28 Ethiopia

MINISTERO DEGLI AFFARI ESTERI
ISTITUTO AGRONOMICO PER L’OLTREMARE
UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI FIRENZE

MASTER’S DEGREE IN “GEOMATICS AND NATURAL RESOURCES EVALUATION”
FACOLTÀ DI AGRARIA
LAND EVALUATION
IN ENDERTA DISTRICT
-TIGRAY, ETHIOPIA-
IAO 28th EDITION
Florence 2008
MASTER'S DEGREE IN
“GEOMATICS AND NATURAL RESOURCES EVALUATION”
IAO 28th EDITION

5th NOVEMBER 2007-27th JUNE 2008
LAND EVALUATION
IN ENDERTA DISTRICT
- TIGRAY, ETHIOPIA -
Ministero degli Affari Esteri

Istituto Agronomico per l'Oltremare
Università degli Studi di Firenze

Facoltà di Agraria
Florence 2008
Edited by:
Ministero degli Affari Esteri
ISTITUTO AGRONOMICO PER L’OLTREMARE
Via A. Cocchi, 4-50131 Firenze (Italia)
Tel.: ++39 055 50611-Fax: ++39 055 5061333
http: //www.iao.florence.it
Cover photo: Typical village of Enderta district (photo Francesco Conti)

Course staff
Director and Dr. Luca ONGARO

scientific coordinator Istituto Agronomico per l’Oltremare
President of the Prof. Giuliano RODOLFI

Regulating Commitee Dip. di Scienze del Suolo e della Nutrizione della Pianta
Università di Firenze
Tutors Dr. Valeria ALESSANDRO

Dr. Sara MINELLI
Istituto Agronomico per l’Oltremare
Consultant Prof. Andrea GIORDANO

Dip. di Economia e Ingegneria Agraria Forestale e Ambientale
Università di Torino
Participants
Leonardo CARTEI
Francesco CONTI
Matteo DE STEFANO
Girum Keshewabelay DESTA
Moges Aregay GEBREMARIAM
Aynalem Abebe GIZACHEW
Erica MATTA
Maliki MOUNKAILA
Matar NDAO
Doris Bate NTOH
Issouf OUEDRAOGO
Birhane Gebrehiwot TESFAMARIAM
Junxia ZHANG
IAO Director General

Dr. Alice PERLINI
Istituto Agronomico per l’Oltremare
FOREWORD
This publication presents the results of the case study that was carried out during the 28th Master Degree Course
on “Geomatics and Natural Resources Evaluation”, held at the Istituto Agronomico per l'Oltremare from
November 2007 to June 2008. This case study started on February 18 and ended on June 27 with a public
ceremony. Following our tradition, we deliver this report “as it is”, with very limited corrections, as its first aim
is to show the final level reached by our students. As such, it also suffers from lack of homogeneity. Infact,
different authors wrote different chapters, with little time that was available for editing. However, the
information contained is valuable, and I hope that the readers will forgive us.
The study area is the Enderta District, around the town of Mekele, the capital of Tigray, northern Ethiopia,
located about 700km north of Addis Ababa. This choice was suggested by the Government of the National State
of Tigray, Bureau of Finance and Economic Development, our local counterpart, as a very interesting area both
from the agricultural point of view and from a soil and water conservation perspective. Mekele is a fast-growing
town, with many relevant industrial and commercial activities, that raise important issues concerning the
environmental sustainability of its development. According to the IAO methodology, the Land Unit Map of the
study area (scale of 1:100,000) and the land evaluation were the main goals of this case study. During the
fieldwork, that was carried out from March-April, the didactical aspects were emphasized and particular stress
laid on the operational procedures that deal with the synergy between Remote Sensing and GIS techniques.
Not all the cartographic outputs, complete GIS data set, fieldwork databases and all other data, were included in
this publication, because their quantity is overwhelming. We can provide a separate DVD free of charge to
anyone requesting these data. An on-line version of this report, in the form of a web-based hypertext, will be
available on the IAO main website in a few weeks after the close of the programme.
I want to address my thanks to all the participants to this stimulating exercise, both students and teachers, and to
all the IAO staff involved. In particular, I must thank the former and the current Heads of the Bureau, Mr. Haile
Yohannes and Mr. Yemane Yosef, the Head of the GIS Department, Yibrah Girmay, and the whole staff of the
GIS Department for their continuous support. But a special thank must be addressed to our friend and colleague
Gebremeskel Gebremariam, our student, who took on his shoulders the responsibility of setting up all this
project, and spent a full month with us in the fieldwork. A very good example of success of IAO training
approach and mentality.
I should also mention our drivers, that brought us back healthy every day, the workers that shared with us the
hard life of the fieldwork, the staff of our Hotel (thank you Mulugeta), the farmers we met during the work, and
all the people in Mekele who always let us without words for their warm hospitality.
And my personal thanks to Mr. Rizzotti, for the unforgettable starred sky over Geralta.
Florence, 27 June 2008

