PetE 211

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Hizmete Ozel
 Instructor: Dr.-Ing. Mehmet Onur DOĞAN (E-mail:
doganon@metu.edu.tr)
 Laboratory Assistants:
 Tolga AKGÖL (E-mail: aktolga@metu.edu.tr, room:1-10),
 Kazım Onur GÜRÇAY,
 Serhat KÜÇÜK
 Office Hours: Thursday 12:40-13:30
 Expectations:
 There will be 8 unannounced quizzes. They will count as 10% of
your final grade.
 LABORATORIES ARE MANDATORY! MISSING ONE IS
UNACCEPTABLE! You have to have a valid health reason!
 There will be 2 MIDTERMS – Tentative dates for these are
31th of March, 2017 (Friday) 15:40-18:00
28th of April, 2017 (Friday) 15:40-18:00
 In case you need a make-up exam, you have to have a valid
reason! Please come and talk to me.

Hizmete Ozel
 Lecture Notes
 The slides that I use for this lecture will be shared on
ODTUCLASS.

 You may get CE 272 and CE 372 lecture notes from Mrs.
Necla Cankaya Lostar. Civil Eng. K3 Building Office 212.

Hizmete Ozel
 Scope of PetE 211
1. FUNDAMENTALS (1 week) TODAY
2. FLUID STATICS (1.5 weeks)

3. KINEMATICS OF FLUID MOTION (1.5 weeks)

4. REYNOLDS TRANSPORT THEOREM /CONSERVATION

LAWS (3 weeks)

5. FLOW OF A COMPRESSIBLE IDEAL FLUID (1 week)

LABS
6. FLOW OF A REAL FLUID (1 weeks)

7. FLUID FLOW IN PIPES (4 weeks)

8. METERING OF FLUIDS (1 week)

Hizmete Ozel
 Information on Labs

 There will be 4 labs in this class.

 You have to make arrangements with the assistants
depending on your class schedule as well as your assistants’
schedule.
 I strongly recommend talking to your assistants and start
taking appointments in groups of 6-7 as soon as you
could.
 Labs start Mid-April!

Hizmete Ozel
 CHAPTER 1: FUNDEMENTALS

1.1 Definition of Fluid

Matter exists in three states in nature:

Solid state
MATTER Liquid state
FLUID
Gaseous state

Hizmete Ozel
 The spacing & free motion of molecules in each state, are
completely different from each other:

> >
the spacing & the spacing & the spacing &
free motion Free motion free motion
of molecules of molecules of molecules
gas liquid solid

Thus it follows that intermolecular cohesive forces are larger

for a solid, smaller in a liquid, & exteremely small in a gas.
These fundamental facts cause for
the compactness & rigidity of the solids,
the ability of liquid molecules to move freely within the liquid
mass,
capacity of gases to fill the containers in which they are placed,
while a liquid has a definite volume & well-defined surface. Hizmete Ozel
 Some Characteristics of Gases, Liquids & Solids &
the Microscopic Explanation for the Behavior
GAS LIQUID SOLID
takes the shape & takes the shape of the retains a fixed
volume of its container container which it volume & shape
particles can move past occupies rigid - particles
one another particles can move/slide locked into place
past one another
compressible not easily compressible not easily
lots of free space little free space between compressible
between particles particles little free space
between particles
flows easily flows easily do not flow
particles can move past particles can move/slide rigid - particles
one another past one another cannot move/slide
past one another

Ref.  http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/liquids/character2.html
Hizmete Ozel
 solid liquid gas

Then what makes the liquid & gas to be

combined in the same group as fluids?

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It is their reaction to the applied shear stresses.

A FLUID is a substance which deforms continuously

(forever) under the application of a shearing
stress, no matter how small the shearing stress is 
even a very small shear stress results in motion in the
fluid.

A solid, on the other hand, will deform by an amount

proportional to the stress applied, after which
static equlibrium will result (i.e. assume a new
stationary shape).

Hizmete Ozel
 plate
F

solid   = F/A

at t = 0 t>0

plate t=0 t=t’t=t’’ t=t’’’

F

3 4
1 2 

fluid t

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 

t

 
lim   Rate of deformation
t 0 t t


Therefore  
t

Since the deformation in fluids is continuous, we

talk about the rate of deformation, rather than
the deformation itself.

Hizmete Ozel
The fluids at rest cannot contain shearing stresses,
This means that the forces in static fluids must be
transmitted to solid boundaries or arbitrary sections normal
to these boundaries, or sections at every point.
In other words, if there exists shear stresses, then the
fluid must be in motion.

