TWI ppt-WPE1-Course-Notes PDF

Welcome
Welcome to the Welding Processes and Equipment

module of TWI’s Diploma course approved by the
Welding Processes and Equipment International Institute of Welding (IIW) and
IIW/EWF Diploma in Welding
European Welding Federation (EWF)
Objectives
Welcome - What this module is about
TWI Training & Examination Services
Copyright © TWI Ltd 2015 Copyright © TWI Ltd 2015
What Does This Module Cover? What Can I Expect?
 Absolute basics – defining what a weld is.  Working to international syllabus.

 Detailed principles – how plasma is formed.  IAB-252r8-07 (short version on IIW website
www.iiw-iis.org )
 Electricity – how it is used in welding.
 This is one of four modules each examined
 Processes – common and more specialised.
separately.
 Standards – briefly, those on fabrication.
 Qualification towards TWI Diploma.
 Symbols – how to show welds on drawings.
 Qualification towards IIW/EWF Diploma.
 Requires entrance criteria to be met
 Greater understanding of important aspects of
welding.
What Learning Methods Are Used? Example – Self-Adjusting Arc
 Binder has notes and powerpoints.

 Lectures given in classroom style.
 Extra study encouraged – necessary really.
 Interaction – especially for engineer.
 Tuition and counselling – talk to us.
Feed speed = burn off V up, i down, burn off Wire advances, i
down. Feed speed > increases until: Feed
burn off speed = burn off
0-1
Example – Laser Deposition Why Is This Module Important To Me?
 Welding Engineer, Technologist, Specialist must

know fundamentals of processes.
 Regarded as company specialist.
 Choose best process for job.
 Make decisions on best use of processes.
My Company Has Fixed Ideas I Just Need To Sign The Paperwork
 WL Bateman:  Short-term objective gaining Welding Co-ordinator

"If you keep on doing what you've always done, status is excellent.
you'll keep on getting what you've always got."  Co-ordinator does not just sign paperwork.
 Everyone wants cost efficiency.  Contracts need co-ordinator.
 Today’s equipment and control make even a few  Future contracts need to be at required quality
years-old gear obsolete. and profitable.
 Future developments always seek to improve.  Co-ordinator can advise best practice and save
 Your company will want you input. company money.
What Will I Do That I Don’t Now? What’s In It For Me?
 Tricky – all individuals coming with different  Knowledge – better performance at job.
backgrounds.  Where to find reference material when needed.
 Depth of understanding can sort problems.  Ability to respond to changing needs.
 New perspectives on traditional processes –  Possibility of Professional Qualification.
experience from another viewpoint helps.  More assured future with wider prospects.
 New processes detailed – could be applicable now
or in future.
0-2
Joining
 Welding.
 Brazing.
 Soldering.
 Adhesive bonding.
General Introduction to Welding  Diffusion bonding.
 Riveting.
TWI Training & Examination Services  Clinching.
 Sewing, stapling, etc.
Welding Weldable/Un-weldable
 Metals.
 Plastics.
An operation in which two or more parts are united  Ceramics.
by means of heat or pressure or both, in such a  Composites.
way that there is continuity in the nature of the
metal between these parts.
Parts To Be Joined Brazing
 Parent material, base material.  A process of joining in which, during or after

 Plate, pipe, section heating, molten filler metal is drawn into or
 Filler, consumable. retained in the space between closely adjacent
 Electrode, wire, powder surfaces of the parts to be joined by capillary
attraction.
Completed item may be called:  In general, the melting point of the filler metal
 Joint. is above 450°C but always below the melting
 Weld. temperature of the parent material.
 Weldment.
1-1
Soldering Welding
 A similar process to brazing, relying on  Fusion.

capillary attraction to draw molten filler into a  Melting of parent, filler, or usually both
gap between parts that remain solid  Solid state.
throughout. Solders melt at low temperatures,  May or may not be heated, but no melting
less than 450ºC.
 For steel and copper, solders are usually alloys

of tin.
Fusion Welding Solid State Welding
 Oxy-fuel gas (OFW).  Forge or blacksmith.

 Manual metal(lic) arc (MMA).  Friction – many variations, including friction
stir.
 Metal inert/active gas (MIG/MAG).
 Explosive.
 Flux cored arc (FCAW).
 Cold pressure.
 Submerged arc (SAW).
 Ultrasonic.
 Electroslag (ESW).
 Electron beam (EBW).
 Laser.
 Resistance.
 Magnetically impelled arc butt (MIAB).
Joint Terminology Butt Preparations
Edge Open and Closed Corner Lap
Square edge Square edge

closed butt open butt
Tee Butt
Cruciform
1-2
Single Sided Butt Preparations Double Sided Butt Preparations
Single sided preparations are normally made on thinner materials, Double sided preparations are normally made on thicker
or when access form both sides is restricted. materials, or when access form both sides is unrestricted
Single Bevel Single Vee Double -Bevel Double -Vee
Single-J Single-U Double - J Double - U
Joint Preparation Terminology Joint Preparation Terminology
Included angle Included angle Angle of bevel Angle of bevel
Angle of
bevel
Root
Root Radius
Radius
Root Face Root Face

Root Face Root Face Root Gap
Root Gap
Land
Root Gap Root Gap
Single Bevel Butt Single-J Butt
Single-V Butt Single-U Butt
Weld Terminology Penetration
Butt weld Spot weld

Fillet weld
Full penetration Partial penetration
Edge weld Plug weld
Compound weld
1-3
Sides Runs
Single sided Double sided Single run Multirun
Stringer or Weave Welding Positions
Flat - PA Horizontal-Vertical - Horizontal - PC

PB
Stringer bead Weave
Overhead - PD Horizontal-overhead - PE Vertical-up - PF

Vertical-down - PG
Slope and Rotation Weld Zone Terminology
Weld slope
 The angle between root line and the Face B
positive X axis of the horizontal A
reference plane, measured in
mathematically positive direction (ie
counter-clockwise). Weld
Weld rotation metal
 The angle between the centreline of Heat
the weld and the positive Z axis or a affected Weld
zone boundary
line parallel to the Y axis, measured in
the mathematically positive direction
(ie counter-clockwise) in the plane of
the transverse cross section of the C Root D
weld in question. A, B, C and D = Weld Toes
1-4
Weld Zone Terminology Weld Zone Terminology
Excess
Cap height
Weld width
Excess root
penetration
Toe Blend Features to Consider
Fillet welds - toe blend

 The higher the toe blend angle the greater
the amount of stress concentration.
 The toe blend angle ideally should be
between
20o-30o.
Fillet Weld Profiles Fillet Weld Profiles
Fillet welds - shape
Excess
Weld
Metal
Vertical
Leg
Length
Mitre fillet Convex fillet Design
Throat
Horizontal leg
Concave fillet Length
1-5
Fillet Weld Throat Thickness Fillet Weld Throat Thickness
a b
a = Design throat thickness b = Actual throat thickness
Leg and Throat Relationship
Throat, a = 0.7 x Leg, z

Leg, z = 1.4 x Throat, a
a = z/√2
Copyright © TWI Ltd 2015
1-6
Types of Standard
 Application and design.
 Specification and approval of welding

procedures.
Fabrication Standards  Approval of welders.
Levels of Standards Welding Procedure Approval Test
 Company or industry specific standards.  Carried out by a competent welder.

 National BS (British Standard).  Quality of the weld is assessed using NDT and
 European BS EN (British Standard European mechanical testing techniques.
Standard).  Demonstrate proposed welding procedure
 US AWS (American Welding Society) and gives welded joint to specified weld quality
ASME (American Society of Mechanical and mechanical properties.
Engineers).
 International ISO (International Standards
Organisation).
Process Terminology –
Welder Approval Test
BS EN ISO 4063
 Examines welder's skill and ability to make  1 – Arc welding.
satisfactory test weld.  2 – Resistance welding.
 Test may be performed with or without a  3 – Gas welding.
qualified welding procedure.  4 – Welding with pressure.
 BS EN 287, BS ISO EN 9606 and ASME  5 – Beam welding.
Section IX for quality work.
 6 – Not used.
 BS 4872 shows an adequate level of skill from
general work.  7 – Other welding processes.
 8 – Cutting and gouging.
 9 – Brazing, soldering and braze welding.
2-1
Process Terminology –
BS EN ISO 4063
Actual processes depicted by three digits, eg:
 111 – Manual metal arc welding
 114 – Self-shielded tubular-cored arc welding
 121 – Submerged arc welding with one wire electrode
 125 – Submerged arc welding with tubular cored
electrode
 131 – Metal inert gas welding (MIG welding)
 135 – Metal active gas welding (MAG welding)
 136 – Tubular cored metal arc welding with active gas
shield
 141 – Tungsten inert gas arc welding (TIG welding)
2-2
Why Are Symbols Needed?
 To avoid excessive wording on drawing.

 To give universally accepted description.
 To ensure everyone has same understanding.
 To achieve design requirement on shop floor.
Weld Symbols
Basic Design of Symbols Basic Symbols for Edge Preparation
Supplementary Symbols Complementary Symbols
3-1
Dimensioning Fillet Welds Symbols for Intermittent Welding
Summary of Weld Symbols
3-2
Creation and Protection of Weld Pool
Fusion welding:
 Heat to melt parent plate and filler.
 Protection of melt from atmosphere.
Heat:
Introduction to Fusion Welding  Flame.
 Electric arc.
TWI Training & Examination Services  Electrical resistance.
 Power beam.
Protection:
 Vacuum or controlled atmosphere.
 Shielding gas and/or flux.
Protection Gas Shielding
Inert gas.
 Argon – Ar.
 Helium – He.
 Ar-He.
 Nitrogen – N2 (inert for copper, but not
others).
Active gas.
 CO2.
 Ar-CO2.
 Ar-O2.
 Ar-H2.
Flux Shielding Leftward and Rightward Directions
 Flux may create gas to shield arc.