Luca Ongaro
Course Director
INDEX
1. Introducton 1
1.1 Objectives 1
1.2 Framework 2
1.3 The Study Area 3
2. Methodology 7
2.1 IAO Approach 7
2.2 Materials and GIS 8
2.2.1 Material 8
2.2.2 Geographic Information Systems 9
2.3 The Land Unit Map and its legend 10
2.3.1 The preliminary Land Unit Map 11
2.3.2 Fieldwork survey 11
2.3.3 The final Land Unit Map 12
3. Land Resources 17
3.1 Climate 17
3.1.1 General overview 17
3.1.2 Meteorological data 17
3.1.3 Classification 19
3.2 Geology 21
3.2.1 Regional geology 21
3.2.2 Geology of the study area 23
3.3 Geomorphology 34
3.3.1 Ethiopian Rift Escarpment 34
3.3.2 Mekele “Plateau” 37
3.3.2 Giba River Tributaries 42
3.4 Land use and land cover 43
3.4.1 Agriculture 43
3.4.2 Vegetation 49
3.4.3 Land Cover Classification System (LCCS) 55
3.5 Soils 56
3.5.1 Soil classification 56
3.5.2 Soil map according to the legend of the Soil Map of the World FAO-UNESCO 62
3.5.3 Physical and chemical characteristics 65
3.6 Main environmental issues 71
3.6.1 Introduction 71
3.6.2 Major environmental issues of the study area 75
4. Land Evaluation 87
4.1 Land Capability 87
4.2 Land Suitability 92
4.2.1 Land suitability for rainfed crops 92
4.2.2 Land suitability evaluation for perennial crops 98
4.2.3 Land suitability for irrigation 107
4.2.4 Land suitability for forestry 111
4.3 Erosion risk evaluation 116
4.3.1 Van Zuidam susceptibility classification 116
4.3.2 Application of RUSLE methodology 120
5. Land Management and Land Use Planning 129
5.1 Multitemporal analysis 129
5.1.1 Vegetation change analysis 129
5.1.2 Urban change 131
5.2 Suitability analysis for locating sanitary landfill site 133
5.2.1 Location of landfill in the study area 134
5.3 Scenario for erosion control with prospect of the regrowth of vegetation 137
5.4 Scenario for commercial forestry, soil conservation forestry and naturalistic forestry 139
Bibliography 143
Annexs 149
Annex 1-Land Unit description 149
Annex 2-Soil profile classification 169
Annex 3-Florist list 201
Annex 4-Field forms 203
Annex 5-Panoramic view 211
Annex 6-Transects 215
List of figures 221
List of tables 223
List of photos 225
List of authors 227
Web Site Home Page 229
CHAPTERS AND PARAGRAPHS AUTHORS
1.1 Objectives Francesco CONTI, Girum Keshewabelay DESTA, Moges
Aregay GEBREMARIAM
1.2 Framework Francesco CONTI, Girum Keshewabelay DESTA, Moges
Aregay GEBREMARIAM
1.3 The study area Aynalem Abebe GIZACHEW, Doris Bate NTOH, Birhane
Gebrehiwot TESFAMARIAM
2.1 The IAO approach Girum Keshewabelay DESTA, Junxia ZHANG
2.2 Materials and GIS Matteo DE STEFANO
2.3 The Land Unit Map and its legend Erica MATTA
3.1 Climate Erica MATTA, Maliki MOUNKAILA
3.2 Geology Erica MATTA, Issouf OUEDRAOGO
3.3 Geomorphology Matteo DE STEFANO, Maliki MOUNKAILA
3.4.1 Agriculture Moges Aregay GEBREMARIAM, Matar NDAO, Birhane
Gebrehiwot TESFAMARIAM, Junxia ZHANG
3.4.2 Vegetation Leonardo CARTEI, Maliki MOUNKAILA, Doris Bate NTOH
3.4.3 Land Cover Classification System Leonardo CARTEI, Matteo DE STEFANO, Junxia ZHANG
3.5.1 Soil classifications Francesco CONTI, Girum Keshewabelay DESTA, Moges
Aregay GEBREMARIAM, Aynalem Abebe GIZACHEW
3.5.2 Chemical and physical characteristics Leonardo CARTEI, Girum Keshewabelay DESTA
3.6 Main environmental issues Aynalem Abebe GIZACHEW, Doris Bate NTOH
4.1 Land capability Matteo DE STEFANO, Girum Keshewabelay DESTA
4.2 Land suitability Moges Aregay GEBREMARIAM
4.2.1 Land suitability for annual crops Moges Aregay GEBREMARIAM, Junxia ZHANG
4.2.1 Land suitability for perennial crops Birhane Gebrehiwot TESFAMARIAM, Doris Bate NTOH
4.2.4 Land suitability for irrigation Aynalem Abebe GIZACHEW, Matar NDAO
4.2.2 Land Suitability for forestry Leonardo CARTEI, Maliki MOUNKAILA
4.3.1 Van Zuidam susceptibility Francesco CONTI, Girum Keshewabelay DESTA
classification
4.3.2 Application of RUSLE methodology Erica MATTA, Issouf OUEDRAOGO
5.1 Suitability analysis for locating sanitary Aynalem Abebe GIZACHEW, Doris Bate NTOH
landfill site
Francesco CONTI, Moges Aregay GEBREMARIAM, Birhane
5.2 Multitemporal analysis
Gebrehiwot TESFAMARIAM,
5.3 Scenario for erosion control with prospect
Erica MATTA
of the regrowth of vegetation
5.4 Scenario for commercial forestry, soil
Leonardo CARTEI
conservation forestry and naturalistic forestry
Annex 1-Land Unit Description Moges Aregay GEBREMARIAM, Erica MATTA, Maliki
MOUNKAILA, Matteo DE STEFANO
Annex 2-Soil profile classification Francesco CONTI, Girum Keshewabelay DESTA, Aynalem
Abebe GIZACHEW
Annex 3-Floristic list Leonardo CARTEI, Doris Bate NTOH
Annex 4-Field forms Maliki MOUNKAILA
Annex 5-Panoramic View Issouf OUEDRAOGO
Leonardo CARTEI, Birhane Gebrehiwot TESFAMARIAM,
Annex 6-Transects
Issouf OUEDRAOGO
OLTHER CONTRIBUTIONS AUTHORS
Bibliographical research, preliminary
ALL
photointerpretation, and field work
Leonardo CARTEI, Erica MATTA, Maliki MOUNKAILA
Preliminary LandUnit map
Matar NDAO
Final LandUnit map Francesco CONTI, Birhane Gebrehiwot TESFAMARIAM
Data Base entry Aynalem Abebe GIZACHEW, Issouf OUEDRAOGO
Photo editing Junxia ZHANG
Fieldform Maliki MOUNKAILA, Matar NDAO
Leonardo CARTEI, Matteo DE STEFANO, Girum
Soil laboratory
Keshewabelay DESTA, Moges Aregay GEBREMARIAM
Web site Matteo DE STEFANO, Matar NDAO, Junxia ZHANG
Land Unit Map Erica MATTA
Topographic map Leonardo CARTEI, Birhane Gebrehiwot TESFAMARIAM
DVD data Matar NDAO
Leonardo CARTEI, Francesco CONTI, Matteo DE STEFANO,
Moges Aregay GEBREMARIAM, Aynalem Abebe
Poster session
GIZACHEW, Maliki MOUNKAILA, Issouf OUEDRAOGO,
Birhane Gebrehiwot TESFAMARIAM, Junxia ZHANG
Girum Keshewabelay DESTA, Erica MATTA, Doris Bate
Oral presentation
NTOH
Report editing Doris Bate NTOH
Land Evaluation in the Enderta District-Tigray, Ethiopia
1. INTRODUCTON
1.1 Objectives
Nowadays the rate of population growth of our planet is drastically increasing which grounds to the radical and
eye-catching alterations that affect the landscape and environment of our unique planet. This calls for adequate
land use planning in order to ensure sustainability of the resources to meet the needs of future generations.
Almost all over the globe, there are rising worries as regards the society’s demand for resources and the
availability of land as well as the capability of the land to support the use for which it is purposed. Such
conditions often lead to the extraordinary changes in landscape ecosystems and the environment in general.
Alterations in rural landscapes are due to intensification of agriculture, land abandonment and forest
exploitation. Urban areas and related infrastructures are the best ever growing land consumers, mainly at the cost
of productive agricultural land. Generally, numerous ecological problems are entrenched due to inadequate use
of land that leads to climate change, biodiversity loss and the pollution of water, soils and air. The extreme
shortage of productive land is the main aspect of this verdict (http://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/natural).
Land is a non renewable natural resource that can not be measured solely in terms of surface area.
Hence, the soil, geology, topography, hydrology, climate and the biodiversity are all part of land (Figure 1).
Figure 1-Concept of land