Arbitrary
volume

Hizmete Ozel
 1.2. Scope of Fluid Mechanics

Engineering Applications

Utilize Encounter
 Water supply  Pipelines
 Energy production  Hydraulic structures
 Transportation  River hydraulics
of fluids,  Coastal hydraulics
of material,  Groundwater flow
as waterways  Hydrocarbons in porous
structures
 Wind forces on structures

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 Weather & Climate

Tornadoes Thunderstorm

Global Climate Hurricanes

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 Vehicles

Aircraft Surface ships

High-speed rail Submarines

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 Environment

Air pollution River hydraulics

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 Physiology & Medicine

Blood pump Digital human lung

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 Sports & Recreation

Water sports Cycling Offshore racing

Auto racing Surfing

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 Water Supply

http://img1.loadtr.com/b-404583-sevimli_kuzular.jpg

Agriculture Husbandary
http://www.tombaki.com/blog/wp-content/plugins/wp-o-matic/
cache/d969d_ziraatvehayvan_tarim_takvimi.jpg
http://www.googleevdeneve.com/resim/termik_by.jpg

Industry http://www.tnemec.com/resources/
project/392/mirimartank_1.jpg Domestic
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 Dams

Atatürk Dam

Karakaya Dam

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Hydropower Plants

http://science.howstuffworks.com/
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Flood Control

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Especially as future petroleum engineers, you
need to know fluid mechanics because:
1. Pertoleum and Natural gas are fluids -> You will
work with fluids.
2. You have to know great deal about both liquid and
gas forms of petroleum and its motion.

Hizmete Ozel
 History: Faces of Fluid Mechanics

Archimedes Newton Leibniz Bernoulli Euler

(C. 287-212 BC) (1642-1727) (1646-1716) (1667-1748) (1707-1783)

Navier Stokes Reynolds Prandtl Taylor

(1785-1836) (1819-1903) (1842-1912) (1875-1953) (1886-1975)

Hizmete Ozel
1.3. Concept of Continuum
Molecules are widely spaced in
the gas phase.
However, we can disregard the
molecular nature of a
substance.
Instead we can view it as a
continuous, homogeneous
matter with no holes, that is, a
continuum.
This allows us to treat
properties as smoothly varying
quantities.
Continuum is valid as long as
From Cengel size of the system is large in
comparison to distance
between molecules.
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 CONCEPT OF CONTINUUM



Actual molecular structure A hypothetical medium

m
  lim
  d   


d

Hizmete Ozel
 Fluid Particle

A fluid particle is defined as the mass contained in

the smallest fluid volume for which the continuum
assumption is not violated.

 m
  lim
  d   



d

Hizmete Ozel
1.4. Dimensions & System of Dimensions

Dimensions & Units

DESCRIBING PHYSICAL ENTITIES

QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION

DIMENSIONS UNITS

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 1.5. Units & System of Units

Primary Units
Quantity Dimensions in FLT Dimensions in MLT SI units

Mass FT2L-1 M kg
Length L L m
Time T T s
Temperature   C

Derived Units F  ma
Area L2 L2 m2

Velocity LT-1 LT-1 m/s

Acceleration LT-2 LT-2 m/s2

Force F MLT-2 N

Pressure FL-2 ML-1T-2 Pa

Energy FL ML2T-2 Joule

Power FLT-1 ML2T-3 Watt

Angle 1 1 radian
 Dimensions & Units
Dimensional Homogenity: An equation is said to be dimensionally
homogenous if it does not depend on the system of units used. A
dimensionally homogenous equation has therefore the same
dimensions for each additive term on both sides of the equations.
In practice this means that the numerical constants appearing in
the equation are dimensionless.

Example-1: h=(1/2)gt2 where h is the distance, g is the

gravitational acceleration, t is time and ½ is a constant.

1 
h    gt 2 
2 Since the constant ½
1  1  L is dimensionless
(L)    (LT 2 )(T 2 )  2   L  1 the equation is
2 dimensionally homogenous.
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 Dimensions & Units

1 2
h gt
2 h  4.905t 2
g  9.81 m / s 2
( L)  4.905(T 2 )

4.905  L
2
1
T
Not
dimensionally
homogenous!

Hizmete Ozel
 1.6. Physical Properties of Fluids

A property is a characteristic of a substance in a

particular state.

Extensive: depends on the amount of substance present,

examples: volume, energy, weight, momentum
Properties Intensive: independent on the amount of substance,
examples: specific values, namely mass per unit
volume (density), energy per unit mass, etc.

