NETWORK

Definition: - In information technology, a network is a series of points or nodes interconnected

by communication paths. Networks can interconnect with other networks and contain subnet
works.
The most common topology or general configurations of networks include the bus, star, Token
Ring, and mesh topologies. Networks can also be characterized in terms of spatial distance as
local area networks (LANs), metropolitan area networks (MANs), and wide area networks
(WANs).

A given network can also be characterized by the type of data transmission technology in use on it
(for example, a TCP/IP or Systems Network Architecture network); by whether it carries voice,
data, or both kinds of signals; by who can use the network (public or private); by the usual nature of
its connections (dial-up or switched, dedicated or no switched, or virtual connections); and by the
types of physical links (for example, optical fiber, coaxial cable, and Unshielded Twisted Pair).
Large telephone networks and networks using their infrastructure (such as the Internet) have sharing
and exchange arrangements with other companies so that larger networks are created.
NETWORKING
Definition: - In the world of computers, networking is the practice of linking two or more
computing devices together for the purpose of sharing data. Networks are built with a mix of
computer hardware and computer software.
Area Networks: -
Networks can be categorized in several different ways. One approach defines the type of network
according to the geographic area it spans. Local area networks (LANs), for example, typically reach
across a single home, whereas wide area networks (WANs), reach across cities, states, or even
across the world. The Internet is the world's largest public (WANs).
1- Graphical Types
• L.A.N Local Area Network
• M.A.N Metropolitan Area Network
• W.A.N Wide Area Network
2- Functional Types
• Workgroup It Works Directly
• Domain It Works Indirectly
Topologies
Topology refers to the way in which the network of computers is connected. Each topology is suited
to specific tasks and has its own advantages and disadvantages.

The choice of topology is dependent upon

• type and number of equipment being used
• planned applications and rate of data transfers
• required response times
• cost
There are FOUR major competing topologies
• Bus
• Ring
• Star

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 • FDDI
• Mesh
• Tree

Most networking software supports all topologies.

Bus Topology: -
• all workstations connect to the same cable segment
• commonly used for implementing Ethernet at 10mbps
• the cable is terminated at each end
• wiring is normally done point to point
• a faulty cable or workstation will take the entire LAN down
• two wire, generally implemented using coaxial cable during the 1980's

The bus cable carries the transmitted message along the cable. As the message arrives at each
workstation, the workstation computer checks the destination address contained in the message to
see if it matches it's own. If the address does not match, the workstation does nothing more.

If the workstation addresses matches that contained in the message, the workstation processes the
message. The massage is transmitted a long the cable and is visible to all Computers connected to
that cable.
There are THREE common wiring implementations for bus networks
• 10Base2 (thin-net, Cheaper Net) 50-ohm cable using BNC T connectors, cards provide
transceiver
• 10Base5 (Thick Net) 50-ohm cable using 15-pin AUI D-type connectors and external
transceivers
• 10BaseT (UTP) UTP cable using RJ45 connectors and a wiring centre

• Physical Implementation Of A Bus Network

The above diagram shows a number of computers connected to a Bus cable, in this case,
implemented as Thin Ethernet. Each computer has a network card installed, which directly attaches
to the network bus cable via a T-Connector.
It is becoming common to use 10BaseT (UTP) for implementing Ethernet LANS. Each workstation
is wired in star fashion back to a concentrator wiring centre (hub). The hub is a multi-port device

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supporting up to about 32 ports. One of these ports is connected to a server, or the output of the hub
can be connected to other hubs.

• Physical Bus Cable Limits

10Base2 THIN ETHERNET NETWORK LAYOUT

Limitations

• maximum number of trunk segments = 5

• maximum trunk segment length = 607 feet (185 meters)
• maximum network trunk cable = 3035 feet (925 meters)
• maximum number of stations on a trunk segment = 30
• minimum distance between T connectors = 1.5 feet (0.5 meters)

Rules
• each end of the trunk segment is terminated in 50-ohms
• one of the terminators is grounded
• connector splices are kept to a minimum

Cabling
• BNC-T type connectors
• RG58-AU 50-ohm cable, 0.2"