Along with the growth of population and the decrease of land quality, land is now becoming an increasingly
scarce resource for mankind. Rational land use planning can be achieved through correct processes of land
evaluation, which should be central to any development activity.
Appreciating the modern technologies of information systems, it is easier to deal with evaluation of land
resources comparing to the past. The remote sensing method is the most advanced effortless method to obtain
information about the land resources through the analysis of data acquired by the satellite that is often enhanced
with the modern technologies of information systems.
Land evaluation, according to the framework for land evaluation (FAO, 1976), is concerned with the assessment
of land performance when used for specified purposes. It involves the execution and interpretation of basic
surveys of climate, soil, vegetation, and other aspects of land in terms of the requirements of alternative forms of
land use that are thought during the Master course.
The main objective of this Master Degree Course on “Geomatics and Natural Resources Evaluation” is to
provide the participants with integrated skills and multidisciplinary knowledge on the application of Remote
Sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) as tools for assessing natural resources.
1
Master's Degree in “Geomatics and Natural Resources Evaluation”- IAO 28th edition- 2008
1.2 Framework
The course is divided into two basic parts: the first is theory and exercise; the second is interdisciplinary case
study which, this year, took place in Ethiopia, Tigray region, Enderta district. The knowledge acquired during
the first module was applied in the case study during the second part of the course (Figure 2).
FIRST PHASE
DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS
THEMATIC MAPS
DATA
COLLECTION
FROM
TOPOGRAPHIC
LITERATURE AND
MAPS
OTHER SOURCES
SATELLITE
IMAGES AND PREPARATION OF
AERIAL PHOTOS DATABASE
PRELIMINARY DATABASE
LAND UNIT MAP STRUCTURE
SECOND PHASE
FIELDWORK
DATA INTERPRETATION
COLLECTION REVIEW
Figure 2-Project framework

The first part consisted of a series of lectures, seminars and exercises, which concerned the basic topics such as:
Elements of information and communication technology, Principles of remote sensing, Cartography, Aerial
photo interpretation, Satellite image processing, Geographical information systems as well as other related
subjects. Another very important item of the first part is providing participants with the methodological aspects
of natural resources evaluation. For this purpose lectures about climatology, geology and geomorphology,
agriculture and land use, land cover and vegetation ecology, forests, and soils were held including the important
lecture on IAO approach (methodology), which was developed in 1993 particularly for natural resources
evaluation.
The second part was a complete case study which included one month of fieldwork. In this part, the above
mentioned knowledge was applied to carry out an exercise of land evaluation in the study area.
According to the different aims, the case study is divided into three distinct phases:
- preliminary data collection and processing;
- fieldwork; and
- final data processing.
In the first phase, all data and information were collected from different sources and analysed in order to get a
general overview of the study area. Very limited related studies have been carried out in the above mentioned
study area. These previous studies range from the general to the specific and provided different information on
the landforms, soils, geology, agriculture, climate and natural vegetation at various scales. These studies were
reviewed and critically examined during this period in order to identify the data gaps, get back ground
information, formulate the survey methodology and incorporate useful information to be used as an input to the
present study. The preliminary Land Unit Map and its legend were established through photo interpretation of
aerial photos and satellite images. At the same time, the data base structure and the evaluation models were
established and the preliminary cartography for survey was prepared
2
In the second phase, during the one month of fieldwork, main duties were:
- data collection which was necessary for the final evaluation. Some of which included information on soils,
geology, geomorphology, natural vegetation, land use and land cover.
- data correction and validation as well as the correction of the preliminary Land Unit map.
The last phase consisted of the final processing and evaluation based on the field data and laboratory analysis.
This involves:
- land evaluation through the soil erosion risk, land capability and suitability for different purposes;
- generation of auxiliary thematic digital maps (which included the final Land Unit map);
- database setup;
- integration of results with ground information into a GIS.
Moreover, the final product may be used to create scenarios about the future development of the land such as the
definition for better resources management practices, policies establishment and decision making.
1.3 The Study Area
The study area, Enderta District is located in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, in Tigray Regional
State. Tigray Regional State is one of the nine regional states of Ethiopia and is located in the northern most part
of the country (Figure 3). This region is made up of 7 zones, namely: the West, North-West, Central, East,
South-East, South and the Mekele Zones. Within these five zones, there are 47 districts, locally called, woredas.
(
!
Mekele
Ethiopia Tigray Region Enderta District
Figure 3-Location of the study area