 Flux may have ingredients that react with
oxygen or nitrogen.
 Flux melts and solidifies to slag that covers
hot metal and excludes air.
Leftward technique Rightward technique
4-1
Creation of a Molten Pool Flame
 Flame.  Burning fuel gas with oxygen creates flame

 Arc. temperature around 3000°C.
 Resistance.  Cannot melt refractory metals – Nb. Mo, W.
 Power beam.  Heat transfer by conduction and small amount
radiation.
 Parent material and filler, if used, melt and
mix in pool.
Arc Resistance
 Electrical potential ionises gas to give  Two sheets of metal pressed together by
conductive path between electrode and work. electrodes of Cu-Cr alloy.
 Arc generates plasma of ionised gas.  Current passed between electrodes has to
 Temperature very high – ca 10,000°C. cross boundary between sheets.
 Heat transfer by conduction and radiation.  High resistance at boundary generates heat
 Will melt all metals. that melts the interface.
 Pressure applied to compact the molten area
into a nugget.
4-2
Compliance
 Government legislation – The Health & Safety

at Work Act.
 Health & Safety Executive – COSHH
Regulations, Statutory instruments.
ARC Welding Safety  British Standards – OHSAS 18001.
 Company Health and Safety Management
Systems.
 Work instructions – permits to work, risk
assessment documents etc.
 Local Authority requirements.
Must Consider Electric Shock

 Primary 240 or 460V mains.
 Electric shock.
 Heat and light.  Do not open welding equipment.
 Fumes and gases.  Only qualified electrician to wire or repair
 Noise. machine.
 Gas cylinder handling and storage.  Secondary 60-100V high current.
 Working at height or in restricted access.  Don’t touch metal parts of torch or
 Mechanical hazards: trips, falls, cuts, impact electrode holder – certainly not when
from heavy objects. touching an earth.
 Don’t work with worn cables.
 Cables must have capacity for max
current.
Electric Shock Assistance Heat
 Don't touch the person.  Burns can be severe.

 Keep others from being  Assume all metal around welding is hot.
harmed.  Don’t use hand pat to check.
 Switch off power.  Use indicator stick.
 Use non-conductive pole  Sparks ignite flammable material – remove.
to free the person.
 Hot metal spatter gives very serious burns.
 Check obvious injury.
 Don’t tuck trousers in boots.
 Move victim only when power
off and no neck or spine injuries.
 Don’t wear turn-ups.
 Ventilate and cool welder in confined space.
5-1
Light Infra-Red
 Different hazards according to type.
 Years of exposing eyes to IR causes gradual
 Type depends on wavelength. but irreversible opacity of the lens.
 Welding creates all three types.  IR emitted by welding arc causes damage only
short distance from the arc.
 Burning sensation in the skin surrounding eyes
Type Wavelength, nm exposed to arc heat. Natural reaction to move
or cover up.
Infra-red (heat) >700
 Rest of skin absorbs heat so cools the welder
– Do not remove clothing to cool.
Visible light 400-700
Ultra-violet radiation <400
Visible Ultra-Violet Effect on Eye
 Intense visible light from arc can dazzle and Cornea, conjunctiva inflammation – Arc eye.
damage network of nerves on the retina.  Arc eye caused by UV damaging layer of cells
 Effects depend on the duration and intensity of in cornea.
exposure.  Damaged cells die and fall off cornea exposing
 Natural reflex to close eyes. highly sensitive nerves.
 Normally this dazzling does not have long-  Rubbing of eyelid causes intense pain, usually
term effect. described as sand in the eye.
 Pain becomes even more acute if eye is
exposed to bright light after damage.
 Arc eye develops some hours after exposure.
Ultra-Violet Effect on Skin Fume
 UV from arc processes does not produce  Fume is from vaporisation, condensation and
attractive browning effect of suntan. oxidation of substances by arc.
 Gives acute reddening and irritation caused by  Particles very small remain in air for long time
changes in minute surface blood vessels. so may be breathed.
 Skin can be severely burned and blister.  Small particles are respirable penetrate the
 Reddened skin may die and flake off later. innermost regions of the lung where they have
 Intense, prolonged or frequent exposure, can the most potential to do harm.
give skin cancer.  Welding fume may be hazardous to health
must be controlled to regulation limits.
5-2
Is Fume Hazardous? Is Fume Hazardous?
 Degree of risk depends on:  Fe3O4, CaCO3, TiO2 have WEL of 4 or 5mg/m3.
 Composition.  Similar to any dust – no specific health issue
 Concentration. but needs control for proper lung function.
Length of time of exposure.

 Mn, Cr3+, soluble Ba set at 0.5mg/m3.
 Need to know parent plate, any coating, filler  Cu is 0.2mg/m3.
and composition of fume generated.
 Cr6+, NiO potential carcinogens so:
 Different fume components vary in toxicity.
 Soluble Ni WEL of 0.5mg/m3.
 Limits given in guidance note EH40 Workplace  Cr6+ only 0.05mg/m3.
Exposure Limits available from the Health and  Exposure over time-weighted average 8hours.
Safety Executive (HSE).
Gases Why Are Gases a Problem?
Toxic gases can appear in welding and cutting:  Ar, He, CO2 all asphyxiants – can’t see or smell
 Fuel gases when burnt form CO2 and CO. them in confined space.
 Shielding gases Ar, He, CO2.  Breathing <18% O2 can pass out in seconds.
 CO2 and CO from welding flux or slag.  CO is toxic, WEL 30ppm – can be formed in
 NO, NO2, O3 from heat or UV on atmosphere OFW, MMA, MIG, SAW.
surrounding the welding arc.  NO and NO2 ‘NOx’ formed by plasma cutting.
 Gases from the degradation of solvent  O3, WEL 0.2ppm, formed in TIG and MIG,
vapours or surface contaminants on the metal. especially on Al, at a distance from arc.
Local Fume and Gas Extraction Portable Fume Extraction Equipment
5-3
Noise Gas Handling and Storage
 Welding not excessively noisy but:  Gas cylinders can be pressurised to 300bar.
 Air-arc gouging.  Sudden release creates 100kg missile:
 Grinding.  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ejEJGNLTo84
 Metalworking.  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CHDAbM09Y1o
Can all give excessive noise levels  Must keep in secure cradle or trolley.
>85dB hearing protection MUST be worn  Should not be lifted by single person.
80-85dB protection must be available and given  Fit correct pressure regulator.
if operator requests it.  Check for leaks in hoses and equipment.
Working at Height Working in Confined Space
All standard precautions: All standard precautions:

 Correctly erected scaffolding  Permit to work.
 Ladders tied in  Risk assessment.
 Handrails, safety cages on any lifts  Emergency evacuation procedure.
 Running boards and kickboards fitted and tied Additional risks when welding or cutting:
Risk assessment for welding:  Gas accumulation – asphyxiation, explosion.
 Can you lift gas cylinders?  Toxic gas, eg CO, if poorly set-up.
 Is welder protected from fall if electric  Use externally-fed helmets.
shocked?  Operate buddy scheme.
 Are others protected from falling hot metal?
Mechanical Hazards Mechanical Hazards
 Large heavy metal pieces need manipulation. Vibration white finger

 Thin metal has sharp edges. from:
 Welding cables can be trip hazard.  Grinders.
 Spark and spatter ejection risk to others.  Pneumatic burr
tools.
 Mechanised welding needs guards.
 Chipping hammers.
 Vibration White Finger can result from 30min
of chipping hammer per day.  Needle guns.
5-4
Acetylene
 Highest temperature.
 Highest heat energy in inner flame.
 Lowest ratio of O2.
 Ideal for welding higher MPt metals, eg steel.
Oxy-Fuel Gas Welding  Good for cutting.
Propane MAPP
 Highest heat energy in outer flame.  Methylacetylene and propadiene.

 Ideal for preheating.  Can be readily compressed.
 Can preheat steel prior to oxygen injection so  Useful for underwater work.
can be used for cutting.  Cutting and welding possible.
Flame Type Neutral Flame
 Inner cone rounded and distinct – white –

 Neutral – equal C2H2 and O2. C2H2 and O2 burn to CO and H2.
 Surrounded by colourless tongue where CO
and H2 will reduce any metal oxides.
 Oxidising – excess O2.  Outer zone – slightly blue – CO and H2 burn
with O2 from air to give CO2 and H2O.
 Fizzling sound.
 Reducing – excess C2H2.  Used for welding ferritic steel, stainless steel,
copper alloys, brazing, braze welding.
6-1
Oxidising Flame Reducing Flame
 Very small pointed inner cone.  Long white inner cone.

 Bright blue, almost violet, outer zone.  Excess C2H2 burns at edge of outer zone with
 Excess O2 means oxide will form. O2 from air, ragged edge.
 Used for welding zinc to avoid vapourisation.  Luminous, slightly yellow.
 No sound.
 Carburising so used for hardfacing.
 Used for Al alloys to avoid oxide build up.
Gas Welding Equipment Gas Welding Equipment
*  Oxygen supply – white top to cylinder.

 Acetylene supply – maroon top to cylinder.
 Regulators, specific for gas, to reduce
pressure.
 Flashback arrestors.
 Hoses colour coded for gas.
 Non-return valves.
 Blowpipe.
 Nozzles to suit application.
Safety Checks Before Welding Gas Welding
 Flashback arrestors and non-return valves. Mode of operation

 Hoses, blue for oxygen and red for acetylene,  Fuel gas and oxygen mixed in body of
have no sign of wear. blowpipe then fed through nozzle and burnt.
 Regulators are correct type for the gas.  Welder manipulates blowpipe to melt edges of
workpiece and so form weld pool.
 Cylinder key in each cylinder.
 Filler metal (rod) is added as required.
 All connections are tight, no leaks.
 Weld pool protected from atmospheric
 No oil or grease near any part of oxygen line contamination by the burnt gas products and
or cylinder. can be made mildly oxidising or reducing.
 No copper containing material in direct contact
with acetylene.
6-2
Gas Welding Parameters
 Nozzle size.
 Gas pressure.
 Gas flow rate.
 Tip to work distance.
 Travel speed.
 Leftward or rightward technique.
6-3
Conductors and Non-Conductors
Conductors.
 Metals.
 Graphite.
 Salt solutions.
Electricity as Applicable to Welding  Plasma (ionised gas).
Non-conductors.
TWI Training & Examination Services  Most non-metallic materials, eg rubber, O2
gas.
 Most organic material, eg wood, cotton.
 Most minerals, eg limestone, clay, rocks.
How a Conductor Works Magnetism and Electricity
 Electrons on outside of atom loosely bound.  Magnetism is naturally occurring, earth has a
 Can be stripped from atom by electrical magnetic field.
potential (+/- voltage).  Concept of North and South poles for earth
 Electrons are negatively charged so flow and for magnets.
towards positive.  Magnets apply force on charged particles.
 Rest of atom positively charged, called ion,  North is +ve – will attract electrons
flows toward negative.  South is –ve – will attract positive ions
 Metals have loose electrons helping to bind  Loosely bound electrons in metal move in a
atoms together, even without electricity, so magnetic field.
very good conductors when potential applied.
Dynamo Principle Dynamos
 Move metal wire through magnetic field

and electrons move along it to try to stay
close to positive North pole.
 Use many wires and keep moving, many
electrons flow along wires.
 Collect electrons from wires – flow of
electricity.
 Can have annular magnets and spin wire
bundle in centre or make wire bundle
annular and spin magnet in centre – Principle of bicycle Gramme Dynamo 1870
dynamo
dynamo.
7-1
Electrical Terms Power
Potential or voltage. Available power depends on both i and V:

