PetE 211

HYDROSTATICS

Hizmete Ozel
Introduction

Hydrostatics is the study of fluids in which there is

no relative motion between the fluid particles.
If there is no relative motion, no shearing stresses to
be present.
The only stress that exists is a normal stress (the
pressure).
So it is the pressure that is primary interest in
hydrostatics.

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2.2. Body & Surface Forces

There are two types of forces acting on the fluids:

1. Body forces
2. Surface Forces

Body Forces, B: are all external forces which are

distributed over the mass of the fluid developed
without physical contact.

B  Bx i  By j  Bz k

F i  m(ax i  a y j  az k ) Inertia force can be

considered as body force.
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Ex: When gravity is the only body force and z is
taken as  direction, then the body force is:

z
B  Bz k  W k  mg k

Surface forces are the forces that develop due to

the direct contact of fluids with its surroundings.
Therefore they act on the contact surfaces.

Let us examine these surface forces in detail:

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Surface Forces and Stress at a point

Let ΔF be the resultant of all surface forces acting

on any surface ΔA defined on the fluid surface.

z Ax  ABO
B Ay  BCO
Az  ACO
A
F
y
 O A
m
C
x

 A  Ax i  Ay j  Az k

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 Stress
The resultant force ΔF can be decomposed into components:

 F  Fx i  Fy j  Fz k

The area vector can also decomposed into components:

 A  Ax i  Ay j  Az k

Then stress (i.e. the force per unit area) can be defined as:
F
Stress ( )  lim
 A 0  A

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 Consider a point A in space. We can pass three planes
containing point A, one is paralel to xy-plane, one is paralel to
xz-plane, & the other is paralel to yz-plane
z
txz z

tyz
txy
xx A yy
tyx A

y
y
x
z zz x

tzy
tzx A

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In each plane, there will be one normal stress, and two
shear stress.
The first index shows the direction of the plane, and
second one shows the direction of stress. Therefore,
we have 3 normal and 6 tangential (shear) stresses.
Therefore in order to define stress (i.e. force per unit
area) at a point, we need nine components.
z zz
tzy
tzx A

x
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 Stress Tensor
F j Represents nine scalar equations
 i , j  lim i=1,2,3 and j=1,2,3
Ai 0 Ai
plane direction
z Stress tensor is a symmetrical
zz second order tensor.
tzy
tzx t xy  t yx  xx t xy t xz
tyz
yy t xz  t zx   t yx  yy t yz
txz tyx
t yz  t zy t zx t zy  zz
txy y
xx
Summation of diagonal elements is:

x
 xx   yy   zz  3 11
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 z
Thermodynamic Pressure
x nn
A) Without shear stresses (t=0): 
z s
On the fluid element yy
all the surface forces per y 
y
unit area &
the only body force, weight x z  s sin 
is shown. Newton’s second law of motion in W zz
y  s cos
y-direction gives: W  
F  m(ax i  a y j  az k ) F j  ma y j   xyz / 2

  yy xz   nn xs sin   a y

y
  yy   nn   ay
2 z  s sin 

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 Thermodynamic Pressure z

y
  yy   nn   ay x nn

2
z s
yy
If we shrink the volume to y 
y
obtain stress at a point,
i.e: y0 and  is constant
x
W zz
 yy   nn

Similarly Newton’s second law in x and z directions would give

 zz   nn and  xx   nn therefore:
 xx   yy   zz   nn

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Pressure

 xx   yy   zz   nn

What is the physical meaning of this equation?

The direction n is an arbitrary direction.

This equation means that the normal stress in any

direction has the same value  it does not depend
on the direction. Therefore it is a scalar quantity.

Pressure in a fluid is constant at a point.