Geographically, Enderta is located between 130-140 North and 390-400 30" East. It shares borders with Kilte
Awlalo district in the north, Degua Temben district in the west, Saharti Samre in the south west, Hintalo Wajirat
district in the south and the Afar region in the east. This district is well known as a transit point for camel
caravans used to transport salt from the arid lands of the Danikil Depression in the Afar region.
The main towns in Enderta are: Mekele and Kwiha. In addition to these main towns, there are small towns such
as Aynalem, May Keyah, May Mekden, and Aragure. Seemingly, there are prominent villages in this district
such as Chelekot, Debri, Kokolo, Adi Negoda and Alem (Figure 4). The administrative center of the district is
the Kwiha town. Mekele is the capital city of the Tigray region. According to the administrative hierarchy of this
region, Mekele is a zone which is administered independently from the Enderta District even though the town is
geographically located in Enderta. This town is one of Ethiopia’s principal economic and educational centres
(http://www.csa.gov.et/). It has an international airport, Alula Aba Nega Airport. In addition to this, this town has
the principal cement production facility in northern Ethiopia; the Messebo Cement Factory. This town is
currently expanding rapidly with large agricultural areas being encroached by the settlement. Due to the high
expansion rate of the town, there is a high demand for construction materials, particularly stones. Therefore, the
farmers in the Enderta District use quarrying as a means of income generation to meet the increasing demand for
stones. These quarries were observed in a greater proportion of the district (along the main roads and secondary
roads). This district has an estimated total population of about 144,800 inhabitants which is 3.3 % of the total
population of Tigray Region. This population is composed of 51% males and 49% females. It has an estimated
density of 108.1 inhabitants per Km2. The urban dwellers of this district account for 14.87% of the total
population. It is important to note that this figure does not include the inhabitants in the Mekele town since it is
independently administered as explained above. The Mekele town alone has an estimated total population of
about 169,200 inhabitants with an estimated population density of 6,923 peoples per Km2.
According to the national census of Ethiopia (http://muse.jhu), 95.5% of the population of Tigray were Orthodox
Christians which is seemingly the principal religion in the Enderta district. The official language of the Tigray
3
region is Tigrigna which is a Semitic Language originally derived from the ancient language of Ethiopia, the
Geez Language. The alphabets of the language are almost the same as the Amharic alphabets. The calendar is the
same as that of the other parts of Ethiopia. Both the calendar and the alphabets are unique to Ethiopia.
The study area is comprised of two major agro climatic zones. A greater portion lies in the ‘Weyna Dega’
altitudinal climatic zone with an elevation range between 1500-2300m (temperate) while a smaller portion in the
eastern and western parts lay in the ‘Kolla’ altitudinal climatic zone with elevation between 500-1500m (hot)
(Fantoli, 1965). Records from the National Meteorological Service Agency, Mekele (observation from 1930-
2007) show that the mean annual temperatures of this area ranges between 16-20 0C. The average annual rainfall
ranges between 500 and 1000mm. This area is characterised by erratic rainfall and frequent droughts. The rainy
season is between June and September and the subsistence agricultural production is almost entirely dependent
on this timing (wet season) (http://www.dppc.gov.et).
The study area presents different types of lithology which varies with the morphology. Morphologically, the
study area is divided into three major land systems: The Mekele “Plateau”, the Ethiopian Rift Escarpment and
the Giba River Tributaries. In the Mekele “Plateau”, the dominant lithologies are Agula formation and Antalo
formation, which are Jurassic. These formations are characterised by interbedded and overlaid (rock outcrops)
tertiary dolerites. The Agula formation is mainly composed of shale with interbedded black limestone. Whereas,
the Antalo formation is composed of limestone particularly marl, interbedded with white and black limestone.
The Ethiopian Rift Escarpment is the continuation of the Danakil depression with the dominant lithology of
limestone and shale. The Mekele “Plateau” covers the largest part of the study area. Most parts of this land
system are highlands with an altitude greater than 2000m above sea level. The highlands extend from the central
to the north and Southern part of the study area with diversified land forms which range from level plain to very
steep scarp. The Ethiopian Rift Escarpment is characterised by a relatively higher drainage patterns. The
Escarpment is constituted by moderately dissected sloping, strongly dissected sloping surface with summit sub
flat area, strongly dissected sloping surface, and dissected sloping surface. However, the Giba River Tributary
has a relatively homogeneous landform composed of level plain area. Both the Ethiopia Rift Escarpment and the
Giba River Tributaries have altitudes lower than 2000m above sea level (Figure 4). The Giba river is the largest
river in the district. It flows to the south and south western directions along the boundary of the district. Other
minor rivers include, the May Gabai, found in the southern part of the district and flows to the west and the
Geyademo river found in the northern part and flows to the southern direction as well (Figure 4). This district is
characterised by many ponds and dams used to supply water to the community. The largest pond, the Chechet
pond is found in the eastern part of the study area. However, these dams and ponds are currently dried up due to
the present -day atmospheric conditions of erratic rainfall and droughts.
The most common soils of the study area are: Arenosols, Calcisols, Cambisols, Kastanozems, Leptosols,
Luvisols, Phaozems, Regosols, Vertisols and Fluvisols. The Fluvisols are mainly confined to the alluvial
deposits along the river valley.
Land use in the study area includes agriculture, livestock grazing, urbanisation and low-density residential
development. The type of land use varies with the topography or landform. Most of the hill tops are occupied by
the churches and villages while the almost flat level areas are used for agriculture and urbanisation. Agriculture
and livestock are the backbone of the economy in this area. Agricultural land occupies an area of about 59,260
hectares which is approximately 49% of the total surface of the study area. Most of the crops are grown by local
farmers who use traditional farming methods and the crops are mainly rainfed annual crops. These crops are
grown with respect to the local agricultural zone divisions which are a function of the elevation and climate. In
the ‘Weyna Dega’ Agro-climatic zone with temperatures between 16-20oC, the main crops grown are wheat,
maize, teff and pulses. On the other hand, the dominant crop grown in the Kolla Agro-climatic zone (>20oC) is
sorghum. In both cases the produce is mainly for family subsistence (Pichi Sermolli, 1957). Currently, the right
to ownership of rural and urban land in Ethiopia is exclusively vested in the state and shall not be subject to sale
or exchange. The Ethiopian Constitution guarantees the rights of access to land for peasants and pastoralists. It
also specifies the right of individuals to improvements made on the land including the right to transfer or claim
compensation for such improvements. However, the mechanisms as to how these rights can be assured and other
details on land issues are left to the regional states. Following the Constitution, the current land policy of the
Tigray region states that, land is collectively owned by the state and the people. Hence, land is a public property.
This policy has certain merits in a sense that, it allows some transfer rights relative to the 1975 land reform. It
provides the holder the right to lease, the use of hired labour as well as the rights to rent. However, land cannot
be sold or exchanged. The policy also prohibits the leasing (renting) of land for an indefinite period of time
(Zenebe, 2007). The natural vegetation cover of the study area is made up of grasses and scrubs with short trees.
This area had once been densely forested with the most representative species such as Juniper procera and Olea
africana (tall and large trees; TFAT, 1996; Darbyshire et al. 2003). The natural forest was once severely
deforested. The remnant of this forest could be seen in church areas, reserved areas and the Ethiopian Rift
Escarpment. Currently, the study area is characterised by low forest productivity due to the climate, soil, and
topographic constrain on the tree growth. However, the vegetation is now being rehabilitated by area enclosure
4
policies. The most representative plant species in the forest are: Acacia etbaica (locally called seraw) and
Tarchonanthus camphoratus (locally called ebok). Most of the destroyed forests are now being re-afforested
with the exotic plant species Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Eucalyptus globulus which are commonly called
Eucalyptus. These are the main species used for construction.
530000
1510000 Geyademo river
Chin
Feres Adi Beiz
Adi
Bikel May Mekden!
(
May
Alem
Giba river
Araguren
Kokolo Ki'en
Mekele
Kwiha Hilsha
Debr
Adi Kolen Aynalem
Adi
Noguade
Akeseba
Chelekot
May Gabai river
Hohole
May
/
Keyah
0 4 8 12 16
Km
1459000
584000
Elevation (m) Hydrologycal network
1250 - 1400 River