 Creates drive - size of difference between +  240V indicator lamp on equipment – dim.
and -  12V battery lamp – very bright.
 Termed V, measured in volts. Product of i and V is power consumption, W,
Electromotive force, EMF. measured in watts:
 Drive created by electrical potential. W=ixV
 Termed ε, measured in volts. Available power measured in same way, eg 240V
Current. mains on 13A fused circuit has:
 Flow of electrons and ions. W = 13 x 240 = 3120 = 3.12kW.
 Termed i, measured in amperes (Amps).
Resistance Heating Effect
 House Cu wire – 3kW no noticeable effect.  Difficulty of flow in Ni-Cr wire gives energy
 Electric fire wires glow red and give out heat. loss as heat.
 Cu low resistance, passes current very easily.  Happens in all conductors, even Cu house
 Ni-Cr high resistance, current flow difficult. cables can heat up.
 Resistance, R, measured in Ohms, Ω.  Heating effect proportional to resistance of
wire and square of current carried:
 Ohms Law:
V=ixR
i2R Effect
Direct and Alternating Current Frequency
 Dynamo, and modern generator, gives current  Number of cycles per second can vary.
all in same direction – direct current (DC).  One cps is called 1 Hertz, 1HZ.
 National Grid supplies current that changes  European grid supply is 50 cps, 50Hz.
direction – alternating current (AC).  US grid supply is 60Hz.
7-2
Transformation The Transformer
 Voltage in 2nd coil
 To minimise loss, grids have very high voltage depends on turns.
– 400,000V.
V1/V2 = n1/n2
 Reduce for domestic and industrial use.
 High V, more turns.
 Link between electricity and magnetism used.
 Low V , few turns.
 Current at high voltage passed through coil
with iron core – gives magnetic flux in iron.  Energy preserved
so:
 Core is loop and passes through second coil of
wire – induces current in this coil.  High V, low i.
 Low V, high i.
Welding Current and Voltage Rectification

 Welding needs high current but low Half-wave:
voltage.  Pass AC through diode, only allows one way
 At 80V (typical starting voltage for arc) flow:
mains 15A ring main supply transforms
to 45A.
 Even cooker supply gives only 90A. Can
be used for small hobby jobs as arc runs
at around 30V after start.
 Industrial jobs need industrial supply.
 415V, 125A transforms to 650A at 80V or
1700A at 30V.
Full-Wave Rectification Series and Parallel
Use four diode bridge. Turns negative half-cycle  Daisy chain resistors in series:
to positive.
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...
A
 Link resistors piggy back in parallel:
B
1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ...
7-3
Inductance Current Rise and Inductance
 Current in wire generates magnetic field.
 Magnetic flux proportional to current.
No inductance
 So, if current changes, magnetic field
intensity also varies.
Current With inductance
 Faraday Law: changing field of magnetic
flux induces an EMF in wire that acts to
oppose the increase in current.
 Phenomenon is known as inductance.
 Useful in welding. Rapid changes in
current can give instability. Inductance Time
slows change.
Inductors Inverters
 Purpose-built inductors wound as coils to  Inverter electronically switches DC to give

maximise magnetic effect. negative cycle.
 An inductor may have ferromagnetic core to  Speed of switching can be varied and can be
amplify effect. very high – 100kHz.
 Some cores may move to vary inductance.  HF transformer can be very much smaller.
 Symbols for inductors.  Transformer in inverter power source is very
small yet handles high current without
overheating.
Size Comparison
Conventional MMA Inverter MMA
7-4
Generators
 Use dynamo principle rotating wires through

magnetic fields to produce DC electricity.
 Petrol or diesel driven engines, generators
require no electricity so very portable.
Power Sources  Used for site work.
 Not popular for shop work as noisy.
Transformers Transformers
 In simplest form, step-down transformer to Tapped transformer Moving core

take 415V mains to 80-100V. transformer
 Output current adjusted by adding inductance
and capacitance (reactance).
 This is called choking and the adjustment
control often called the choke.
 Can tap at different points of output coil of
transformer or use moving iron core.
Rectifier Inverters
HF AC transformation
gives very small size
Transformer coupled with rectifier gives DC
8-1
Current/Voltage Relationship Drooping Characteristic
100
O.C.V. Striking voltage
 415V drawing 20A has power input 8.3kW. 90 (typical) for arc
 Allow for loss, say 7.5kW. 80
initiation
 Theoretically: 70
 75A at 100V.
60
Voltage
 375 A at 20V.
50
 Straight line graph.
V
 Not so in practice. 40
Normal Operating
30 Voltage Range
20
10
20 40 60 80 100 120 130 140 160 180 200
i Amperage
Drooping Characteristic Flat Characteristic
 Known as constant current (CC).

Small change in voltage = large change in amperage
 No current – open circuit voltage (OCV).
 For MMA OCV helps strike arc.
 Used on steep slope where large change to
voltage makes small change to current.
 Manual welding difficult to hold electrode at
V
exactly same height, so voltage varies.
 Very little effect on current so penetration
stays the same.
 Ideal for MMA and TIG.
Flat Characteristic Self-Adjusting Arc
 Known as constant voltage (CV) or constant

potential (CP).
 Very shallow, almost straight line graph.
 Large effect on current changes burn off rate
of a wire electrode.
 Used for MIG/MAG and SAW.
 Self-adjusting arc.
Feed speed = burn V up, i down, burn Wire advances, i

off off down. Feed increases until: Feed
speed > burn off speed = burn off
8-2
Self-Adjusting Arc Multi-Process Power Sources
 Solid state control.

 Inverter small size.
 Circuitry to adjust between CC and CV.
 Machines do all:
 MMA.
 TIG.
 MIG.
 Pulsed MIG.
 FCAW.
 Carbon arc gouging.
Feed speed = burn V down, i up, burn Wire retracts, i
off off up. Feed speed decreases until: Feed
< burn off speed = burn off
Pulsed Power Pulsing by Wave Chopping
 Switching off or reversing polarity in

programmed manner. i
 Useful for heat input and weld pool control.
 Makes positional welding easier, eg MIG with
spray transfer during peak current pulse. t
High current
 Balancing melting and cleaning when AC TIG
welding aluminium alloys.
i
Low current t
Synergic Control MIG One-Knob Control
 Can adjust pulse parameters – height,

duration, frequency – to melt and detach one
drop per pulse.
 Different for each filler and each wire size.
 Can programme machine with most common
combinations.
 Select via buttons or knob.
 One-knob control.
 Select material/wire/gas combination on knob in
wire feeder compartment.
 Adjust voltage on front panel for thickness.
8-3
Slope Control TIG Duty Cycle
 Starts can have porosity and tungsten defects.  Heat generated by current through wires.
 Worse if started at full current.  May degenerate insulation, electrical safety.
 Start at very low current then build up.  Fire hazard.
 Slope-in or slope-up.  After use require a cooling period.
 Stops can have crater cracking.  Length of time in use in ten minute cycles with
 Step down to low current before switch off. the rest for cooling to remain within
 Slope-out, slope-down or crater-fill. temperature limit.
 Gas pre- and post-purge also help minimise Duty Cycle
defects.
BS EN 60974 Label for Duty Cycle
8-4
TIG Basics
TIG Welding
Equipment for TIG Arc Starting
Scratch start:
Power
control panel Transformer  Tungsten touched on workpiece.
/ Rectifier
 Short-circuit starts current.
Power return  Arc established as torch lifted.
cable Inverter
power
 Can leave tungsten inclusions.
source Lift arc:
Torch
 Electronic control very low short-circuit
assemblies Power
control panel current.
Tungsten  Builds to operational current as torch lifted.
electrodes Power cable
HF:
Flow-meter  Superimposition of HF high voltage spark.
Polarity Tungsten Types
DCEN: Pure W – green band:

 Most used.  Cheap, but short life. Poor arc start.
 Tungsten cooled by electron emission. W +ThO2 – yellow (1%), red (2%):
 Workpiece receives more heat.  High current carrying but slightly radioactive.
DCEP: W + CeO2 – grey (Europe), orange (US):
 Will clean oxide from Al and Mg.  Good for low current DC work.
 Heat tends to melt tungsten. W + La2O3 – black:
 Can be done with water cooled torch.  Increasing use to replace thoriated.
AC: W + ZrO2 – white (Europe), brown (US):
 Usual way to weld Al and Mg to get cleaning.  Used for AC.
9-1
GTAW Torch GTAW Torch
Torch types: Tungsten

electrode
Torch Electrode Collet
cap/tungsten collet holder
housing
Torch
body
 Gas cooled: cheap, simple, large size, short life for Ceramic
component parts. nozzle
 Water cooled: recommended over 150A, expensive, On/off
complex, small size, longer life of parts. switch
Correct Gas Flow Pre- and Post-Flow
 Too low and air can

reach pool from  Gas flow is started
sides. before and continues
 Too high and eddies after, welding
draw in air. current.
 Better protection
against oxidation.
Electrode Tip for DCEN Electrode Tip for AC

Penetration
increase
electrode diameter
Increase
2-2.5 times
Vertex
angle
Decrease
Bead width
increase Electrode tip ground
Electrode tip for low Electrode tip for high Electrode tip ground
current welding current welding and then conditioned
9-2
Grinding Tungstens Potential Defects
 Reserve grinder for tungsten only. Tungsten inclusions:

 Use diamond or boron nitride wheels.  Thermal shock Tungsten splinters can.
 Grind longitudinally and concentrically.  Touch start fuses spots to workpiece.
 Never use belt sander or sides of wheels.  Overheating can project tungsten fragments
into the weld pool.
 Do not breath grinding dust.
 Very visible on radiograph but not critical
 Use exhaust system for thoriated tungsten. defect.
 Tungsten splinters. Wear gloves and glasses. Solidification cracking:
 Use grinding wand. Electrodes get hot.  Some compositions inherently crack sensitive.
 Impurities often make eutectics.
 Fillers designed with elements to react with
impurities, eg Mn used to give high MPt MnS.
Potential Defects Advantages of TIG
Oxide inclusions:  No spatter, high cleanliness.