10Base5 THICK ETHERNET NETWORK LAYOUT

Limitations
• maximum number of trunk segments = 5
• maximum trunk segment length = 1640 feet (500 meters)
• maximum network trunk cable = 8200 feet (2500 meters)
• maximum number of stations on a trunk segment = 100
• minimum distance between transceivers = 8 feet (2.5 meters)
• maximum transceiver cable length = 165 feet (50 meters)

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Rules
• each end of the trunk segment is terminated in 50-ohm
• one of the terminators is grounded
• connector splices are kept to a minimum

Cabling
• Transceivers 802.3
• 50-ohm cable RG-11
• Male DIX connector

Wiring of the DIX Connector

Pin Ethernet IEEE 802.3
1 Shield Control-in Shield
2 Collision presence+ Control-in A
3 Transmit+ Data-out A
4 Reserved Data-in Shield
5 Receive+ Data-in A
6 Power return Voltage common
7 Reserved Control-out A
8 Reserved Control-out Shield
9 Collision presence- Control-in B
10 Transmit- Data-out B
11 Reserved Data-out Shield
12 Receive- Data-in B
13 Power Voltage
14 Reserved Voltage Shield
15 Reserved Control-out B
Shell --- Protective Ground

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 10BaseT UTP NETWORK LAYOUT
Limitations
• maximum segment length of 100 Meters
• Hub to Hub or repeater to repeater links limited to 100 Meters

Rules
• star topology
• 4 repeater/5 segment rule of 10Base5 is retained
• only two nodes per segment are allowed

Cabling
• RJ-45 Connectors
• Category 3 UTP minimum, preferably Category 5

Bus Network Topology Summary

Advantages Disadvantages
Easy to implement Limits on cable length and Workstation numbers
Low Cost Difficult to isolate network faults
A cable fault affects all workstations
As the number of workstations increase, the speed of the network slows down

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Ring Topology: -
• workstations connect to the ring
• faulty workstations can be bypassed
• more cabling required than bus
• the connectors used tend to cause a lot of problems
• commonly used to implement token ring at 4 and 16mbps
• four wire, generally STP or UTP

Physical Implementation Of A Ring Network

Each workstation is connected back to a Multiple Access Unit (MAU), which supports up to eight
workstations. Additional MAU are cascaded to provide greater workstation numbers.

Wiring is performed in a physical star fashion, with cables wired directly from each workstation
back to the MAU.

IEEE 802.5 Token Rings

This protocol is widely used in ring networks for controlling station access to the ring. A short
message (called a token) is circulated around the ring; being passed from station to station (it
originates from a controller or master station which inserts it onto the ring).

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A station which wants to transmit waits for the token to arrive. When the token arrives, the station
changes it from a token to a connector message, and appends its message. This new message is then
placed on the outgoing side of the ring.
Each station passes on received tokens if they have nothing to transmit. They monitor connector
messages to see if the message is addressed to them. If connector messages are addressed to them,
they copy the message, modify it to signify its receipt, then send it on around the ring. Connector
messages which are not addressed to them are passed directly on to the next station in the ring.
When the connector message travels full circle and arrives at the original sending station, it checks
the message to see if it's been received. It then discards the message and replaces it with a token.

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Either

Or

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 Physical Ring Cable Limits
TOKEN RING NETWORK LAYOUT
Limitations
• maximum number of workstations = 96
• maximum number of 8228 Mau’s = 12
• maximum patch cable distance between an 8228 MAU and a station (not including 8'
adapter cable) = 150 feet (45 meters)
• maximum patch cable distance between two 8228's = 150 feet (45 meters)
• maximum patch cable connecting all 8228's = 400 feet (120 meters)

Rules
• patch cables generally type 6 (26 wags) or 1 (22 wags)
• type 1 for lengths > 66 feet (20 meters)
• IBM 8310574 MIC connectors
• alternatively, UTP with RJ45 connectors

Ring Topology: Summary

Advantages Disadvantages
Cable failures affect limited users Costly Wiring
Equal access for all users Difficult Connections
Each workstation has full access
Expensive Adaptor Cards
speed to the ring
As workstation numbers increase
performance diminishes slightly