1401 - 1550 Main tributaries
1551 - 1700
1701 - 1850
1851 - 2000 Main villages
2001 - 2150
2151 - 2300
2301 - 2443
2444 - 2600
2601 - 2676
Figure 4-Sketch map of the study area
5
6
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 IAO Approach
The IAO approach is a scientific and dynamic developing methodology to evaluate land resources information,
which developed from the concept of carrying out an interdisciplinary method, associating the remote sensing
and GIS knowledge to the practical aspects of the field work. The methodology takes into account the concept of
the land as a holistic system which is constituted by different components, such as: climate, geology,
geomorphology, soil, vegetation and agriculture, which are not considered as individual and singular
independent factors but as components which together as a whole make up land. This has an advantage in that
synergies that may be considered are interrelated and thus produces synthetic results. However on the overall;
the IAO approach employed for land evaluation is in accordance with the modern concepts of soil, landscape,
and vegetation mapping.
The IAO approach is based on the evaluation of land following the three different hierarchical levels:
- the land system;
- the facet;
- the site.
The land system: an area of recurring pattern of geomorphologically and geographically associated land facets,
and with a relatively uniform climate. The land system is “a combination of land facets together, forming one
convenient mapping unit on a reconnaissance scale” (Zonneveld, 1972).
The facet: the central concept of land survey and evaluation. It is a portion of land which is homogeneous from
the land management point of view. It is strictly related to the resources inventory and mapping process. It is also
defined as a portion of land formed by a combination of sites related both spatially and in terms of land
attributes.
The site: the only true holistic unit which actually exists in this system. It is characterised by homogeneity of not
less than one of its attributes and it corresponds to the chosen location of the relevé. The data are strictly linked
with this spatial scale.
The three hierarchal levels are all referred with the generic term “Land Unit” that can be a portion of the earth as
it has been delineated on a map and described in the map legend.
The IAO methodology has being developed on the frame work around the concept of land as a holistic object.
The analysis starts from the definition of homogeneous land portions that constitute the basic geographical units
for its specialisation of punctual data collected on the field. In this methodology, the main aim is to create a
preliminary Land Unit map starting from remote sensing data and taking in to account all the relevant land
attributes to distinguish different landscapes. This Land Unit map will be a reference framework for an
integrated fieldwork which is carried out by multidisciplinary team. All the land characteristics are studied
during the fieldwork with the methodical approach and the attributes are translated in to land qualities for
multidisciplinary land evaluation. During the survey, data for different land attributes are collected in accordance
to the different hierarchal level on each different representative Land Units following the same methodology.
This procedure allows acquiring different information for each land attribute.
Following the data collection, the descriptions of the relevé, facet and Land Unit are processed in the model in
order to evaluate the Land Unit for different purposes and the preliminary legend is modified according to the
field survey in legend management system, considering that different relevés can describe the same facet (many-
to-one relation) and different facets can describe the same Land Unit (one-to-many relation). The data is
processed in order to draw from the different relevés information related to one facet, a single value for each
attributes.
According to different proportions of the sites and facets inside a Land Unit, a score could be assign to each
parameter which influences the specific type of evaluation (the land capability, suitability and erosion risk)
(Figure 5). Such a framework proved to be feasible both in area and detail and easily updatable as well.
According to the IAO approach, the scale of the final map of the study area was 1:100,000, with the minimum
mapping unit of 4×4mm2 (or 2×8mm2) which is corresponding to an area of 16ha on the ground.
Actually, the final outcome of the IAO approach is to provide thematic maps for different evaluation systems
extracted from a final output by the holistic methodology. This has an advantage in that planers may use the
maps to make a sustainability assessment according to their purposes and needs.
7
Figure 5-Flow chart for data processing (mod. from Ongaro, 2007)
2.2 Materials and GIS
To obtain the preliminary Land Unit map by visual interpretation, following the IAO holistic approach, different
materials such as maps, Digital Elevation Model (DEMs ), satellite images and aerial photographs were collected
and utilised.
2.2.1 Material
Topographic maps
The study area is covered by 7 topographic maps at 1:50,000 scale printed by the Ethiopian Mapping Authority
(EMA, 1997), with Transverse Mercator Projection (grid: UTM zone 37N), Clarke 1880 as spheroid and
Adindan datum. These topographic maps were drawn using panchromatic aerial photo acquired by Swedsurvey
on January 1994, and some field completion by EMA on March 1996. The topographic maps were scanned and
acquired in digital format, georeferenced and utilised as reference images to operate geometric corrections on
other remote sensing data.
Aerial photos
Fifty-three aerial photos acquired by Swedsurvey on January 1994 at scale of 1:50,000, from 7 different flight
lines, covering the entire study area were obtained from EMA. They were analysed using stereoscopes (photo-
interpretation) during the first phase of the course.
Satellite images
Together with the aerial photos, in order to obtain the Land Unit map a set of 4 Landsat-7 ETM and 2 Landsat-5
TM images, already orthorectified, were downloaded from Global Land Cover Facility (GLCF). Two sets of
Landsat-7 images (acquired on 2000-02-05 and 2000-01-27) were merged in a mosaic. Aster images, with a 15
meters spatial resolution, were also purchased for the occasion, but needed to be orthorectified and
georeferenced. Google Earth images were also useful as a complementary tool during the photo-interpretation
because of their high resolution in most part of the study area. This allowed a better discrimination of the land
use and land cover. This collection of different satellite images and photos was also useful for multitemporal
analysis (Table 1).
8
SENSOR PATH AND ROW DATE

p168r051 2000-02-05
p168r051 2000-12-05
LANDSAT 7/ETM+
p169r051 2000-01-27
p169r051 2003-03-08
p168r051 1986-01-05
LANDSAT 5/TM
p168r051 1986-01-05
ASTER/TERRA 2005-09-30
Table 1-Collected satellite images
Thematic maps
Two different geologic maps were collected and utilised, starting from the most useful one, the geological map
of Mekele area (Arkin et al. 1971), at 1:250,000 scale, and the other map, prepared for an hydrological survey
(WWDSE, 2007), at 1:150,000 scale. A Landform and Soil map, which was part of the Tigray Rural
Development Study on a scale of 1:50,000 was also useful for result comparation (HTSL, 1975).
Digital Elevation Model
A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is a digital representation of a portion of the earth's surface derived from the
interpolation of regularly spaced elevation point measurements. Two different DEMs were obtained, one from
the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) with 90m spatial resolution and 16m elevation accuracy, which
were freely downloaded from the NASA website and the second obtained from Aster level-1A data, that was
generated using bands 3N (nadir viewing) and 3B (backward viewing) with a spatial resolution of 30m. The
DEMs were useful to a preliminary understanding of the geomorphology of the study area and other applications
such as the drainage network and derived indexes.
2.2.2 Geographic Information Systems

A Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a computer-based information system designed to work with data
referenced by spatial or geographic coordinates. It integrates computer technology, human experience and
detailed geographical data with the aim of visualising in a map relationships, patterns and trends. A GIS requires
some input data, which are stored in a database as geo-referenced objects linked to ancillary non-geographical
attribute data which describe their physical characteristics. Using this data a GIS is able to perform geostatistical
spatial analysis to produce valuable outputs. In fact, the main objective of a GIS output is to provide useful and
easily understandable information for scientists, technicians and decision-makers mostly in form of a map that
may be linked to tables and charts.
GIS and IAO methodology
The application of the IAO methodology calls for the use of GIS software which has a strong role in most parts
of the evaluation. According to this methodology, the typical GIS approach is inverted. While usually different
thematic layers, containing various informations, are collected and joined to a synthesis map, with IAO approach
a single Land Unit map layer containing all information is built in a holistic way, from which specific data may
be extracted. The input data may be in any of the three basic formats such as: raster, vector or alphanumeric data
(Table 2).
THEMATIC DATA DATA TYPE

Field survey database Alphanumeric
Soil analysis database Alphanumeric
Geo-referenced satellite images Raster
Topographic map Raster
Sampling points Vector (Points)
Land Unit map Vector (Polygons)
Road network Vector (Lines)
Drainage network Vector (Lines)
Table 2-GIS type of data
The first use of GIS software was for manual digitisation of polygons (vectors) describing the Land Unit systems
of the preliminary Land Unit map, based only on visual interpretation of geo-referenced remote sensing images.
These images were imported as input raster layers and used as a reference base for drawing the polygons. The
9
Land Unit polygons were named with preliminary legend codes. Spatial analysis then was performed starting
from DEM to obtain the drainage network of the study area. The road network was also drawn using GIS with
the topographic map being the base map.
The relational database
After the fieldwork all the field data collected in the study area together with the results of the soil laboratory
analysis and other ancillary data were inserted in a relational database (Figure 6), where all information is stored
in a logically structured and interrelated framework. This data describe the physical characteristics of the study
area from a multidisciplinary point of view, following the IAO methodology. Each relevé was spatially located
using GPS coordinates which describe a site and a land facet, which are in turn related to one Land Unit. These
three elements, which are hierarchically ordered, allow the final Land Unit map to be described in terms of
geology, geomorphology, soils, land cover and land use. The Land Unit map was eventually revised, improved
and redrawn during this phase following the field observations. Starting from the vector layer of the Land Unit
map; the lithology, landform, soil and climate maps were also prepared. With the help of some model and tools
applied to the relational database, the final legend was structured, the data were elaborated and the mathematical
processes responsible for the final outputs were conducted, obtaining land suitability and land capability maps,
soil erosion risk maps together with some future scenarios, as described in next chapters.
INPUTS DEM
Remote Sensing Images
GIS
Thematic maps
Fieldwork Data Preliminary Land Unit Map

Soil Lab Analysis
Ancillary Data
RELATIONAL DATABASE
Data management and
processing
OUTPUTS Final Land Unit Map
Derived thematic maps

Evaluation outputs
Environmental risk analysis Future scenarios
Figure 6- GIS structure and relational database