 Oxides contribute to lack of fusion.  Good welder easily produces quality welds.
 No fluxing to absorb oxides.  Good for penetration beads in all positions.
 Need to keep good gas cover to avoid  Wide range metals, including dissimilar.
oxidation of reactive metals.  Good protection for reactive.
Diffraction mottling:  Very good for joining thin materials.
 Not real defect.  Very low levels of diffusible hydrogen.
 Black and white parallel lines on radiograph.
 Can obscure real lack of fusion defect.
Disadvantages of TIG
 Low deposition rates.

 Higher dexterity and co-ordination.
 Less economical for thicker sections.
 Not good in draughty conditions.
 Low tolerance of contaminants.
 Tungsten inclusions can occur.
9-3
MIG/MAG Welding
 Also known as gas metal arc welding.

 Uses continuous wire electrode.
 Weld pool protected by shielding gas.
 Classified as semi-automatic – may be fully
MIG/MAG FCAW Welding automated.
 Wire can be bare or coated solid wire, flux or
metal cored hollow wire.
MIG/MAG - Principle of Operation Process Characteristics
 DCEP from CV power source.

 Wire 0.6-1.6mm diameter. Gas shielded.
 Wire fed through conduit. Melt rate maintains
constant arc length/arc voltage.
 WFS directly related to burn-off rate.
 Burn-off rate directly related to current.
 Semi-automatic – set controls arc length.
 Can be mechanised and automated.
MIG/MAG Equipment Wire Feeding
Transformer
External wire
/ Rectifier
feed unit
Internal wire Power cable

feed system & hose
assembly
Power control
panel Liner for wire
15kg wire spool

Welding gun
Separate feeder Feeder in set
assembly
Power return
cable
10-1
Feeder Drive Rolls Types of Wire Drive System
Internal wire drive system Plain top roller
Two roll Four roll Push-pull
Half grooved
bottom roller Wire guide
Roll Grooves Liners for MIG/MAG
 Often have plain top roll.

 Bottom and sometimes top, roll grooved.
 V shape for steel.
 U shape for softer wire, eg Al.
 Knurled for positive feed.
 Care needed on tightness of rolls.
 Too light – rolls skid, wire stalls
 Too tight – rolls deform wire, wire can jam
 If wire stops arc burns back to contact tube. Close wound Teflon
stainless liner
steel wire
Welding Gun Types Torch Components

Welding gun body
Welding gun assembly
Swan neck (less nozzle) On/Off switch
Spatter
protection Hose
port
Push-pull Spot welding

Nozzles or
shrouds spacer
Gas diffuser Contact tips
10-2
Push-Pull Torch Assembly Power Source Characteristic
Contact Gas diffuser Small change in voltage = large change in amperage

tip
Union nut
V
WFS remote
control
Trigger potentiometer
Gas
nozzle
Self-Adjusting Arc Self-Adjusting Arc
Feed speed = burn off V down, i up, burn off Wire retracts, i decreases
Feed speed = burn off V up, i down, burn off Wire advances, i
up. Feed speed < until: Feed speed = burn
down. Feed speed > increases until: Feed
burn off off
burn off speed = burn off
Welding Parameters Wire Feed Speed/Current Relationship
Wire feed speed:

500
450
 Increasing wfs automatically gives more current.
400
Voltage:
350
Welding Current, A
 In spray, controls arc length and bead width. 300
Current: 250
0.8
0.9
 Not separately set. Mainly affects penetration. 200 1.2
1.6
Inductance: 150
 In dip, controls rise in current. Lowers spatter. 100
Gives hotter or colder welding. 50
More info on several websites, eg. 0

2.5 5 7.5 10
 www.millerwelds.com/resources/articles/MIG-GMAW-welding- Wire Feed Speed, m/min
basics.
10-3
Process Variables Process Variables
Arc voltage Electrode

orientation
Increasing Voltage
Reduced penetration, increased width
Excessive voltage can cause porosity,
spatter and undercut
Penetration Deep Moderate Shallow
Electrode Excess weld metal Max Moderate Min
extension Undercut Severe Moderate Minimum
Travel speed
Increasing travel speed
Reduced penetration and width,
undercut
Increased extension
Shielding Gas Transition Current Dip to Spray

Material Shielding Wire Dia, Transition
Argon: Gas mm Current, A
 OK for all metals weldable by MIG. 0.8 155-165
Ar + 0.9 175-185
 Supports spray transfer, not good for dip. 10%CO2 1.2 215-225
 Low penetration. C-Steel 1.6 280-290
0.9 130-140
Carbon dioxide:
Ar +2%O2 1.2 205-215
 Use on ferritic steel. 1.6 265-275
 Supports dip and globular, not spray. 0.8 120-130
Stainless 0.9 140-150
Ar based mixtures: Ar +2%O2
steel 1.2 185-195
 Add He, O2, CO2 to increase penetration. 1.6 250-260
 >20Ar + He, >80Ar + O2, CO2 can spray and

dip.
MIG and MAG Shielding Gases Metal Transfer Modes
Metal inert gas (MIG): Depending on shielding gas and voltage, metal
 Usually Ar shielding. crosses from wire to work in:
 Can be Ar + He mixture – gives hotter action.  Spray mode – wire tapers to a point and very
 Used for non-ferrous alloys, eg Al, Ni. fine droplets stream across from the tip.
Metal active gas (MAG):  Globular mode – large droplets form and drop
under action of gravity and arc force.
 Has oxidising gas shield.
 Short-circuiting (dip) mode – wire touches
 Can be 100% CO2 for ferritic steels. pool surface before arc re-ignition.
 Often Ar + 12-20% CO2 for both dip and  Pulsed mode – current and voltage cycled
spray. between no transfer and spray mode.
 Ar + O2 for stainless steel.
10-4
Use of Transfer Modes Dip Transfer
 Spray transfer: V > 27; i > 220:

 Thicker material, flat welding, high deposition
 Globular transfer: between dip and spray.
 Mechanised MAG process using CO2
 Dip transfer: V < 22; i < 200.
 Droplet stays attached and touches pool causing short-
 Thin material positional welding circuit.
 Pulse transfer: spray plus no transfer cycle.  Current rises very quickly giving energy to ‘pinch-off’
 Frequency range 50-300 pulses/second droplet violently .
 Positional welding and root runs  Akin to ‘blowing a fuse’ – causes spatter .
 Droplet detaches, arc re-establishes and current falls.
 Cycle occurs up to 200 times per second.
Dip Transfer Attributes Globular Transfer
Advantages:  Transfer by gravity or

 Low energy allows welding in all positions. short circuit.
 Good for root runs in single-sided welds.  Requires CO2 shielding
 Good for welding thin material.
 Drops larger than
Disadvantages: electrode hence severe
 Prone to lack of fusion. spatter.
 May not be allowed for high-integrity applications.
 Can use low voltage and
 Tends to give spatter.
bury arc to reduce spatter.
 High current and voltage,
so high distortion.
Spray Transfer Pulsed Transfer
 Tapered tip as anode Simplest form uses mains frequency and chops to
climbs wire. control current.
 Small droplets with free
flight from pinch effect.
 Requires Ar-rich gas. i
 High current and

voltage, high distortion. t
 Large pool, not

positional. i
 Used for thick material

and flat/horizontal t
welds.
10-5
Electronic Generation Pulsed Transfer Attributes
 With synthesised pulse height, duration and Advantages:

frequency can be controled.  Good fusion.
 Droplets spray during peak current across the  Small weld pool allows all-position welding.
arc.
 No transfer during background – current too Disadvantages:
low for dip.
 More complex and expensive power source.
 Can select conditions to give single drop
transfer each pulse – synergic MIG.  Difficult to set parameters.
 But synergic easy to set, manufacturer
provides programmes to suit wire type,
diameter and type of gas.
Potential Defects MIG/MAG Attributes
 Most defects caused by lack of welder skill, or Advantages: Disadvantages:

incorrect settings of equipment.  High productivity.  Lack of fusion (dip).
 Worn contact tip causes poor power pick up  Easily automated.  Small range of
and this causes wire to stub into work.  All positional (dip consumables.
 Silica inclusions can build up with poor interun and pulse).  Protection on site.
cleaning.  Material thickness  Complex equipment
 Lack of fusion (primarily with dip transfer). range.  Not so portable.
 Porosity (from loss of gas shield on site etc)  Continuous
 Cracking, centerline pipes, crater pipes on electrode.
deep narrow welds.
Gas Shielded Principle of Operation
Flux Core Arc Welding
10-6
Shielded Principle of Operation Benefit of Flux
 Flux assists in producing gas cover, more

tolerant to draughts than solid wire.
 Flux creates slag that protects hot metal.
 Slag holds bead when positional welding.
 Flux alloying can improve weld metal
properties.
 Reduced cross-section carrying current gives
increased burn-off at any current.
FCAW - Differences from MIG/MAG Self-Shielded Welding Gun
 Usually operate DCEP

but some self-shielded Close wound stainless steel
Handle
24V insulated
spring wire liner (inside switch lead
wires run DCEN. welding gun cable)
 Some hardfacing wires Conductor
are larger diameter – tube
need big power

source.
Welding
 Don't work in dip. Trigger gun cable
 Need knurled feed

Thread protector
rolls. Hand shield
 Self-shielded wires use Contact tip
a different torch.
Courtesy of Lincoln
Electric
Travel Angle Backhand (Drag) Technique
Advantages: Disadvantages
 Preferred for flat or  Produces higher weld
horizontal with profile.
FCAW.  Difficult to follow
 Slower travel. weld joint.
 Deeper penetration.  Can lead to burn-
75 90 75 through on thin
° ° °
sheet.
10-7
Forehand (Push) Technique FCAW Advantages
Advantages: Disadvantages:  Less sensitive to lack of fusion.

 Preferred method for  Produces low weld  Smaller included angle compared to MMA.
vertical up or profile, with coarser  High productivity.
overhead with ripples.  All positional.
FCAW.  Fast travel gives low  Smooth bead surface, less danger of undercut.
 Arc gives preheat penetration.
effect.  Basic types produce excellent toughness.
 Amount of spatter
 Easy to follow weld can increase.  Good control of weld pool in positional welding
joint and control especially with rutile wires.
penetration.  Ease of varying alloying constituents gives
wide range of consumables.
 Some can run without shielding gas.
Deposition Rate for C-Steel FCAW Disadvantages
 Limited to steels and Ni-base alloys.