Star Topology: -
• all wiring is done from a central point (the server or hub)
• has the greatest cable lengths of any topology (and thus uses the most amount of cable)
• generally STP or UTP, four wire

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 Star Topology: Summary
Advantages Disadvantages
Hub failure cripples all workstations
Easy to add new workstations
connected to that hub
Centralized control Hubs are slightly more expensive than thin-Ethernet
Centralized network/hub monitoring

FDDI Topology: -
• 100mbps
• normally implemented over fiber optic (fast-Ethernet, UTP)
• dual redundancy built in by use of primary and secondary ring
• automatic bypassing and isolation of faulty nodes

Fiber Distributed Data Interface

FDDI is based on two counter rotating 100-Mbit/sec token-passing rings. The rings consist of point
to point wiring between nodes which repeat the data as it is received.
The primary ring is used for data transmission; the secondary is used for data transmission or to
back up the primary ring in the event of a link or station failure. FDDI supports a sustained transfer
rate of about 80Mbps, a maximum of 1000 connections (500 nodes) and a total distance of 200
kilometers end to end. There is a maximum distance of 2 kilometers between active nodes.
FDDI Station Types
There are two main types of stations, class A which attach directly to dual rings; or class B which
attach to a station acting as a concentrator.
A concentrator is a specialized workstation that attaches to the ring and has multiple ports that allow
attachment of other devices in a physical star configuration. These may be cascaded.
Logical Networks versus Physical Networks
A logical network describes how the network operates. A physical network describes how the
network has been cabled. It is thus possible to have a physical star, logical bus network. In other
words, the network operates as a bus network, but the cabling has been implemented using star
topology.

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Mesh Topology: -
Definition: - A type of network setup where each of the computers and network devices are
interconnected with one another, allowing for most transmissions to be distributed, even if one of
the connections go down. This type of topology is not commonly used for most computer networks
as it is difficult and expensive to have redundant connection to every computer. However, this type
of topology is commonly used for wireless networks. Below is a visual example of a simple
computer setup on a network using a mesh topology?

Tree Topology: -
Definition: - Also known as a star bus topology, tree topology is one of the most common types of
network setups that is similar to a bus topology and a star topology. A tree topology connects
multiple star networks to other star networks. Below is a visual example of a simple computer setup
on a network using the star topology?

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In the above example picture if the main cable or trunk between each of the two star topology
networks failed, those networks would be unable to communicate with each other. However,
computers on the same star topology would still be able to communicate with each other.

Protocols: -
Definition: - A network protocol defines a "language" of rules and conventions for communication
between network devices. A protocol includes formatting rules that specify how data is packaged
into messages. It also may include conventions like message acknowledgement or data compression
to support reliable and/or high-performance network communication.
Many protocols exist in computer networking ranging from the high level to the low level. The
Internet Protocol family includes IP and all higher-level network protocols built on top of it, such as
TCP, UDP, HTTP, and FTP. Modern operating systems include services or daemons that implement
support for a given network protocol. Some protocols, like TCP/IP, have also been implemented in
silicon hardware for optimized performance.
Definition: - Software rules and regulations on the basis of which two or more than two computers.

TCP/IP: -
IP Stands For (Internet Protocols)
TCP Stands For (Transmission Control Protocols)
TCP/IP (The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the protocol suite that drives the
Internet. Specifically, TCP/IP handles network communications between network nodes
(computers, or nodes, connected to the net).
The suite is actually composed of several protocols including IP which handles the movement of
data between host computers, TCP which manages the movement of data between applications,
UDP which also manages the movement of data between applications but is less complex and
reliable than TCP, and ICMP which transmits error messages and network traffic statistics.
(Pronounced as separate letters) Short for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, the suite
of communications protocols used to connect hosts on the Internet. TCP/IP uses several protocols,
the two main ones being TCP and IP. TCP/IP is built into the UNIX operating system and is used
by the Internet, making it the de facto standard for transmitting data over networks. Even network
operating systems that have their own protocols, such as Netware, also support TCP/IP.
IP is a 32 Bit unique identifier for every node in a network.
1. Class A = 1 -------- 126
2. Class B = 127 -------- 191
3. Class C = 192 -------- 223