2.3 The Land Unit Map and its legend
The work carried out to obtain the final Land Unit map can be divided in three main phases:
- A preliminary overview of the study area from all available sources of information, which led to a
preliminary Land Unit map equipped with its preliminary legend.
- A field survey activity, carried out to collect a large variety of specific data in representative points of the
study area.
- A review and arrangement of the preliminary map on the base of the field observation data. The product of
this last step is the final Land Unit map and its legend.
10
2.3.1 The preliminary Land Unit Map

All available documentation about geology, geomorphology, climate, vegetation, soil and topography of the
study area were collected to have a general and global overview of its characteristics. Geological informations
were taken mainly from the 1:250,000 scale geological map of Mekele (Arkin et al. 1971). The boundaries of the
study area were defined according to the administrative limits of Enderta district, provided by the Bureau Of
Financial and Economic Development (BOFED) of Mekele. Some little changes were executed in some parts
where the limits of the study area were a little shifted from the river line that constituted a natural boundary.
A set of satellite images (Landsat 7, Landsat 5, ASTER) and 1:50.000 scale aerial photographs were analysed to
derive geomorphological aspects. From this first photointerpretation the study area turned out to be very
complex and not easily describable in terms of units with peculiar and unique geomorphological characteristics.
By the way a first great morphological division was done between the Mekele “Plateau” and the Escarpment.
The first land system occupies the majority of the area, and is constituted by a rolling “Plateau” around Mekele,
where maximum elevations are reached, while the Escarpment corresponds to the eastern portion of Enderta,
defined by steep sloping slopes and deep narrow valleys. As these two land systems are too different each other
from a morphological point of view, it was necessary to describe their landforms using different approaches. The
Mekele “Plateau” land system was divided in landforms following at first a lithological criterion, and
successively looking different morphologies. The escarpment, geologically uniform, was subdivided following
mainly the morphological criterion.
Landcover types were identified to describe agricultural activity and different cover percentage of natural
vegetation, according to the Land Cover Classification System (Di Gregorio and Jansen, 2000).
All photointerpretation results were digitalized on screen using GeoVIS 2.3 software. This is a very useful tool
for digitalization, being enable to display in the same time till four different background images. It was so
possible to compare distinct sources of information to draw in the best way the boundaries between Land Unit
polygons. For example, the contemporary view of Landsat 7, 432 colour composite image (28,5m pixel
resolution, taken during the dry season) and ASTER 432 colour composite image (15m pixel resolution, taken
during the wet season) was helpful to limit agricultural and vegetative areas. Aster, with its higher spatial
resolution, was good to draw more precisely the polygons. Even the comparison among different Landsat colour
composite was useful. In some cases 741 false colour composite was better than 432 to recognize some features,
mainly in the distinction of bedding lithological layers. It was useful also to display a classified NDVI values
image, to discriminate different vegetation cover percentage in the Escarpment area.
The final result of the digitalization was a 1:100,000 scale Preliminary Map, on the base of which the fieldwork
was planned. It was decided to do at least one relevé in each Land Unit, increasing this number in function of
wideness and heterogeneity of the units.
2.3.2 Fieldwork survey

From 24th of March to 18th of April 2008 a fieldwork activity was carried out, consisting in direct observation of
mapped Land Units, and information collection about their own characteristics. Using the same fieldwork
manual to collect data (IAO, 2008), it was possible to uniform the job done by different work groups, and obtain
a set of information as free as possible from each personal subjectivity. For each relevé geographic coordinates
(using GPS), location in the topographic map and on the aerial photo, Land Unit code and name of different facet
constituting the Land Unit were registered (Annex 4, Figure 57). Even the facet name was built using a
standardized syntax:
Slope Class + Morphological Type on Parent Material; Land Cover on Soil Type
Each term was chosen among a list of different possibilities according to specific aspects. In this way it was
possible to homogenize the work and to easily highlight similarities among facets present in different locations.
In the Land Facet form (Annex 4, Figure 58) information about elevation, slope inclination, morphology type
(McDonald et al., 1990), surface characteristics, like presence of outcrops, rock fragments, vegetation cover
(Eiten, 1968) and human influence were recorded. Even indications about geomorphological active processes, as
type, degree and area affected by erosion were collected.
Going on in a more detailed level, topography, lithology and soil surface characteristics were taken in about
400m2 area around the soil profile point (Annex 4, Figure 59). A complete soil description was carried on during
each relevé, following the Guidelines for Soil Description (FAO, 2006) (Annex 4, Figure 60). Finally, soil
samples were collected for subsequent laboratory analysis.
If the relevé was located in a natural vegetation area, even vegetation cover percentage data were taken, together
with a list of recognisable floristic species and their characteristics (Annex 4, Figure 61). Vegetation samples
were collected for that species not directly known on the field, to be able to classify them after a consultation of
bibliography or botanist experts. If the relevé was included in an agricultural area a sort of interview was
11
presented to the farmers to achieve information about crop management and system (Annex 4, Figure 62). Soil
profile, facet and landscape photos were taken to have a field reference once came back to the office.
2.3.3 The final Land Unit Map