The intensive properties are the values which apply to a

particle of a fluid. These are:
Density Viscosity
Specific weight Surface Tension
Specific Gravity Vapor Pressure
Specific Volume Compressibility
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 Density, 
Density, , of a substance is a measure of concentration
of matter, and expresed as mass per unit volume.
 = m/, actually  m 
  lim  
 0 
 
Where m is the mass of a substance contained in
volume .
 =(P,T), where P=pressure, and T=temperature
Unit in SI=?
[]=ML-3 and
the unit in SI system is kg/m3
Hizmete Ozel
 Specific Weight, 

Specific Weight, , is the force due to gravity on the

mass contained in a unit volume of a substance, i.e.
weight per unit volume.
 = W/=Mg/= g
Therefore:

  g

[]=FL-3, and the unit in SI system is N/m3

Hizmete Ozel
 Specific Gravity, SG:

The specific gravity is a term used to compare the

density of a substance with that of water if the fluid is
liquid, & with that of air or hydrogen if the fluid is gas.
Thus:
 liq  liq  gas
SG   , or SG 
w  w  air ( H )
2

Since the density  depends on the temperature &

pressure, for precise values of specific gravity,
temperature & pressure values must be specified.

Hizmete Ozel
 Densities & Specific Weights
of Some Fluids (g=9.81 m/s2)

Fluid Temperature Density Specific Weight

( C ) (kg/m3) (N/m3)
Water 4.0 1000. 9810.
Liquids

Mercury 20.0 13600. 133416.

Gasoline 15.6 680. 6671.
Alcohol 20.0 789. 7740.
Air 15.0 1.23 12.0
G
Gases

as Oxygen 20.0 1.33 13.0

es
Hydrogen 20.0 0.0838 0.822

Methane 20.0 0.667 6.54

Hizmete Ozel
 Viscosity
Viscosity is the property of a fluid by virtue of which it
offers resistance (friction) to the flow.

Although the two fluids

shown look alike (both are
clear liquids and have a
specific gravity of 1),
they behave very
differently when set into
motion. The very viscous
silicone oil is
approximately 10,000
times more viscous than
the water.

Hizmete Ozel
In study of fluid flow, viscosity requires the greatest
consideration among the other properties of fluid.
In order to understand the effect of viscosity, let us
consider the motion of a fluid along a stationary solid
boundary:

Free surface
y

Flow A
u1 Solid boundary
y1

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Observations show that, while the fluid clearly has a finite
velocity, u, at a finite distance from the boundary, the velocity
is zero at the solid boundary.
Thus velocity increases with the increasing distance from the
stationary boundary. That is: if we plot the velocities at
different distances from the boundary, we might obtain a
picture as follows:
y
at y=0 u=0 and
at y=y1 u=u1
u1+Δu
y2
Δy This is called a velocity profile
y1 u1

Hizmete Ozel
Example: As a fluid flows
near a solid surface, it
"sticks" to the surface, i.e.,
the fluid matches the
velocity of the surface.
This so-called "no-slip"
condition is a very
important one that must be
satisfied in any accurate
analysis of fluid flow
phenomena.

Hizmete Ozel
 Let us consider two such layers, the lower layer is moving
with velocity u1, and the upper layer with (u1+Δu).

Two particles (1) and (2), starting

2 u1+Δu 2’ on the same vertical line, will
move to different distances
Δy during the time interval Δt:
1 u1
1’ S2=(u1+Δu).Δt
S1=u1.Δt

Thus, the fluid is distorted or sheared, as the line

connecting (1) and (2) acquires an increasing slope & length
as time t increases.
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In other words, the faster moving fluid tries to speed up
the slower moving layer, while the slower moving layer tries
to reduce the speed of faster one.
Therefore, it is evident that a frictional or shearing force
must exist between the fluid layers.
This shearing force may be expressed as a shear stress 
(shearing force per unit contact area).
The shear stress is directly proportional to the velocity
difference & inversely proportional to the distance
between two layers, that is:

u u
 at the limit:   
y y

Hizmete Ozel
The constant of proportionality  is called the
dynamic viscosity & it is a property of the fluid.
It shows the effect of different fluids.
Ex: honey shows more resistance to flow than water.
Therefore honey must have a higher .

u NEWTON’S LAW

y OF VISCOSITY

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 All real fluids posses viscosity & therefore exhibit
certain frictional resistance when moving.
The term, u/y, is called the velocity gradient & it
shows the angular velocity of the line ab & hence
equal to the rate of deformation.

u+Δu Δs
b b’ S    y  u  t
u 
Therefore : 
Δy y t
Δ
 u
Remember that :   
t y
a u a’
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 Newton’s Law of viscosity states that the shear stress
at any point is proprotional to the velocity gradient at
that point:

2  u 
y2  2    
Δy  y  y  y2
Δu

1  u 
y1
Δy  1    
 y  y  y1
Δu

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The magnidute of the shear stress on the solid boundary is
called the wall-shear stress. That is:
 u 
 w   
 y  y0
If we integrate the wall-shear stress over the area on which
it is acting, we obtain the total frictional resistance (force)
on the fluid due to solid boundary.
On the other hand, the reaction force, that is the force
which has the same magnitude but opposite in direction to
the frictional resistance is called the drag force. That is:
The force exerted by the flowing fluid on a solid boundary in
the direction of flow is called the DRAG FORCE.