 Slag covering must be removed.
 FCAW wire is more expensive per kg than solid
wires (except some high alloy steels) but note
may be more cost effective.
 Gas shielded wires may be affected by winds
and draughts like MIG.
 More fume than MIG/MAG.
10-8
Early History
 Bernados and Olszewaski often cited as

inventors from 1885 British patent but this
was carbon arc welding with two electrodes.
 Coffin in 1890 gained US patent for replacing
one carbon with metal rod. First instance of
Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welding metal transfer through an arc.
 Slavianoff also suggested using metal rods.
 In 1908 Kjellberg patented coated electrode -
dipped in CaCO3, clay and silicate.
 In 1909 Strohmenger patented asbestos
wound rods, stable on AC.
Developments MMA - Principle of Operation

Electrode angle 75‐
 In WW1 USA short of asbestos rods. Smith 80o to the horizontal
tried making the first cellulosic rod. Consumable
 Extruded electrodes appeared in the 1920s. Filler metal electrode
core
AO Smith selling heavy coated rods in 1926. Flux coating
 Rutile tried in 1930s, for flat and horizontal Direction of electrode
travel
welding. Solidified Arc Gaseous
 Roberts made rutile Vodex (Vertical, slag shield
Molten weld
Overhead, Downhand for MurEX) in 1936. pool
 MMA dominated welding 1940s to 1980s. Parent
 Also known as shielded metal arc welding Weld metal
metal
(SMAW).
MMA Welding MMA Basic Equipment
Main features:
 Shielding provided by decomposition of
flux. Control panel Power source
(amps, volts)
 Consumable electrode.
Electrode Holding oven
 Manual process. oven
Welder controls: Electrodes Inverter power
source
 Arc length.
Return lead
 Angle of electrode. Electrode holder
 Speed of travel. Welding visor
filter glass Power cables
 Current setting.
11-1
Constant Current Power Source MMA Electrode Holder
100
O.C.V. Striking
90 voltage (typical)
80
for arc initiation
70
60
Voltage
50
40
Normal Operating
30 Voltage Range
20
10
20 40 60 80 100 120 130 140 160 180 200 Collet or twist type Tongs type with
Amperage spring-loaded jaws
Process Characteristics Cellulosic Electrodes
 Straight lengths of coated electrode 250-  Use industrially extracted cellulose powder, or
450mm long and 1.6-6.0mm diameter. wood flour in the formula.
 DCEP, DCEN and AC all possible.  Characteristic smell when welding.
 Coatings grouped:  Slag remains thin and friable, although the high
arc force can create undercut and/or excessive
 Cellulosic.
ripple which may anchor the slag, thus requiring
 Iron oxide.
grinder inter-run cleaning.
 Rutile.
 Basic.  Strong arc action and deep penetration.
 With or without iron powder.  AWS E6010 types DC; E6011 run on AC.
 Gas shield principally hydrogen.
 Only used on C- and C-Mn steels.
 High arc force allows V-D stovepiping.
Rutile Electrodes Rutile High Recovery Electrodes
 High amount of TiO2, (rutile sand or ilmenite).  High amount Fe powder added.
 Coatings often coloured.  More weld metal laid at the same current.
 AWS type E6012 are DC; E6013 run on AC.  Coating much thicker, forms deep cup.
 Many designed for flat position.  End of coating can rest on workpiece.
 Fluid slag, smooth bead, easy slag removal.  Slag easy release, sometimes self-releasing.
 Need some moisture to give gas shield.  Only for flat position.
 Not low hydrogen.  These AWS E7024 have recovery between
 Available for ferritic and austenitic steels. 150-180%.
 Fair mechanical properties.  Recovery = Weld metal wt x100/core wire wt.
11-2
Basic Electrodes Other MMA Coatings
 CaCO3 and CaF2 main ingredients. AWS E7028:

 AWS E7015 first modern basic rods. Ran DC.  Basic with high levels of Fe powder added.
 Superseded by E7016 or E7018 – AC and DC.  Flat and horizontal only.
 E7018 has Fe powder to help stabilise arc.  Good mechanical properties.
 E7016 good rooting and all-positional.
AWS E6020:
 Both can give good mechanical properties.
 High levels of iron oxide.
 Often hybrid; small diameter no Fe powder,
larger dia. increasing amounts.  Rare now, used for painted steel.
 Used for ferritic, stainless steels, Ni and Cu.  High arc force, relatively poor properties.
Asbestos wound:
 No longer permitted.
Setting Up for MMA Welding Process Characteristics
 Slag will help clean but rust and scale must be  Arc melts both electrode and parent plate.
removed. For stainless and Ni wire brush.  Flux forms gas to protect and form a plasma
 Edge preparation usually needed: and slag to protect hot metal.
 60° for ferritic – deep penetration rods available  Short runs as finite length electrode.
70-80° for stainless and Cu – less forceful rods

 Must de-slag before next run.
 Up to 90° for Ni alloys – sluggish, viscous pool
 Root gap 1-3mm for most applications
 Good earth connection. Weld towards it on DC
to minimise arc blow (or use AC).
MMA Welding Variables MMA Welding Parameters
Open circuit voltage (OCV) Current

 Value of potential difference delivered by set with  Range set by electrode, diameter, material
no load. Must be enough for specific electrode. type and thickness.
 Electrodes labelled with min OCV, usually. ~80V.  Approximately 35A per mm diameter.
Voltage  Too low – poor start, lack of fusion, slag
 Measure arc voltage close to arc. inclusions, humped bead shape.
 Variable with change in arc length.  Too high – spatter, excess penetration,
 Too low, electrode ‘stubs’ into weld pool. undercut, burn-through.
 Too high, spatter, porosity, excess penetration, Polarity
undercut, burn-through.  Can be DCEP, DCEN, AC.
 Determined by operation and electrode type.
11-3
MMA Welding Parameters MMA – Parameter Setting
Travel speed: left to right

 Controlled by welder.  Good conditions.
 Often measured as run-out length as time to  Current too low.
burn single rod fairly standard at constant  Current too high.
current.  Arc length too short.
 Too low – wide bead, excess penetration,  Arc length too long.
burn-through.
 Travel too slow.
 Too high – narrow bead, lack of penetration,
lack of fusion, difficult slag removal.  Travel too fast.
Typical Current Ranges Heat Input

Type EN Dia. Current Range, A
Specification mm
Cellulosic,
E38 0 C 11
3.2
4.0
90 – 120
120 – 160
 Total energy put in weld bead in unit time.
mild steel
5.0 135 – 200
2.0
2.5
40 – 70
75 – 100
 Calculated as: HI (kJ/mm) = 60iVk/1000S.
Rutile, mild
steel all- E 35 2 R12
3.2
4.0
95 – 125
135 – 180
Where:
positional
5.0
6.0
155 – 230
185 – 300
 i = current in amps.
2.5 85 – 125
Rutile,mild
3.2 130 – 170  V = voltage in volts.
steel high
E42 0 RR73 4.0 180 – 230
recovery,
160%
5.0 250 – 340  S = travel speed in mm/min.
6.0 300 – 430
2.0 50 – 75  k = thermal efficiency factor.
E69 4 2.5 70 – 110
Basic, low
alloy
Mn2NiCrMo B42 3.2
H5 4.0
100 – 150
135 – 210
 k = 0.8 for MMA, MIG/MAG and FCAW.
5.0
1.6
180 – 260
35 – 45
 k = 0.6 for TIG and plasma.
Rutile,
2.0
2.5
35 – 65
50 – 90  k = 1.0 for SAW.
E19 9 LR12
stainless 3.2 70 – 130
4.0 90 – 180
5.0 140 – 250
2.5 60 – 90
Basic, Cu
3.2 90 – 125
7Sn
4.0 125 – 170
Stringer or Weave Multipass or Block Welding
Weave:  In thick material, typical bead won’t fill

 Lateral swings as well as moving along joint. groove.
 Move slowly allowing metal to build but limited
 Useful to assist side wall fusion.
in flat position.
 Run-out is shorter so heat input is higher.  Block welding very high HI so poor properties.
 Slows cooling rate, poorer toughness.  Use multiple layers – multipass welding.
Stringer Bead:  Need good cleaning of slag between runs.
 Run weld bead in straight line along joint.  Excellent properties, each bead heat treats
 Lower heat input per unit length. one below. Can give with high toughness.
 Can be too low – martensite in steel so poor
toughness.
11-4
Skip or Back-Step Welding Preheat
 Technique to minimise distortion.  Ferritic steels must not have hydrogen

 30-50mm weld made then move ~150mm diffusing and inducing cracking.
along seam and lay another short run.  Can apply preheat to slow rate of cooling
 Continue to end of seam. giving hydrogen time to be released as
 Return to start and make 30-50mm welds in process more susceptible to MICC.
gaps.  Preheat may be with gas torch and large
 Repeat until seam completely welded. nozzle or electrically heated blankets.
 Large number of starts and stops may have  Preheat specified as a minimum. Parent plate
defects like porosity or cracking. near weld must be heated. Check with probe
or temperature sensitive crayons.
Interpass Temperature Operating Factor for MMA
 In multipass welding must avoid heat build up.  Welder needs time to change rods.
Can lower strength and toughness.  Also has to de-slag weld bead and grind any
 Maximum interpass may be specified. imperfections.
 Note preheat still applicable so may have  May be required to observe interpass
minimum interpass temperature (equivalent to temperatures.
original preheat) and maximum.  Inspection will be required.
 On long runs welder has to reposition.
 All reduce time weld metal is deposited.
 Arc time % to total time is operating factor for
MMA this is rarely above 30%.
Typical Welding Defects Advantages and Disadvantages
Most caused by: Advantages: Disadvantages:

 Lack of welder skill.  Field or shop use.  High welder skill.
 Incorrect settings of equipment.  Range of  High levels of fume.
 Incorrect use or treatment of electrodes. consumables.  Hydrogen control
Typical Defects:  All positions. (flux).
 Slag inclusions.  Portable.  Stop/start problems.
 Arc strikes.  Simple equipment.  Low productivity.
 Porosity.
 Undercut.
 Shape defects. (overlap, excessive root
penetration, etc.)
11-5
Welding Consumables
Welding consumables are any products that are

used up in the production of a weld.
Welding consumables may be:
 Covered electrodes, filler wires and electrode
Welding Consumables wires.
 Shielding or oxy-fuel gases.
TWI Training & Examination  Separately supplied fluxes.
Services  Fusible inserts.
Welding Consumable Standards Welding Consumables
MMA (SMAW) MIG/MAG (GMAW) TIG TIG/PAW rods