The data that were collected during the fieldwork were computed in to the database that was built purposely to
manage these data. Following the first hand knowledge that was acquired during the fieldwork it was necessary
to do some corrections to the preliminary map. Below are some corrections that were carried out. First of all a
review of polygon boundaries was carried out. A new land system was introduced to describe the alluvial
deposits; named Giba River Tributaries. The subdivision of landforms was re-considered taking in account
lithological and morphological parameters. The main changes were observed on the land cover types. A new
land cover class was introduced for the eucalyptus plantation which was found to be of relatively significant
coverage. Agricultural fields were often found to be scattered everywhere and alternated with natural vegetation.
This was found as a recurrent situation and in most cases it was impossible to make a separation between the two
especially as the land cover was found to be too small and less than the minimum mappable unit. For this reason
a mixed land cover class was introduced. Quite often, there was a gradual transition between two different land
cover classes in the escarpment: for instance, between open and sparse vegetation. In these cases the best
solution was to consider a sort of “transitional” class that was going from a sparse to an open situation (for
example: open to sparse scrubs).
Finally the study area was subdivided in 41 Land Units (Figure 7), described for each parameter (Land System,
Lithology, Landform, Land Use, Land Cover and Soil) in Table 3. Soils were grouped in Associations when each
soil type was found in a facet occupying less than 65% of Land Unit surface. When only one soil was
characteristic of more than 85% of the Land Unit it was named Dominant. In the middle situation the soil was
defined as Major.
For each Land Unit, all related relevé descriptions were compared, to summarise all the information found in
different survey points owing to the same Land Unit. From this work a simplified sketch, showing all the
different facets, with their relative cover percentages, composing a specific Land Unit was realised. At least the
75% of the Land Unit surface was described. The remnant percentage was left without description because
information about minor facets collected during the fieldwork was incomplete. In Figure 8 an extract of the Land
Unit Map at final scale of 1:100,000 is overlapped to a Landsat 7 image with the 432 RGB colour composite.
The numbers displayed inside the polygons correspond to the Land Unit code on the legend (Table 3).
12
530000
1510000
35
37 36 31
20 20 V 22
3735 V21
37 13 24
V 21 31
15 32 35 31 30 21 22
28 23 13
18 13 22 1721 V 32 21 23
26 33 33 29 22 14
30 21 22372337
3227 V 32 33 32 32 26 26 30 25 V 20
28 28
35 23 28 16 17 29 V25 23
31 26 3326 28 14 V 22 21
24 32 15 13 22 15 2
14 V 24 3334 17 21
36 3228 V 23 2830 1
23 23 14 V 17
24 22 34
17 15 V
23 17 V 24 22
17 26 22 29 17 23 2219
23
V2
23 23 V V V19
32 26 22 23 V 222
20 24 V 252825 23 V W23 17 2217 23 22
28 27 V 17 17 13 20 29 29 24 14 V
23 17 17 28 23 13 V 22
32 1714 23
35 14 V 22 V 17 14 V 23 25 V
V
15 2322 1622 Ur 15 23 29 13 22
18 V 2323 V29 28 W 13 23 V 21
14 13 14 V 24
V 23 Ur 14 21 24 17
36 Ur 7
14 22 19 V 18 16 1918 17 22 17
22
7
35 26 Ui
21 2423 22 22 13
19 23 23 22 7
34
34 33 32 V V 24 22 23 9
31 31 9 9 98 7 7
3031 V V 8
25 28 3026 32 13
24 24 W1623 15 14 23 17 18 V
W
8 9 7 7 8
34 28 13 V V 1417 23 17 18
24 14 24 V 14 19
5 9
7 9
32 17 15 14 22 9 9
15 14 27 37 31 V V 14 17 V 23 9
2515 22 17 23 43 6 7
17
15 2628 25 28 V 26 13 2214 14 14
23 W
15
5 7
2213 17 V 17 22 3 9
30 28 23 8
17 14 27 15 23 V 4 V 7
30 28 32 17 23 14 14 W 7
14 13 17 13 V 24 15 17 65 6 8 7
26 15 14 V 23 2324
32 34 17 14 23 19 5 6
26 37 221916 19 3 9
15
22 V
V31 30 23
V 13 19 V
23 V 23 14 5 6 5
28 24 17 5 8
23
30 22 32 17 14 16 15 V W
23 7 5 5 9
23 15 V 6 10 12
22 17 13 16 24 17 V 3 9
17 1917 V 9 8 11
14 22
2113 23 8 10 9 12 11 9
10 11 11 12
2223 17 8 9 8 11
15 14 17 V
16V V9 3 4 8 8
19 16 8 5
15 V
/
22 16 21 5 9 8
V 8
5
10
8 9 10 10
8 9 9 8
21 9 910 9
23 8 12 12 11
8 8 1211 12 12 11
23
1112 12 11
9 12 12
11
0 4 8 12 16 12
5 11
Km
1459000
584000
Ethiopian Rift Escarpment

Mekele "Plateau"
Giba River tributaries
Urban areas
Water bodies
Figure 7-Land Unit Map (1:375,000.). The red square corresponds to the extract at final scale shown in Figure
8
13
LAND
LAND SYSTEM DOMINANT LITHOLOGY LAND FORM LANDUSE LANDCOVER SOILS
UNIT
Moderately dissected 1 Closed scrub
Calcisols
sloping surface 2 Open scrub
Association of Calcisols
3 Closed scrub
Degradation control and Cambisols
Strongly dissected Association of Calcisols,
sloping surface with 4 Closed to open scrub Cambisols and
summit sub flat area Kastanozems
5 Open scrub Calcisols
ETHIOPIAN RIFT
Limestone and shale (Jtg) 6 Agriculture Rainfed annual crops Arenosols
ESCARPMENT
7 Closed scrub Leptosols with Calcisols
Degradation control Association of Calcisols
8 Open scrub
Strongly dissected and Cambisols
sloping surface 9 Sparse scrub Calcisols
Agriculture and Sparse to open scrub and Association of Calcisols,
10
degradation control rainfed annual crops Cambisols and Arenosols
Dissected sloping 11 Open scrub
Calcisols
surface 12 Open to sparse scrub
Degradation control
MEKELE "PLATEAU" Association of Leptosols
13 Open scrub
Steep scarp and Regosols
Dolerite 14 Forest plantation Artificial forest Phaeozems
Agriculture and Open scrub and rainfed
Undulating crest 15 Luvisols with Cambisols
degradation control annual crops
Association of
16 Degradation control Open to closed scrub Kastanozems, Calcisols,
Phaeozems and Regosols
Association of
Agriculture and Open to closed scrub and Kastanozems, Calcisols,
17
Sloping Scarp degradation control rainfed annual crops Phaeozems, Regosols and
Cambisols
Association of
Shale with 18 Forest plantation Artificial forest Kastanozems, Calcisols
interbedded “black” and Phaeozems
limestone (Jg) 19 Agriculture Rainfed annual crops Calcisols
Agula
Association of Calcisols,
Formation 20 Degradation control Sparse to open scrub
Leptosols and Luvisols
Association of
Agriculture and Open scrub and rainfed
Undulating rises 21 Kastanozem, Regosols,
degradation control annual crops
Luvisols and Calcisols
Association of Leptosols,
22 Luvisols, Calcisols and
Agriculture Rainfed annual crops Cambisols
Gently undulating Vertisols with Calcisols
Colluvial deposit 23
plain and Luvisols
Association of Luvisols
Alluvial deposit Level plain 24 Ranching Grassland
and Fluvisols
Antalo Association of
Formation Moderate steep scarp 25 Degradation control Sparse to open scrub Kastanozems and
Phaeozems
Association of
Marl 26 Agriculture Rainfed annual crops Kastanazems, Arenosols,
interbedded Phaeozems and Vertisols
with white and
Strong slope Closed scrub and rainfed
Jte “black” 27
annual crops
Luvisols
limestone (Jte) Agriculture and
degradation control Rainfed annual crops and Leptosols with
28
sparse scrub Kastanozems
Association of of Luvisols,
Undulating rises 29 Degradation control Sparse and closed scrub
Leptosols and Phaeozems
Colluvial Association of Vertisols
Footslope 30 Agriculture Rainfed annual crops
deposit and Leptosols
Jtd Very steep scarp 31 Degradation control Open scrub Calcisols
Fine crystalline Agriculture and Open scrub and rainfed Association of Vertisols
limestone with 32
degradation control annual crops and Luvisols
some marl (Jtd) Terraced slopes Association of Calcisols
33 Agriculture Rainfed annual crops
and Vertisols
14
Colluvial
Footslope 34 Luvisols
deposit
Marl with black
Agriculture and Open scrub and rainfed Association of Calcisols
Jtc and sandy 35
degradation control annual crops and Luvisols
limestone (Jtc) Moderate steep Slope
Limestone and
Jtb 36 Degradation control Open to sparse scrub Luvisols with Leptosols
marl (Jtb)
GIBA RIVER Irrigated and rainfed Association of Luvisols
Alluvial deposit Level plain 37 Agriculture
TRIBUTARIES annual crops and Fluvisols
V Villages
Ur Urban areas Urban area-residential
Ui Urban area-infrastructure
W Water bodies Water bodies
Table 3-Final Land Unit legend
32 31
26 17 15
14
22
23 23 17
23
23
/
28 27 20
17 23
32 V
22
14 17
V
16 Ur
15 V 22 22
23
V 23
14 19
22
26
21 33
34
V 22
23
34 32
31 31
V 36 35 24
24 W
34 28 13 V
22
32
31 V V
27 37
15 V
26 28 17 22
14 28 25 26 13 13
30 13
14 26 28 27
17 17 17
30 28
0 1 2 3 4
Km
Figure 8-Land Unit Map extract at final scale 1:100,000 overlapped onto Landsat 7 432 RGB colour composite
15
16
3. LAND RESOURCES
3.1 Climate
3.1.1 General overview