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Pascal Law (pressure at a point)
In the absence of shear stresses, the normal stress
in a fluid is independent of orientation of the plane
thus can be represented by a single scalar quantity.
Taking the fact that fluids can sustain only
compression, pressure p is set equal to negative of
this magnitude:  xx   yy   zz   p

No matter what shear stresses is (t = ?) :

1
The bulk stress:   ( xx   yy   zz )
3

The pressure is: p  

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 The Pressure Gradient
Consider a pressure field acting on an infinitesimal frictionless
fluid element moving as a rigid body or at rest. The net force in
y-direction is
  p  p p
dFy   p   p  dy  dxdz   dxdydz   d
  y  y y

The force vector per unit volume due to pressure variations in x, y

and z directions is:
z
dF  p p p 
 f   i  j  k    p   gradp
d  x y z 
p
p p dy
y
dz
The Gradient operator y
dx
  
 i j k x dy
x y z 16
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2.3 Governing Equation

1) Consider a fluid element at

rest or moving as a rigid body
 F  ma
2) Dividing by volume
 f  a
3) If there are no shear stresses,
then the force per unit volume,  p   k  a
f, is due to pressure variations
(Euler Equation)
and gravity only.

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Fluid at rest ( a = 0 )

p p  p 
 p   k  a i j     k  0
x y  z 
p
0
x
p  p(z) Governing differential
p
0
y equation for the
hydrostatic pressure
p
 
distribution
z

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 2.4 Pressure distribution
(in an incompressible fluid at rest or moving as a rigid body with
no acceleration)

p z Patm zs

z
  patm  dp     dz
PA zA
zs
patm  p A   ( z s  z A )   h
h
p A  pabsolute  patm   h
zA pA
p A _ gage  pabsolute  patm   h

p A _ gage  h
Patm=101.3 kPa where h is the depth of the point.

Therefore, in an incompressible fluid, the pressure changes

with depth only. It remains constant on horizantal planes.
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Equipotential surfaces
The surfaces on which pressure is constant are called
equipotential surfaces.
If gravity is the only body force, then equipotential
surfaces are horizontal planes.

z
patm
zs

h p  h

h
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 Hydrostatic Condition: Incompressible Fluids
The pressure in a homogenous, incompressible fluid at rest
depends on the depth of the fluid relative to some reference
& is not influenced by the shape of the container.

lines of constant
pressure

p = po
h1 p = p1
p = p2

For p1 = p = h1 + po
For p2 = p = h + po

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Absolute & Gage Pressure

patm p gage  pabsolute  patm

absolute
pressure
w
gage
pressure
p

Barometers measure local atmospheric pressure.

Manometers measure gage pressure.

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Absolute & Gage Pressures

Local atmospheric
pressure reference

Absolute zero reference

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Basic Principles in Measurement of Pressure
The basic principles in measuring the pressure are:
1. On equipotential surfaces, pressure is constant.
2. If the gravity is the only body force, then equipotential
surfaces are horizontal planes.
3. In an incompressible fluid, pressure increases in moving
down, and decreases in moving up.

p p
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2.5. Measurement of Pressure
Barometers  measures local atmospheric pressure

pB  pB '
pB  patm  p A   m h
p A  p  pB  patm  pv   m h Evangelista Torricelli

pv  0  pB  patm   m h (1608-1647)

equal potential line

B'
pB  pB '

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Manometers  measures the gage pressure

The various forms of manometers are:

Piezometers
U Tube Manometers
Differential Manometers
Inclined Manometers

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Piezometer Tube

patm
p A  patm   h

h Disadvantages:
1. The pressure in the
A container has to be
greater than atmospheric
pressure.
2. Pressure must be relatively
small to maintain a small
column of fluid.
3. The measurement of
pressure must be of a
liquid.
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 U-tube manometer
patm
The fluid in the U-tube is w
known as the gage fluid.
A
The gage fluid type
h2
m
depends on the application, h1

i.e. pressures attained

1 2 equal
potential
line

p1  p2
p A   w h1  patm   m h2

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 Differential manometer
pY  pF
p A   1h1   2 h2  pB   3 h3
B p A   1h1   2 h2   3h3  pB
A
h1
1 h3
3
Final notes:
h2
1) Common gage fluids are Hg and H2O,
some oils, and must be immiscible (i.e.
equal Y F
that do not mix).
potential
line 2 2) Temp. must be considered in very
accurate measurements, as the gage
fluid properties can change.