Subnet Mask: -

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Definition: - A mask used to determine what subnet an IP address belongs to. An IP address has
two components, the network address and the host address. For example, consider the IP address
150.215.017.009. Assuming this is part of a Class B network, the first two numbers (150.215)
represent the Class B network address, and the second two numbers (017.009) identify a particular
host on this network.
Sub netting enables the network administrator to further divide the host part of the address into two
or more subnets. In this case, a part of the host address is reserved to identify the particular subnet.
This is easier to see if we show the IP address in binary format. The full address is:

10010110.11010111.00010001.00001001

The Class B network part is: 10010110.11010111

And the host address is: 00010001.00001001

If this network is divided into 14 subnets, however, then the first 4 bits of the host address (0001)
are reserved for identifying the subnet.

The subnet mask is the network address plus the bits reserved for identifying the sub network. (By
convention, the bits for the network address are all set to 1, though it would also work if the bits
were set exactly as in the network address.) In this case, therefore, the subnet mask would be
11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000. It's called a mask because it can be used to identify the
subnet to which an IP address belongs by performing a bitwise AND operation on the mask and the
IP address. The result is the sub network address:

Subnet Mask 255.255.240.000 11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000

IP Address 150.215.017.009 10010110.11010111.00010001.00001001
Subnet Address 150.215.016.000 10010110.11010111.00010000.00000000
The subnet address, therefore, is 150.215.016.000.

COLOR - CODE STANDARDS

Again, please bear with me... Let's start with simple pin-out diagrams of the two types of UTP
Ethernet cables and watch how committees can make a can of worms out of them. Here are the
diagrams:

Note that the TX (transmitter) pins are connected to corresponding RX (receiver) pins, plus to plus
and minus to minus. And that you must use a crossover cable to connect units with identical
interfaces. If you use a straight-through cable, one of the two units must, in effect, perform the
cross-over function.
Two wires color-code standards apply: EIA/TIA 568A and EIA/TIA 568B. The codes are
commonly depicted with RJ-45 jacks as follows (the view is from the front of the jacks):

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If we apply the 568A color code and show all eight wires, our pin-out looks like this:

Note that pins 4, 5, 7, and 8 and the blue and brown pairs are not used in either standard. Quite
contrary to what you may read elsewhere, these pins and wires are not used or required to
implement 100BASE-TX duple Xing--they are just plain wasted.
However, the actual cables are not physically that simple. In the diagrams, the orange pair of wires
is not adjacent. The blue pair is upside-down. The right ends match RJ-45 jacks and the left ends
do not. If, for example, we invert the left side of the 568A "straight"-thru cable to match a 568A
jack--put one 180° twist in the entire cable from end-to-end--and twist together and rearrange the
appropriate pairs, we get the following can-of-worms:

This further emphasizes, I hope, the

importance of the word "twist” in making network
cables which will work. You cannot use a flat-
untwisted telephone cable for a network cable.
Furthermore, you must use a pair of twisted wires
to connect a set of transmitter pins to their
corresponding receiver pins. You cannot use a
wire from one pair and another wire from a
different pair.
Keeping the above principles in mind, we can simplify the diagram for a 568A straight-thru cable
by untwisting the wires, except the 180° twist in the entire cable, and bending the ends upward.
Likewise, if we exchange the green and orange pairs in the 568A diagram we will get a simplified

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diagram for a 568B straight-thru cable. If we cross the green and orange pairs in the 568A diagram
we will arrive at a simplified diagram for a crossover cable. All three are shown below.

LET'S MAKE IT SIMPLE

There are only two unique cable ends in the
Preceding diagrams. They correspond to the
568A and 568B RJ-45 jacks and are shown
To the right.
Again, the wires with colored backgrounds
May have white stripes and may be denoted
That way in diagrams found elsewhere.
For example, the green wire may be labeled
Green-White--I don't bother. The background
Color is always specified first.
Now, all you need to remember, to properly
Configure the cables, are the diagrams for the
Two cable ends and the following rules:

• A straight-thru cable has identical ends.

• A crossover cable has different ends.

