ibranch = Vbranch * G, where G (=1/R) is the admittance of the
resistor.

Nodal analysis is possible when all the circuit elements' branch

constitutive relations have an admittance representation. Nodal analysis
produces a compact set of equations for the network, which can be solved by
hand if small, or can be quickly solved using linear algebra by computer.
Because of the compact system of equations, many circuit simulation
programs (e.g. SPICE) use nodal analysis as a basis. When elements do not
have admittance representations, a more general extension of nodal analysis,
modified nodal analysis, can be used.

While simple examples of nodal analysis focus on linear elements,

more complex nonlinear networks can also be solved with nodal analysis by
using Newton's method to turn the nonlinear problem into a sequence of
linear problems.
Analysis:

In this experiment which is about superposition theorem and linearity

we are required to do three things. First we must investigate the effects of
multiple active linear sources in a network, second we must verify that the
linear response at any point in a linear circuit having several independent
linear sources is equivalent to the algebraic sum of individual source acting
alone and lastly, we must illustrate the principle of linearity. In this
experiment what we first did was measure the resistances R1 R2 R3 R 4 R5
and connect the resistances in the circuit. Then we connected the power
supply unit (psu) to the main power supply line. We did not turn on the power
supply we first check the connection if it is correct to avoid accidents. We
ensure that the output voltages of the supply is set and adjusted to 20V dc
(VS1) and 15V (VS2) then we connected the supply to the circuit. The we
measured the currents I1, I2 , and I3 and the voltages V1, V2 , V3 , V4 and V5
and record the measured readings in the table provided. We noted the
polarities of the response. After that we removed the 15V dc source by
“”shorting” the terminals in the circuit. We then checked the circuit
connection before switching on the power supply. We ensured that output
voltages of the power supply is set and adjusted to 20V dc (VS1) then
connect the supply to the circuit. Then we measured the currents I1’, I2 ‘, and
I3’ and the voltages V1’, V2’ , V3 ‘, V4’ and V5’ and record the measured
readings on the provided table. We again noted the polarities of responses.
After that we removed the 20V dc source by “shorting” the terminals in the
circuit. We now checked the circuit connection before switching on the power
supply. We ensured that the output voltages of the power supply is set and
adjusted to 15V dc (VS2) then we connected the supply t to the circuit. We
now measured the currents I1’’, I2 ‘’, and I3’’ and the voltages V1’’, V2’’ , V3 ‘’,
V4’’ and V5’’ and measured the readings on the table. Then we computed for
the calculated values and recorded the calculated values.
Conclusion:

In an electric circuit, a linear element is an electrical element with a

linear relationship between current and voltage. Resistors are the most
common example of a linear element; other examples include capacitors,
inductors, and transformers.

Fundamentally nonlinear devices like transistors are often used to

build approximately linear circuits. For example, an op-amp is designed to
behave like a linear amplifier, as long as its input voltages remain within
certain limits

A linear circuit is an electronic circuit in which, for a sinusoidal input

voltage of frequency f, any output of the circuit (the current through any
component, or the voltage between any two points) is also sinusoidal with
frequency f. Note that the output need not be in phase with the input.

A linear element is a passive element that has a linear voltage-current

relationship. By a “linear voltage-current relationship” it means that by
multiplying a current through the element by a constant K results in
multiplying the voltage across the element by the same constant K. One
passive element that is defined to have linear voltage-current relationship is
the resistor.

A linear circuit is defined as a circuit composed entirely of independent

sources and linear elements. From this definition it is then possible to show
that response is proportional to the source.
 The superposition theorem for electrical circuits states that the
response (Voltage or Current) in any branch of a bilateral linear circuit having
more than one independent source equals the algebraic sum of the
responses caused by each independent source acting alone, while all other
independent sources are replaced by their internal impedances.

To ascertain the contribution of each individual source, all of the other

sources first must be "turned off" (set to zero) by:

1.Replacing all other independent voltage sources with a short

circuit (thereby eliminating difference of potential. i.e. V=0, internal
impedance of ideal voltage source is ZERO (short circuit)).

2.Replacing all other independent current sources with an open

circuit (thereby eliminating current. i.e. I=0, internal impedance of
ideal current source is infinite (open circuit).

This procedure is followed for each source in turn, then the resultant
responses are added to determine the true operation of the circuit. The
resultant circuit operation is the superposition of the various voltage and
current sources.

The superposition theorem is very important in circuit analysis. It is

used in converting any circuit into its Norton equivalent or Thevenin
equivalent.

Applicable to linear networks (time varying or time invariant)

consisting of independent sources, linear dependent sources, linear passive
elements Resistors, Inductors, Capacitors and linear transformers.

Because they obey the superposition principle, linear circuits can be

analyzed with powerful mathematical frequency domain techniques,
including Fourier analysis and the Laplace transform. These also give an
intuitive understanding of the qualitative behavior of the circuit,
characterizing it using terms such as gain, phase shift, resonant frequency,
bandwidth, Q-factor, poles, and zeros. The analysis of a linear circuit can
often be done by hand using a scientific calculator.

In contrast, nonlinear circuits usually don't have exact solutions. They

must be analyzed using approximate numerical methods by electronic circuit
simulation computer programs such as Spice, if accurate results are desired.
These can give solutions for any specific circuit, but not much insight into the
operation of the circuit in general with different component values or inputs.
The behavior of such linear circuit elements as resistors, capacitors, and
inductors can be specified by a single number (resistance, capacitance,
inductance, respectively). In contrast, a nonlinear element's behavior is
specified by its detailed transfer function, which may be given as a graph. So
specifying the characteristics of a nonlinear circuit requires more information
than is needed for a linear circuit.

Linear circuits and systems form a separate category within electronic

manufacturing. Manufacturers of transistors and integrated circuits divide
their product lines into 'linear' and 'digital' lines, for example. In their linear
components, manufacturers work to reduce nonlinear behavior to a
minimum, to make the real component conform as closely as possible to the
'ideal' model used in circuit theory