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 A typical variation of shear stress

y U u(y)

(y) 1
 Shear stress from 1 on 2
Δy
Δu 2 w Shear stress from 2 on 1

u(y) w
Wall shear stress
du
w  
dy y 0
Frictional drag force
Fd   w dA The magnitude of the shear
stress on a solid boundary is
called as the wall shear stress.

Hizmete Ozel
 Viscosity & Drag Force
Viscosity is a property
that represents the
internal resistance of a
fluid to motion.
A flowing fluid exerts a
force on a body in the
flow direction is called
the drag force & the
magnitude of this force
depends, in part, on
viscosity.

Hizmete Ozel
Note that if a fluid is at rest, or in motion so that no layer
moves relative to an adjacent layer, there will be NO
u
SHEAR STRESS, regardless the viscosity. Because: 0
y
On the other hand, if the viscosity of the fluid is zero,
regardless of the motion, no shear stress can develop. Such a
fluid is called INVISCID FLUID.
All the fluids in nature have a viscosity & are called REAL
FLUIDS.
Inviscid fluid is only an idealization. It simplifies the solution of
many real fluid flow problem.
Not all the real fluids obey the Newton’s Law of viscosity. If we
plot shear stress , versus the velocity gradient ( or the rate of
angular deformation) for various fluids, the plot looks like:

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 Newtonian & Non Newtonian Fluids
 e.g: sewage sludge, n=1 Newtonian fluids
toothpaste, and jellies.
n1 Non-Newtonian fluids
Bingham Plastic
n>1 Shear thickening (Dilatant)
n<1 Shear thinning (Pseuda plastic)
n<1

e.g: clay, milk,

and cement  du 
n

    
n>1  dy 
e.g: quicksand,
corn starch
ap 
 ap 
1  du 
du  
 dy 
 = 0 ideal fluid dy

Hizmete Ozel
 Examples on Non Newtonian Fluids
Example: A mixture of water and
corn starch, when placed on a flat
surface, flows as a thick, viscous
fluid. However, when the mixture
is rapidly disturbed, it appears to
fracture and behave more like a
solid.
The mixture is a non-Newtonian
shear thickening fluid which
becomes more viscous as the
shearing rate is suddenly
increased through the rapid
action of the spoon.

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 Dynamic & Kinematic Viscosity

The proportionality constant  is known as dynamic

viscosity of the fluid.

  

FL2
 FL2
T  ML1 1
T
1
 du  LT
 dy 
  L

Viscosity can be made independent of fluid density;

kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio:



 ML1T 1
    L2 1
T
 ML 3

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 Viscosities of air & water

Fluid Temperature  
(C) (Ns/m2) (m2/s)
Water 20 1.00E-03 1.01E-06

Air 20 1.80E-05 1.51E-05

Hizmete Ozel
 Effect of Temperature on Viscosity

Gases: As temperature increases the viscosity

increases.
Because, the viscosity arises due to momentum exchange
between the randomly moving molecules in gases. As
temperature increases, the molecular activity will increase
in gases, hence more momentum exchange will take place, &
as a result viscosity will increase.
Liquids: As temperature increases the viscosity
decreases.
Because, viscosity arises due to intermolecular cohesive
forces. In liquids, as temperature increases, these forces
will decrease, hence the viscosity will decrease.
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Dynamic Viscosity

For gases: μ  as T 
For liquids: μ  as T 

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 Compressibility, K, andBulk Modulus of
Elasticity, Ev

Compresibility is a measure of change of volume &

density when a substance is subject to normal
pressure.
Compressibility = % change in volume (or density) for
a given pressure change:

d 1 d / 
K 
 dP dP

The (-) sign indicates a decrease in volume, with an

increase in pressure.
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The inverse of compressibility is known as the bulk
modulus of elasticity:

Ev  
dP

dP Bulk Modulus of
d /  d /  Elasticity

F
A

0


Since fluids do not posses a rigid form, the

modulus of elasticity must be defined on the basis
of volume, & it is called BULK MODULUS.
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Consider a cylinder full of a fluid which has a volume of
0. Application of a force F to the piston will  the
pressure (P=F/A) in the fluid & cause the volume to 
The slope of P vs /0 will give the bulk modulus of
elasticity at that point.
P
F
A