 BS EN 499: Steel (GTAW) Welding
electrodes.  BS 2901: Filler wires. fluxes
 AWS A5.1 non-alloyed  BS EN 440: Wire (SAW)
steel electrodes. electrodes.
 AWS A5.4 chromium  AWS A5.9: Filler wires. Cored wire
electrodes.  BS EN 439: Shielding
 AWS A5.5 alloyed steel gases.
electrodes. SAW
 BS 4165: Wire and SAW strips
MIG/MAG
fluxes.
solid wire
 BS EN 756: Wire
electrodes.
 BS EN 760: Fluxes. SAW Covered
 AWS A5.17: Wires and solid wire Courtesy of ESAB AB electrodes
fluxes.
Welding Consumable Gases Welding Consumables
Welding gases:  Each consumable is critical in respect to:

 GMAW, FCAW, TIG, Oxy- Fuel.  Size.
 Supplied in cylinders or storage  Classification/supplier.
tanks for large quantities.
 Colour coded cylinders to  Condition.
minimise wrong use.  Treatments eg baking/drying.
 Subject to regulations
concerned handling, quantities  Handling and storage is critical for consumable
and positioning of storage areas. control.
 Moisture content is limited  Handling and storage of gases is critical for
to avoid cold cracking.
safety.
 Dew point (the temperature at
which the vapour begins to
condense) must be checked.
12-1
Quality Assurance Welding Consumables
Welding consumables:
 Filler material must be stored in an area with
controlled temperature and humidity.
 Poor handling and incorrect stacking may
damage coatings, rendering the electrodes
unusable.
 There should be an issue and return policy for MMA Covered Electrodes
welding consumables (system procedure).
 Control systems for electrode treatment must
be checked and calibrated; those operations
must be recorded.
 Filler material suppliers must be approved
before purchasing any material.
MMA Welding Consumables MMA Welding Consumables
Welding consumables for MMA: Function of the electrode covering:

 Consist of a core wire typically between  To facilitate arc ignition and give arc stability.
350-450mm in length and from 2.5-6mm in diameter.  To generate gas for shielding the arc and molten
 The wire is covered with an extruded flux coating. metal from air contamination.
 The core wire is generally of a low quality rimming  To de-oxidise the weld metal and flux impurities into
steel. the slag.
 The weld quality is refined by the addition of alloying  To form a protective slag blanket over the solidifying
and refining agents in the flux coating. and cooling weld metal.
 The flux coating contains many elements and  To provide alloying elements to give the required weld
compounds that all have a variety of functions during metal properties.
welding.  To aid positional welding (slag design to have suitable
freezing temperature to support the molten weld
metal).
 To control hydrogen contents in the weld (basic type).
The three main electrode covering types used in Plastic foil sealed cardboard box
MMA welding.  Rutile electrodes.
 General purpose basic electrodes.
 Cellulosic - deep penetration/fusion.
 Rutile - general purpose.
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
 Basic - low hydrogen.

Tin can
 Cellulosic electrodes.
Vacuum sealed pack

 Extra low hydrogen electrodes.
12-2
 Cellulosic electrodes: Cellulosic electrodes

 Covering contains cellulose (organic material). Disadvantages:
 Produce a gas shield high in hydrogen raising the arc  Weld beads have high hydrogen.
voltage.
 risk of cracking (need to keep joint hot during
 Deep penetration / fusion characteristics enables welding to allow H to escape).
welding at high speed without risk of lack of fusion.
 Generates high level of fumes and H2 cold cracking.  Not suitable for higher strength steels - cracking risk
 Forms a thin slag layer with coarse weld profile.
too high (may not be allowed for Grades stronger
than X70).
 Not require baking or drying (excessive heat will
damage electrode covering!).  Not suitable for very thick sections (may not be
 Mainly used for stove pipe welding. used on thicknesses > ~ 35mm).
 Hydrogen content is 80-90 ml/100 g of weld metal.  Not suitable when low temperature toughness is
required (impact toughness satisfactory down to
~ -20°C).
Cellulosic electrodes Rutile electrodes:

 Covering contains TiO2 slag former and arc stabiliser.
 Advantages:  Disadvantages:
 Easy to strike arc, less spatter, excellent for positional
 Deep  High in hydrogen. welding.
penetration/fusion.  High crack tendency.  Stable, easy-to-use arc can operate in both DC and AC.
 Suitable for welding  Rough weld  Slag easy to detach, smooth profile.
in all positions. appearance.  Reasonably good strength weld metal.
 Fast travel speeds.  High spatter  Used mainly on general purpose work.
 Large volumes of contents.  Low pressure pipework, support brackets.
shielding gas.  Low deposition rates.  Electrodes can be dried to lower H2 content but cannot
 Low control. be baked as it will destroy the coating.
 Hydrogen content is 25-30 ml/100g of weld metal.

Rutile electrodes
Rutile electrodes
Disadvantages:  Advantages:  Disadvantages:
 They cannot be made with a low hydrogen  Easy to use.  High in hydrogen.
content.  Low cost/control.  High crack tendency.
 Cannot be used on high strength steels or  Smooth weld  Low strength.
thick joints - cracking risk too high. profiles.  Low toughness
 They do not give good toughness at low  Slag easily values.
temperatures. detachable.
 These limitations mean that they are only  High deposition
suitable for general engineering - low possible with the
strength, thin steel. addition of iron
powder.
12-3
High recovery rutile electrodes High recovery rutile electrodes

Characteristics: Disadvantages:
 Coating is bulked out with iron powder.
 Same as standard rutile electrodes with
 Iron powder gives the electrode high recovery. respect to hydrogen control.
 Extra weld metal from the iron powder can mean  Large weld beads produced cannot be used for
that weld deposit from a single electrode can be as
all-positional welding.
high as 180% of the core wire weight.
 Give good productivity.  The very high recovery types usually limited to
PA and PB positions.
 Large weld beads with smooth profile can look
very similar to SAW welds.  More moderate recovery may allow PC use.
Basic covering: Basic electrodes

 Produce convex weld profile and difficult to detach slag.
 Very suitable for for high pressure work, thick section
Disadvantages:
steel and for high strength steels.  Careful control of baking and/or issuing of electrodes is
 Prior to use electrodes should be baked, typically 350°C essential to maintain low hydrogen status and avoid risk
for 2 hour plus to reduce moisture to very low levels of cracking.
and achieve low hydrogen potential status.
 Typical baking temperature 350°C for 1-2hours.
 Contain calcium fluoride and calcium carbonate
compounds.  Holding temperature 120-150°C.
 Cannot be re baked indefinitely!  Issue in heated quivers typically 70°C.
 Low hydrogen potential gives weld metal very good
 Welders need to take more care/require greater skill.
toughness and YS.
 Have the lowest level of hydrogen (less than 5ml/100g  Weld profile usually more convex.
of weld metal).  De-slagging requires more effort than for other types.
Basic electrodes BS EN 499 MMA Covered Electrodes
Advantages Disadvantages
 High toughness  High cost. Compulsory
values.  High control.
 Low hydrogen  High welder skill
contents. required.
 Low crack tendency.  Convex weld
profiles.
 Poor stop/start
properties.
Optional
12-4
BS EN 499 MMA Covered Electrodes BS EN 499 MMA Covered Electrodes
E 50 3 2Ni B 7 2 H10  Electrodes classified as follows:

 E 35 - Minimum yield strength 350 N/mm2
Covered Electrode
Tensile strength 440-570 N/mm2
Yield Strength N/mm2
Toughness
Chemical composition
Flux Covering Tensile strength 500-640 N/mm2
Weld Metal Recovery  E 46 - Minimum yield strength 460 N/mm2
and Current Type
Welding Position  E 50 - Minimum yield strength 500 N/mm2
Hydrogen Content Tensile strength 560-720 N/mm2
BS EN 499 Electrode Designation AWS A5.1 Alloyed Electrodes
Recovery and type of Welding position E 60 1 3

current designation
Symbol Weld metal Type of Symbol Welding position

recovery (%) current
1 All positions Covered electrode
1 105 AC/DC
2
All positions except Tensile strength (p.s.i)
2 105 DC vertical down
Welding position
3 >105 125 AC/DC Flat butt/fillet,
3
4 >105 125 DC
horizontal fillet Flux covering
5 >125 160 AC/DC 4 Flat butt/fillet
6 >125 160 DC Flat butt/fillet,

5 horizontal fillet,
7 >160 AC/DC vertical down
8 >160 DC
AWS A5.5 Alloyed Electrodes MMA Welding Consumables
E 70 1 8 M G Types of electrodes (for C, C-Mn Steels)

BS EN 499 AWS A5.1
 Cellulosic E XX X C EXX10
Covered electrode
EXX11
Tensile strength (p.s.i)
 Rutile E XX X R EXX12
Welding position EXX13
Flux covering  Rutile heavy coated E XX X RR EXX24
Moisture control  Basic E XX X B EXX15
Alloy content EXX16
EXX18
12-5
AWS A5.1 & A5.5 Alloyed Electrodes Moisture Pick-Up
 Example AWS electrode flux types:

 Cellulosic: flux-ends in 0 - 1
Examples: E6010, E6011, E7010, E8011
 Rutile: flux-ends in 2 - 3 - 4
Examples: E5012, E6012, E6013, E6014
 Basic: flux-ends in 5 - 6 - 7 - 8
Examples: E6016, E7017, E8018, E9018
 Temperature.
Moisture pick-up as a function of:
 Humidity.
Electrode Efficiency Covered Electrode Treatment
up to 180% for iron powder electrodes Baking oven:

 Need temperature
control.
Mass of weld metal deposited  Requires calibration.
Electrode efficiency =
Mass of core wire me Heated quivers:
lted
 Only for maintaining
moisture out of
electrodes after
75-90% for usual e lectrodes baking.
Covered Electrode Treatment Covered Electrode Treatment
Cellulosic Use straight from

Basic electrodes
Baking in oven 2
the box - No hours at 350°C!
electrodes baking/drying!
Rutile If necessary, dry up Limited number of

to 120°C- No After baking, maintain in
electrodes rebakes!
oven at 150°C
baking!
Vacuum Use straight from the If not used within

packed basic pack within 4 hours - 4 hours, return to
Use from quivers
Weld
No rebaking! at 75°C
electrodes oven and rebake!
12-6
Covered Electrode Inspection Questions
1 Electrode size (diameter and length)
Welding consumables:
 QU 1. Why are basic electrodes used mainly
on high strength materials and what c
ontrols are required when using basic
2 Covering condition: adherence, cracks, chips and
concentricity electrodes?
 QU 2. Name ten functions of an MMA flux?
 QU 3. Why are cellulose electrodes commonly
3 Electrode designation used for the welding of pressure pipe
lines?
EN 499-E 51 3 B
 QU 4. What type of issues need to be
Arc ignition enhancing materials (optional!)
considered when using cellulostic
See BS EN ISO 544 for further information electrodes?
12-7
History of the Process
 In 1929 Robinoff in the US patented

continuous wire process with flux – but visible
arc.
 In 1935 Union Carbide/Linde patented fully
submerged arc – called Unionmelt.
Submerged Arc Welding
 Licensed around world with fused flux.
 Used for Liberty Ships, T2 Tankers in WW2.
 In 1949 Lincoln offered agglomerated flux.
SAW Principle of Operation Process Characteristics
 Arc between bare wire and parent plate.