It makes no functional difference which standard you use for a straight-thru cable. You can start a
crossover cable with either standard as long as the other end is the other standard. It makes no
functional difference which end is which. Despite what you may have read elsewhere, a 568A
patch cable will work in a network with 568B wiring and 568B patch cable will work in a 568A
network. The electrons couldn't care less.

My preference is to use the 568A standard for straight-thru cables and to start crossover
cables with a 568A end. That way all I have to remember is the diagram for the 568A end,
that a straight-thru cable has two of them, and that the green and orange pairs are swapped at
the other end of a crossover cable.
LET'S MAKE SOME CABLES

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 1. Pull the cable off the reel to the desired length and cut. I have a box of cable at one end of my
shop and a mark on the floor 10' away. For cable lengths which are a fraction of ten feet, I
eye-ball the length as I pull the cable out of the box (also, my feet are about one foot long).
For longer cables, I pull it out to the ten foot mark and go back to the box and pull the
remaining fraction or another ten feet. If you are pulling cables through walls, a hole in the
floor, etc., it easier to attach the RJ-45 plugs after the cable is pulled. The total length of wire
segments between a PC and a hub or between two PC's cannot exceed 100 Meters (328 feet or
about the length of a football field) for 100BASE-TX (and 10BASE-T).

2. Strip one end of the cable with the stripper or a knife and digs.
If you are using the stripper, place the cable in the groove on the blade (left)
Side of the stripper and align the end of the cable with the right side of the
Stripper. This is about right to strip a little over 1/2" of the jacket off the cable.
Turn the stripper about one turn or so. If you turn it much more, you will
Probably nick the wires. The idea is to score the outer jacket, but not go
All the way through. Once scored, you should be able to twist the end of the
Jacket loose and pull it off with one hand while holding the rest of the cable
With the other. If you are using a knife and digs, carefully slit the cable for about
An inch or so and neatly trim around the circumference of the cable with the digs to remove the
jacket.

3. Inspect the wires for nicks. Cut off the end and start over if you see any. You may have to
adjust the blade with the screw at the front stripper. Cable diameters and jacket thicknesses vary.

4. Spread and arrange the pairs roughly in the order of the desired Cable end.

5. Untwist the pairs and arrange the wires in the order of the desired cable end.
Flatten the end between your thumb and forefinger. Trim the ends of the wires so
they are even with one another. It is very important that the outstripped (untwisted)
end be slightly less than 1/2" long. If it is longer than 1/2" it will be out-of-spec and
susceptible to crosstalk. If it less than slightly less than 1/2" it will not be properly
clinched when RJ-45 plug is crimped on. Flatten again. There should be little or no
space between the wires.

6. Hold the RJ-45 plug with the clip facing down or away from you. Push the wire firmly into the
plug. Now, inspect the darn thing... before crimping and wasting the plug! Looking through the
bottom of the plug, the wire on the far left side will have a white background. The wires should
alternate light and dark from left to right. The furthest right wire is brown. The wires should all
end evenly at the front of the plug. The jacket should end just about where you see it in the
diagram--right on the line. Aren't you glad you didn't crimp the plug?

ALL ABOUT CRIMPING

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1. Hold the wire near the RJ-45 plug with the clip down and firmly push it into the left side of the
front of the crimpier (it will only go in one way). Hold the wire in place squeeze the crimpier
handles quite firmly. This is what will happen:

(Crimp it once.) The crimpier pushes two plungers down on the RJ-45 plug. One forces what
amounts to a cleverly designed plastic plug/wedge onto the cable jacket and very firmly clinches it.
The other seats the "pins," each with two teeth at its end, through the insulation and into the
conductors of their respective wires.
2. Test the crimp... If done properly an average person will not be able to pull the plug off the
cable with his or her bare hands. And that quite simply, besides lower cost, is the primary
advantage of twisted-pair cables over the older thin wire, coaxial cables. In fact, I would say the
RJ-45 and ease of its installation is the main reason coaxial cable is no longer widely used for small
Ethernets. But, don't pull that hard on the plug. It could stretch the cable and change its
characteristics. Look at the side of the plug and see if it looks like the diagram and give it a fairly
firm tug to make sure it is crimped well.
3. Prepare the other end of the cable so it has the desired end and crimp.