0

dP

d/0
Ev
1 /0
1 Hizmete Ozel
The steeping of the curve with increasing pressure shows
that as fluids are compressed, they become increasingly
difficult to compress further, which is logical consequence of
reducing the space between the molecules.
P
The bulk modulus of
elasticity of a fluid is not
constant, but increases
with pressure.
dP E v    fluid is
incompressible
d/0
Ev
1 /0
1
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 Ev air  1.42x105 Pa

Ev water  2.15x109 Pa

Ev steel  2.06x1011 Pa

Therefore:
Water is 100 times more compressible than steel.
Air is 20 000 times more compressible than water.

For all practical purposes, water & all liquids may be

assumed as incompressible unless very large pressure
ranges are involved.
Hizmete Ozel
 Surface Tension , 
Example:
A heavier-than-water,
double-edged steel razor
blade can float on water.
Without surface tension, the
blade would sink because its
weight is greater than its
buoyant force.

However, surface tension

forces are not large enough
to support a slightly heavier
single edged blade.

Hizmete Ozel
 Surface Tension , 
Surface tension is a property that results from the
attractive forces between molecules.
Intermolecular
Attraction Forces
http://www.tutorvista.com/physics/fluid-surface-tension

Cohesive Forces (C) Adhesive Forces (A)

Liquid to liquid Liquid to solid
Gas to gas Gas to liquid

A>C Gas The intensity of the molecular


attraction per unit length along
Liquid any line on an interface is called
Solid the surface tension.
  FL1
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Although such forces are negligible in practice, they
become important in capillary rise of liquids in narrow
tubes, formation of liquid drops, etc.
Consider a free liquid surface in contact with the
atmosphere:
Gas molecules attract liquid molecules at
A>C free surface

Liquid molecules attract liquid molecules at
free surface

Solid
Little force attracts molecules away from
the liquid because few molecules are
present in the gas above the surface.
Within the bulk liquid, the intermolecular
attraction & repulsion forces are balanced
in all directions. http://www.tutorvista.com/physics/fluid-surface-te

Hizmete Ozel
If Adhesive forces > Cohesive forces  The liquid wets
the solid surface.
Water rises up
A>C


Liquid (H2O)

Solid
If Cohesive forces > Adhesive forces  Then the solid
surface is not
wetted.
Mercury depressed
C>A


Liquid (Hg)

Solid

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 Capillary Effects
 

A>C
h

Capillary effect is the rise or fall of a liquid in a small-

diameter tube.
The curved free surface in the tube is call the
meniscus.
Force balance can describe magnitude of capillary rise.
Hizmete Ozel
 Wetting and Non-wetting Fluids

 
C>A
A>C
h
h

 

Capillary rise Capillary drop

(wetting fluid) (non-wetting fluid)

The level h, that the water or mercury can rise or drop

can be computed as follows: 
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The force pulling the free surface up in the capillary tube is
2pRcos. This force will be balanced by the weight of water that
rises in the capillary tube, which is pR2h. Therefore:

2 cos 
2pRcos= pR2h from here solving for h  h
R

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 Vapor pressure, Pv

Vapor P
The pressure at which liquid boils is
Water
called the vapor pressure, Pv .

Heat

Boiling occurs when

Pgas above  Pvapor of liquid

Pv=Pv(T) as T Pv
where T is temperature
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 For boiling to occur, the equilibrium must be set either by
1. Raising the temperature to cause the vapor pressure to
equal or exceed the total pressure applied at the free
surface, or
2. By lowering the total pressure
at the free surface until it is
equal to or less than the vapor
pressure. The more volatile
the liquid, the higher its vapor
pressure.

http://media.photobucket.com/image/boiling/
whitetiger_2009/etc-frog-boiling.jpg

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Vapor pressure of water

Temperature C Pv (kPa)

0 0.61

10 1.23

25 3.17

60 19.92

100 101.33=Patm

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Engineering importance of vapor pressure

If P drops below Pv, liquid is locally vaporized, creating

cavities of vapor.
Vapor cavities collapse when local P rises above Pv.

1 3
2
P3

Vapor pockets
P1>Pv P2Pv P3>Pv

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 Cavitation Damage
Serious damage can result due
to the impact of collapsing
bubbles.

Cavitation can affect the

performance of hydraulic
machinery such as pumps,
turbines & propellers.

http://getenecon.com/Portals/0/images/800px-Cavitation_Propeller_Damage.jpg

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