3) Capillarity can play a role, but in many

cases each meniscus will cancel.
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 Inclined Manometers
This type of manometer is used to measure small
pressure changes.

patm

pA
h
F L
x
equal Y 
potential
line
p A  pY  p F
p A   h  Patm   L sin   Patm

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 2.6. Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces
Consider a plane surface which is immersed completely in an incompressible liquid. We
wish to evaluate the resultant hydrostatic force on the upper face. For the purpose of
calculation, the plane of the submerged surface is extended so as to intersect with the
plane of the free surface. The trace of intersection is shown as the x axis in the
figure. Note that the y axis is coplanar with the top surface of the plate.

o
dF  p dA   h dA

h
F hp hc dF y y F    h dA
c
A Distance to
o
a centroid
yp F    y sin  dA is defined as
A
x 1
F   sin   y dA yc   y dA
y A A A

dA
xc
c F   sin  yc A   hc A
y cp
xp
F  pc A   hc A 32
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Center of Pressure
Application point of the resultant hydrostatic force is
called the center of pressure.
Let F act at (xp, yp)
The value of yp can be obtained by equating moments
about the x-axis

Fy p   ypdA
A A
ypdA   y y sin  dA   sin   y 2 dA
A A

yp =
∫
A
ypdA γ sinθ ∫ y dA
=
A
=
2
Ix

I xc  Ay c2
 yc 
I xc
F γ sinθ ∫ ydA yc A yc A yc A
A

second moment of I 
 dA
2
y
area about x-axis
x
A
I x  I xc  Ay c2
second moment of an area is realated to the
second moment of an area, Ixc about the
centroidal axis by the parallel-axis-theorem
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c

Hizmete Ozel
Center of Pressure
Similarly for xp

 xpdA  sin   xydA I xy I xyc  xc yc A I xyc

xp  A
    xc 
F  sin   ydA yc A yc A yc A
A

the product of
I 
intertia of the xy  xy dA I xy  I xyc  Axc yc
area A A
using the transfer
theorem

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The Pressure Prism Concept
Pressure prism is a geometric representation of the
hydrostatic force on a rectangular plane surface.
F   p dA
A
h1
the volume
h1 of the
pressure prism

h2 cp
FR FR

b
h2

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 The magnitude of the resultant hydrostatic force is equal to the
volume of the pressure prism & passes through its centroid.
h1
h1

h2 cp
FR FR

b
h2

F2 F1
+
(h2-h1) h1

 (h2  h1 )
FR  F1  F2  pc A F2  (h2  h1 )b + F1  h1 (h2  h1 )b
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Force on a plane area with top edge in a free surface

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 Pressure Prism

rectangular area pressure distribution pressure prism.

on the area

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2.7. Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces

Example: Arch Dams

Picture: Gökçekaya Dam

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 Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surfaces
Forces on curved surfaces can be partially
determined by methods used on plane surfaces.
The force on any area element dA of this surface
is directed along the normal to the area element
and is given as:
z
zs dF = p dA
we get the components dFx, dFy and dFz:

h
p dA dFx  p dAx dFy  p dAy dFz  p dAz
dAx
dAy y

dAz
x
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 Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces:
Horizontal Components
z
p
dFx  pdAcos  pdAx

pdAcos
dA
Fx   pdAx  pc Ax
A

Fy   pdAy  pc Ay
A
x

where Ax and Ay are the projected areas of the curved surface

on planes perpendicular to the x- and y- axes.
Then:
The horizontal component of the hydrostatic force on a curved
surface is the product of the pressure at the centroid of the
area projected on a vertical plane perpendicular to the x- and y-
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 Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces:
Vertical Component
z

dFz  p dA sin   p dAz

h p Fz   p dAz    h dAz    d
A A 

dA
Fz   

The vertical component of the hydrostatic force on a

curved surface is the weight of the liquid volume between
the free surface (real or imaginary) and the curved
surface.
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2.8. Buoyancy & Flotation

The lifting force due to hydrostatic pressure

distribution on submerged volumes is called the
buoyant force.

The buoyant force acts through the center of gravity

of the submerged volume in a direction opposite to
that of gravity.

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Buoyancy
dFB  ( p2  p1 ) dAz

p1 z FB   ( h2   h1 ) dAz
h Az

FB    (h2  h1 ) dAz
p2 Az

Net upward force is FB   displaced liquid

called the buoyant force.

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Stability of Floating Bodies

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