4. If both ends of the cable are within reach, hold them next to each other and with RJ-45 clips
facing away. Look through the bottom of the plugs. If the plugs are wired correctly, and they are
identical, it is a straight-thru cable. If they are wired correctly and they are different, it is a
crossover cable.
5. If you have an operational network, test the cable. Copy some large files.

6. If the cable doesn't work, inspect the ends again and make sure you have the right cable and that
it is plugged into the correct units for the type of cable. Try power-cycling (cold booting) the
involved computers.

7. If you have many straight-thru cables and a crossover cable in your system, you should
consider labeling the crossover cable or using a different colored cable for the crossover cable so
you don't mix them up. I do not recommend implementing the crossover function, as recommended
elsewhere, with two RJ-45 jacks, appropriately wired back to back, and two straight-thru cables.
This method costs noticeably more, introduces more than the necessary number of components and
connections, increases the complexity and time of assembly, and decreases reliability.

CABLING RULES
1. Try to avoid running cables parallel to power cables.
2. Do not bend cables to less than four times the diameter of the cable.
3. If you bundle a group of cables together with cable ties (zip ties), do not over-cinch them. Its
okay to snug them together firmly; but don't tighten them so much that you deform the cables.
4. Keep cables away from devices which can introduce noise into them. Here's a short
list: copy machines, electric heaters, speakers, printers, TV sets, fluorescent lights,
copiers, welding machines, microwave ovens, telephones, fans, elevators, motors, electric
ovens, dryers, washing machines, and shop equipment.
5. Avoid stretching UTP cables (tension when pulling cables should not exceed 25 LBS).

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6. Do not run UTP cable outside of a building. It presents a very dangerous lightning hazard!
7. Do not use a stapler to secure UTP cables. Use telephone wire/RG-6 coaxial wire hangers which
are available at most hardware stores.

HUB
This is a hardware device that is used to network multiple computers together. It is a central
connection for all the computers in a network, which is usually Ethernet-based. Information sent to
the hub can flow to any other computer on the network. If you need to connect more than two
computers together, a hub will allow you to do so. If you only need to network two computers
together, a simple crossover Ethernet cable will do the trick.
How To Give An IP Address To Computer?
As I mentioned on the top about TCP/IP, In here I will teach you about (How To Give An IP
Address To Computer?).

First (Right Click) On My Network Places => Then Click On The (Properties) => The (Network
Connections) Will Open => In There We Have An Icon By The Name Of (Local Area Connection)
=> (Right Click) On That Icon => Click On The (Properties) => Then A Box Will Open In That
Box We Have Four Options:
1- Client For Microsoft Networks
2- File And Printer Sharing For Microsoft Networks
3- QoS Packet Scheduler
4- Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
We will (Click) on the option number 4 => Then (Click) on the (Properties) button => After that we
will have two options:
1- Obtain An IP Address Automatically
2- Use The Following IP Address
We Will Select the Second Option, When We Select The Second Option Then Tree Boxes Will On

First Write Your (IP Address) In IP Address Box => Then (Click) On The Subnet Mask Or Just
Press (Tab) Button On Your Keyboard It Will Automatically Write In Subnet Mask Box From Your
Computer => Then Click (OK) => Then Click (Close).

IP Address: . . . .

Subnet Mask: . . . .

Default Gateway: . . . .

How To Change Your Computer Name?

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First Of All (Right Click) On (My Computer) => Then (Click) On The (Properties) => Then Select
From Menu Bar (Computer Name) => Then (Click) On (Change) Button => Then A Box Will Open
In There Write Your (Computer Name) By Your Choice => Then In There We Have Two Options:
1- Domain
2- Workgroup
We Will Select The Second Option (Workgroup) We Will Write In Workgroup Box Name Of The
Server Workgroup => Then Click (OK) => Then The Computer Will Send You A Massage (You
Must Restart Your Computer For The Changes To Take Effect) => Then Your Computer Will
Restart Automatically. After Restarting Computer For Checking That Your Computers Has
Communication Between Each Other I Mean (Network) Or Not, For Checking Go To (Start) Then
(Run) Write In Run Box (Command)Then Dos Program Will Open Write (Ping “IP Address”) And
Press (Enter).

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