 Arc, electrode end and the molten pool
submerged in powdered flux.
 Flux produces gas and slag in lower layers
under heat of arc giving protection.
 Wire fed by voltage-controlled motor driven
rollers to ensure constant arc length.
Process Characteristics SAW Basic Equipment
 Flux fed from hopper in continuous mound

along line of intended weld. Power return
Transformer
/ Rectifier
 Mound is deep to submerge arc. No spatter, cable
weld shielded from atmosphere, no UV on Power Welding carriage

welder. control panel control unit
 Unmelted flux reclaimed for use. Welding carriage

 Only for flat and horizontal-vertical positions.
Granulated Electrode wire
flux reel
Granulated
flux
13-1
Types of Equipment SAW Equipment
Wire reel
Hand-held gun Slides

Flux
Tractor hopper
Wire feed
motor
Feed roll
assembly
Torch
assembly
Tracking
Gantry system Contact tip
Column and boom Courtesy of ESAB AB
Tractor Units Column and Boom
 For straight or gently curved joints.  Linear travel only.

 Ride tracks alongside joint or directly on  Can move in 3 axis.
workpiece.
 Can have guide wheels to track.  Workpiece must be brought to weld station.
 Good portability, used where piece cannot be  Mostly used in workshop.
moved.
Gantry Power Sources
 2D linear movement only. Power sources can be:

 For large production.  Transformers for AC.
 May have more than  Transformer-rectifiers for DC.
one head. Static characteristic can be:
 Constant voltage (flat) – most popular.
 Constant current (drooping) – used for high
current.
13-2
Wire Fused Fluxes
 Usually 2-6mm diameter.  Original Unionmelt design – manganese,

 Copper coated to avoid rusting. aluminium and calcium silicates.
 25 or 30kg coils.  Non-hygroscopic, no need to bake.
 Can be supplied in bulk 300-2000kg.  Good for recycling, composition doesn’t vary
 Some can accept up to 2000A.
 Very limited alloying and property control.
 Cannot make basic fused flux.
Bonded or Agglomerated Flux SAW Operating Variables
 Powdered minerals pelletised with silicate.  Welding current.

 Baked to high temperature but hygroscopic.  Current type and polarity.
 Flexible composition, can alloy, make basic.  Welding voltage.
 Can add deoxidants for good properties.  Travel speed.
 Composition can vary as particle breakdown.  Electrode size.
 Need to extract fine granules when recycling.  Electrode extension.
 Can add Mn and Si to weld so separate  Width and depth of the layer of flux.
formulae for single or multipass.
Welding Current Setting Current
Controls penetration and dilution  Too high  excess weld metal, increased
shrinkage, more distortion.
 Excessively high  digging W<D
arc, undercut,
burn through, narrow bead  cracking.
 Too low  lack of fusion, poor penetration.
 Excessively low  unstable arc.
13-3
Current Type and Polarity Welding Voltage
 DCEP - deep  Controls arc length.
penetration; better  Increase gives flatter,
for porosity. wider bead.
 DCEN - higher  Increase also in flux
deposition rate; consumption and
reduce penetration; alloying transfer.
surfacing use.  Increase reduces
 AC used to avoid arc porosity.
blow; can give  Can bridge root gaps.
unstable arc.
Setting Voltage Setting Voltage
 Low voltage - stiffer  Excessively high

arc penetration in voltage:
deep groove and  Produces hat-shaped
resists arc blow. bead – tendency to
 Excessive low crack.
voltage - high  Increases undercut,
narrow bead  slag removal
difficult slag difficult.
removal.  Produce concave
W<D
fillet weld subject to

cracking.
Setting Travel Speed Setting Travel Speed
Increase gives:  Excessively high

 Low heat input . speed leads to
 Less filler metal undercut, arc blow
applied per unit of and porosity.
length.  Excessively low
 Less excess weld speed produces hat-
metal. shaped beads 
cracking.
 Smaller weld bead.
 Excessively low
speed produces
rough beads and
slag inclusions.
13-4
Electrode Size Electrode Extension
At same current, small Increased extension:

electrodes have higher  Adds resistance
current density so  Increases deposition
higher deposition
rates.  Decreases penetration and bead width
 Helps prevent burn-through
 Increase voltage to control weld shape
Excessive extension:
 difficult to position tip
Depth of Flux
 Influences appearance of weld.

 Usually, depth of flux is 25-30mm.
 If too deep:
 Arc too confined so rough rope-like top surface.
 Gases trapped so pool surface distorted.
 If too shallow: Effect of Electrode Angle on Bead Shape
 Flashing and spattering.
 Poor appearance and porous weld.
Weld Backing Starting/Finishing the Weld
Backing strip
Backing weld
Copper backing
13-5
Potential Defects Solidification Cracking
Porosity:  Control composition, susceptibility predictor

 Oil, paint, grease, etc decompose in the arc to 230C + 190S + 75P + 45Nb - 12.3Si - 5.4Mn
give elongated wormhole porosity. – 1.
 Flux must be dry. Manufacturer's give drying  Add Mn and Si to counter C, S and P, either in
temperatures. wire or through flux.
 Compressed air flux recovery units need dry  Depth to width ratio important:
air.  W much greater than D – surface cracks likely
 Insufficient flux burden can expose arc and  D much greater than W – centreline cracks likely
pool to atmospheric contamination.  D similar to W – sound welds
Solidification Cracking Solidification cracking
a In the root beads of a

Mushroom shaped weld
multi-run weld.
penetration resulting
from high voltage
b Caused by high speed combined with low
giving a long deep weld speed.
pool in first pass.
c Caused by high restraint

and root gap.
13-6
History
 Many cite Hopkins (USA) as inventor in 1939.

 Paton Institute developed process in 1950s.
 Shrubsall (USA) consumable guide in 1957.
 Much used in the US buildings in 1960s,
1970s.
Electroslag Welding
 Apparently very poor toughness led to ban is
the US.
TWI Training & Examination
Services  Earthquake 1994 showed no problem to ESW.
 Ban lifted in 2000.
Principle Variants of ESW
 Thick vertical plates, square edge, large gap.

 Copper shoes on either side make a well to
hold molten metal in place.
 Wire fed to bottom, usually through tube that
also melts (consumable guide).
 Flux covers wire end.
 Initial arc melts wire and flux.
 Molten flux conductive, floods arc so wire
Guide tube system
melts through resistive heating of flux.
 Weld completed in single pass. Consumable guide
Process Characteristics Materials Welded
 After initiation arc extinguishes, wire melted  Mostly used on C and C-Mn steel.
rapidly by resistive heating.  Has been used on stainless and Ni alloys by
 Welds up to 300mm made in single pass. Paton Institute.
 Copper guide tube used in standard process.  Also claimed to weld Ti successfully.
Oscillated, slowly lifted as weld progresses.  Al is possible but not welded commercially.
 Tubular consumable guide not lifted so melts  Process developed for rail track joining but
into pool. Not usually oscillated either. although better quality than thermite did not
 Very slow cooling, near equilibrium structure gain favour.
 PWHT to gain properties.
14-1
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Speed ~1 hr per m  Grain growth gives very
whatever thickness. large grains and poor
 No angular distortion. toughness.
 Low lateral distortion.  Limited to vertical or
 Defect-free. near vertical position.
 Simple flame-cut  Except cladding
square edge. modification – flat.
 Can be used for  Difficult to examine with
cladding (major NDT.
application now).
14-2
Description of Processes
 Thermal cutting and gouging are essential

parts of welding fabrication.
 Thermal cutting severs metal, creating two
pieces or a specific shaped single piece.
Thermal Cutting and Gouging  Gouging form of cutting removing metal to
leave groove as weld preparation.
 Torches and parameters different for each.
 Material locally heated and molten metal
ejected - usually by blowing it away.
 Flame, laser or arc processes can be used.
Summary of Processes General Safety
Thermal Process operations

process
Metals  Cutting and gouging forcibly eject molten
Primary Secondary
metal, often over large distance.
Oxyfuel gas Cutting Grooving
flame Gouging Chamfering
Ferritic, cast iron  Must take appropriate precautions to protect
operator, other workers and equipment.
Manual metal Grooving Ferritic, stainless,
arc
Gouging
Chamfering cast iron, Ni alloys  Protective clothing, enclosed booth or screens,
fume extraction, removal of all combustible
Grooving
Ferritic, cast iron, material.
Air carbon arc Gouging Ni alloys, Cu alloys,
Chamfering
Al
Cutting Chamfering Ferritic, stainless,

Plasma arc
Gouging Grooving Al
Chamfering
Laser Cutting Ferritic, stainless
Drilling
Gouging Typical Applications of Gouging
 Like cutting but not severing into two pieces.

 Reverse side of welds, removal of tacks,
temporary welds, and weld imperfections:
 Repair and maintenance of structures.
 Removal of cracks, blow holes and sand traps in
forgings and castings.
 Preparation of plate edges for welding.
 Removal of surplus metal - excess weld bead
profiles, temporary backing strips.
 Removal of temporary welded attachments such as
brackets, strongbacks, lifting lugs.
15-1
Oxyfuel Gas Cutting Process Fundamentals
 Most widely applied industrial thermal cutting  Mixture of O2 and fuel gas used to preheat
process. metal to its ignition temperature .
 Can cut thicknesses from 0.5-250mm.  O2 jet then directed into preheated area.
 Low cost equipment can be manual or  Exothermic reaction between O2 and metal to
mechanised. form iron oxide or slag.
 Several fuel gas and nozzle design options.  Jet blows away slag so it can pierce through
the material and continue to cut.
Four Basic Requirements Acetylene
 Ignition temperature lower than melting point.  Highest temperature so fastest preheat.
 The oxide MPt must be lower than metal so  Highest heat energy in inner flame reduces
that it can be blown away by jet. HAZ width and distortion.
 Reaction between O2 and metal must give  High flame speed (7.4m/s), good piercing.
heat to maintain ignition temperature.  Lowest ratio of O2.
 Minimal gas products so as not to dilute the
cutting O2.
Propane MAPP
 Highest heat energy in outer flame.  Methylacetylene and propadiene.

 Flame unfocussed, (speed 3.3m/s).  High flame temperature (second to acetylene),
 Slower preheating than acetylene but good flame energy levels.
effective.  Can be readily compressed.
 Once at ignition temperature, O2 reaction is  Choice for underwater cutting.
same so cutting speed same.
15-2
Cutting Quality Cutting Speed
Oxyfuel typically:  Left – too slow, top

 Large kerf (<2mm). face melting,
 Low roughness irregular cut.
values (Ra<50µm).  Centre – optimum.
 Poor edge  Right – too fast,
squareness metal and oxide not
(>0.7mm). fully expelled.
 Wide HAZ (>1mm).
Preheating Advantages and Disadvantages
 Left - too little, deep Advantages: Disadvantages:

gouges low on face.  Faster than machining.  Not precision cut.
 Centre - optimum.  Shapes can be cut  C and low alloy steel.
economically.  Fire and burn hazards.
 Right - too much,  Equipment costs low.  Need fume control and
top face melts.  Portable equipment. ventilation.
 Can follow small radius  Can give distortion and
easily. residual stress.
 Can mechanise torch for
large plates.
 Economical for edge
preparation.
Powder Cutting Flame Gouging
 Can inject flux into flame to remove oxide  Cutting principle

from stainless making cut possible. adapted to gouging.
 Can inject Fe powder giving exothermic  Curved nozzle.
reaction makes cuts in stainless, Cu, Ni  Quick, efficient
possible. removal on steel.
 Cut quality usually poor.  Low noise, ease of
use, all positional.
 Nozzle size changes
gouge dimensions.
15-3
MMA Gouging MMA Gouging
 Similar to welding but electrode has very high

arc force to eject metal.
 Used at low angle to push molten pool away
from groove.
 DC or AC on standard MMA power source.
 Can cut thin material but poor quality.
 Gouge not as smooth as gas processes.
 Mild steel electrode used for all materials.
Air Carbon Arc Gouging Process Characteristics
 Arc between tip of carbon electrode and  DCEP for steel and stainless steel. AC for cast
workpiece. iron, Cu and Ni alloys.
 Metal melts and high velocity air jet blows it  Graphite electrode with Cu coating to reduce
away, leaving clean groove. electrode erosion.
 Simple, uses MMA equipment.  Diameter selected for depth and width.
 High metal removal rate and gouge profile can  Molten metal/dross kept to minimum.
be closely controlled.  Standard MMA CC power source. Electrode
 Can be used on wide range of metals. different for AC vs DC.
 Air from compressor or bottle used.
Air Carbon Arc Gouging Advantages and Disadvantages
 Low equipment cost.  Air jet ejects metal
 Economical to run. large distances.
 Easy to operate.  Very noisy.
 Fast, easy to control.  Needs large volume
 Defects visible. air.
 No slag issues.  C increase, grinding
usually needed.
 Compact, can work
in confined areas.  Sparks, ejected
metal, fumes, noise
 Use on all materials. and intense light.
 Can be automated.
15-4
Plasma Arc Cutting Plasma Cutting Variants
 Basic process uses same torch as plasma Water shroud or immersion

welding.  Shroud cuts fume and
noise.
 Keyhole range plasma arc pierces metal.
 Bath cuts noise 115-
 Conditions set to avoid pool formation so 70dB.
becomes cutting tool.  No effect on top edge
 No oxidation reaction, usable on any metal. rounding.
Air plasma
 Introduced for stainless and Al.
 Air as plasma gas,
 Cut quality similar to oxyfuel. cheap.
 Variants developed with different torches.  Needs Hf electrode.
 Used for manual cutting
thin steel.
Plasma Gouging Advantages and Disadvantages

 Standard torch may
be used.  Cuts non-conductors.  Noise can be high.
 Air plasma also  Faster than oxyfuel.  Fairly expensive.
possible.  Instant start-up.  Cut edges tapered.
 Use low angle.  HTPAC has high  Air plasma limited to
 Forces metal away quality cut edges. 50mm thick plate.
from groove by  Narrow HAZ.  Arc glare.
power of plasma.  Air plasma no gas  High consumable
cost. costs.
 Ideal for thin sheet.
 Water bath reduces
fumes.
Laser Cutting Laser Cutting
 First done in 1967 at  Very quick, especially on thin sheet.

TWI.  Now used for automotive door panels.
 O2 jet with laser in  Growing use in shipbuilding.
centre.  Automated with programmed pattern.
 CO2 laser then only  Complex and very fine detail possible.
high power, now Yb
fibre or Nd-YAG  Can also drill very fine holes.
possible.
 Nd-YAG good for Al,
Cu.
15-5
Advantages and Disadvantages
 Very fast speed.  High cost of
 No preheating. equipment.
 Readily automated  Need to isolate
and can follow three personnel from laser.
dimensional tracks.
 Can cut polymers
and other non-
metallic materials.
 Good quality square-
edged kerf.
15-6
Why Surface?
Number of reasons including:

 Repair build-up.
 Replace worn surface with matching weld metal.
 Hard-facing.
Give soft material wear, abrasion resistance.
Surfacing and Spraying 
 Cladding.
 Give corrosion or oxidation resistant surface.
 Buttering.
 Put layer of weld metal onto face of preparation
before making full welded joint.
Surfacing Methods Friction Surfacing
Solid-state bonding:  Rotate solid bar with

one end pressed
 Join two layers by pressure or pressure and hard material.
heat.
 Lateral movement of
 Rolled clad plate. substrate deposits
 Explosive bonding . plasticised material.
 Friction can bond new material onto surface.  No melting so no
 Diffusion bonding. dilution, same
Electrically melted: composition as
 Arc welding and electroslag strip cladding. consumable.
Spraying:  Limited practical use.
 Oxy-fuel, plasma, laser –also cold spraying.
Surfacing by Welding Surfacing by Welding
 Most processes possible, deposition rates vary. Deposition rate, Manual or

 Can be manual or mechanised. Process
kg.hr -1 mechanised
MMA 1-3 Manual
MIG 2-6 Both
TIG, micro plasma 1-2 Both

Plasma transferred
2-10 Mechanised
arc
SA or ES strip
10-40 Mechanised
cladding
16-1
Practical Examples Thermal Spraying
Repair:  Apply powder or wire as spray of fine molten

 Cast iron tooling (nickel alloys). or semi-molten droplets to give coating.
 Injection molds (martensitic steels).  Heat from oxy-fuel or arc.
 Hot work tool steels (high speed steels).  Low energy, MIG or flame:
Metallisation.
Engine exhaust valves (Co alloys): 
 Reclamation, corrosion resistant surfaces.

 Wear plate for earth moving, mineral moving.
 High energy, plasma, HVOF and detonation:
 Concast rolls (FeCr + carbide).
 High density coating.
 Gate valves (Co alloys).  Thick coatings possible.
 High mechanical properties.
Processes Comparison Benefits of Thermal Spraying

Attribute Flame Spray Wire Arc Air Plasma HVOF
Flame temp. °C >3000 >3000 >5000 ~3000  Coating can be metal, ceramic and polymer, in
Particle speed, m/s 50-100 50-150 100-400 400-800 the form of powder, rod or wire.
Gas flow, l/min 100-200 500-3000 100-200 400-1100  Substrate <300°C. Can be plastic.
CH4, C2H2, H2,
Gas types O 2 , C 2 H2 Air, N2, Ar N2, Ar, H2, He
C 3 H6 , O 2  Up to 10mm thick coatings.
Power, kW
Particle size, µm
20
5-100
2.5
Wire only
40-200
5-100
150-300
5-45
 Can create freestanding structures for net-
Feed rate, kg/hr 2-10 3-18 3-6 1-4 shaped manufacture.
Ceramics,
Metals, Metals, cermets Ceramics,
Typical materials metals,
ceramics (cored wire) metals
cermets
Coating density, % 85-90 80-95 90-95 > 95
Porosity, % 10-15 5-10 5-10 1-2
Oxides, % 10-20 10-20 1-3 1-2
Bond strength, MPa 50 50 > 80 > 80
Thickness, mm 0.2-10 0.2-10 0.2-2 0.2-2
16-2

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Welcome

Welcome to the Welding Processes and Equipment

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What Does This Module Cover? What Can I Expect?

 Absolute basics – defining what a weld is.  Working to international syllabus.

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What Learning Methods Are Used? Example – Self-Adjusting Arc

 Binder has notes and powerpoints.

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 Welding Engineer, Technologist, Specialist must

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My Company Has Fixed Ideas I Just Need To Sign The Paperwork

 WL Bateman:  Short-term objective gaining Welding Co-ordinator

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What Will I Do That I Don’t Now? What’s In It For Me?

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Parts To Be Joined Brazing

 Parent material, base material.  A process of joining in which, during or after

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 A similar process to brazing, relying on  Fusion.

 For steel and copper, solders are usually alloys

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Fusion Welding Solid State Welding

 Oxy-fuel gas (OFW).  Forge or blacksmith.

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Joint Terminology Butt Preparations

Edge Open and Closed Corner Lap

Square edge Square edge

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Single Bevel Single Vee Double -Bevel Double -Vee

Single-J Single-U Double - J Double - U

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Joint Preparation Terminology Joint Preparation Terminology

Included angle Included angle Angle of bevel Angle of bevel

Root Face Root Face

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Weld Terminology Penetration

Butt weld Spot weld

Full penetration Partial penetration

Edge weld Plug weld

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Single sided Double sided Single run Multirun

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Stringer or Weave Welding Positions

Flat - PA Horizontal-Vertical - Horizontal - PC

Stringer bead Weave

Overhead - PD Horizontal-overhead - PE Vertical-up - PF

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Slope and Rotation Weld Zone Terminology

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Toe Blend Features to Consider

Fillet welds - toe blend

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Fillet Weld Profiles Fillet Weld Profiles

Fillet welds - shape

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a = Design throat thickness b = Actual throat thickness

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Leg and Throat Relationship

Throat, a = 0.7 x Leg, z