The Geographic position and geomorphologic characteristics of Ethiopia allow the country to experience very
particular and different climates. In fact, although the country is being located in the Inter-tropical region and
also surrounded by sub-arid areas for most of its boundaries, it shows a great difference in the altitudinal range
(from Danakil depression; 100 meters below see level, to high mountains which are up to 4600m a.s.l.). Due to
this variation, the territory is subdivided in to the following climatic altitudinal zones (Muys, 2003):
- Kolla, (500-1500 m); with warm and semi-arid climate (temperature >20°C, rainfall between 200-800
mm);
- Weyna Dega, (1500-2300m); with warm-temperate and subhumid climate (temperature 16-20°C, rainfall
between 800-1200mm);
- Dega, (2300-3200m), with cool and humid climate (temperature 10-16°C, rainfall between 1200-2200
mm);
- Wurch, (above 3200m), with cold climate (temperature often below 0°C during the night, rainfall above
2200mm).
The temperature decreases proceeding from lower to higher elevations, and thus, the corresponding climate
leaves tropical features that become more arctic. The study area, Enderta district, located in the Tigray region
falls almost entirely in the Weyna Dega zone, with a smaller portion in the eastern and western parts that lay in
the Kolla zone.
In addition to the altitudinal feature, another very important factor controlling the climate in Ethiopia is the Inter
Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ); the belt which forms the frontier between the trade winds from the two
hemispheres. The north-south movement of this belt throughout the year causes the cyclic repetition of rainy
periods. During the north hemisphere winter, the ITCZ stays under the Equator, allowing the incoming of hot
and dry winds from the Sahara to the west highlands of Ethiopia. From the month of March to May every year,
the ITCZ moves towards the north, bringing humid air masses from the Equator which, in contact with colder
extra tropical air, causes spring rains. From June to the end of summer, the ICTZ is localised in its northern
position which is over 16° parallel. The south-east Monsoon and air from the Atlantic Ocean provoke the great
rainy season. The ITCZ comes back to the Equator at the end of the summer and determines a new dry period.
On the bases of this cyclic behaviour, the year can be divided into four seasons:
- Hagai (from December to March): dry and hot period;
- Toddi (from April to June): the first small rainy season;
- Kiremt (from July to September): the second and colder rainy season;
- Tebbi (from October to December): with very few rainfalls and raising temperatures.
The Kiremt season accounts for 65-95% of the total annual rainfall (Segele and Lamb, 2005). This is the most
important period of the year during which all agricultural activities are synchronised based on this season. It
must be noted that, crop yields are strongly dependent on the variability of Kiremt, in terms of its onset and
cessation as the presence of dryness during this season. The work of Segele and Lamb enhances that these
parameters are characterised by a great variability in space and time which sometimes causes dangerous draughts
such as the one registered in 1984. Therefore, it is very important to study and understand anomalies dynamics,
to mitigate future adverse effects and to improve agricultural planning in such areas which subsistence strongly
depends on rainfed agricultural activities.
3.1.2 Meteorological data

A general characterisation of climatic parameters in Tigray region register the mean annual temperature ranges
between 16° and 20°C, with an annual rainfall range of about 500-1000mm (United Nations Office for the
Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs; http://ochaonline.un.org). The FAO AQUASTAT spatialised data (10m
spatial resolution grid of the world; http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index.stm) for 1961-1990 period,
were used to build Bagnouls and Gaussen diagram for Mekele (Figure 9).
17
Figure 9-Bagnouls and Gaussen diagram for the station of Mekele

The graph does not show great differences in the mean monthly temperature values through out the year. The
mean monthly temperature ranges from about 15°C in December to above 20°C in June. Rainfall trend shows a
short rainy period with a maximum peak in April (Toddi), and the strong rainy season (Kiremt) during summer,
with maximum values of precipitation in August, as described in the previous paragraph. It must be noted that
rainfall parameters are highly variable in space and depends on the local nature of connective storms. Also, the
effectiveness of rainfall depends more on its timing than on its total amount during the season (Tilhaun, 2006).
In fact, the recent draughts which affect northern Ethiopia are mainly due to the failure of spring rains.
Considering a 50 year range of time, Tilhaun, demonstrated that rainfall has a very high inter-annual variability,
which shows each year great displacement value calculated by the considered overall period of time.
In arid and semi-arid areas, another climatic factor, the evapo-transpiration, is characterised by a lower
variability which must be considered together with rainfall. This combination, however, gives the effective
amount of water available for agricultural production. Comparing these two parameters, it is possible to see that
Mekele has water surplus for two months in a year, while the rest of the months are characterised by a moisture
deficit period (Figure 10).
18
Figure 10-Rainfall and evapotranspiration in Mekele (FAO AQUASAT data)
3.1.3 Classification
Climatic data from WORLDCLIM global climate grid with spatial resolution of 1Km (Hijmans et al., 1993;
http://www.worldclim.org) were used to classify the whole Tigray region. The raster data were produced by
interpolating the monthly precipitation, mean, maximum and minimum temperatures from different
meteorological stations all over the world recorded over the period from 1950-2000. In addition to the
temperature and rainfall values, 19 bioclimatic variables were derived, which present the annual trend,
seasonality, and extreme environmental factors, such as temperatures of the colder or warmer months and the
precipitation of the wet and dry periods of the year.
The climate classification adopted was the one developed by Rivas Martinez (Rivas Martinez, 2004). The
principal aim of this bioclimatic classification is to get good and useful associations between vegetation
formation and climatic variables. These relationships could be a possible way to predict biodiversity
conservation programs and agriculture and/or forestry planning. Rivas Martinez’s classification is based on
successive hierarchical levels. The first level is the Macro-bioclimate which consists of a rough subdivision of
the world’s climatic regions which in turn are the main biogeographic regions of the earth. These include the
following: Mediterranean, Tropical, Temperate, Boreal and Polar. The entire Ethiopia falls under the Tropical
Macro-bioclimate, since it is located within the latitudinal belt of 0° and 35° N. Using different kinds of indexes
(Ombrotermic, Termicity and Continentality indexes), it was possible to classify the Tigray Region in to
different climatic classes. Figure 11 shows the Thermotype and Ombrotype classifications. The first parameter is
linked to the temperature, going from hotter climates (Infratropical) to relatively colder climates (Supratropical).
The central portion of Enderta is almost classified as Mesotropical Inferior while the North-West and South-East
portions are Thermotropical Superior in climate. Mesotropical Superior climate prevails in the North-East
portion. The coldest parts of Tigray correspond to the South-East, North-East and a small portion in the South-
West. The other parameter; the Ombrotype, is based on precipitation levels which give an indication of the
degree of aridity (which in this case ranges from Ultrahyperarid to Arid). The entire study area falls within the
Hyperarid climate, as almost all of the Tigray Region. In Figure 12, Thermotypes and Ombrotypes are combined
together; starting from the warmer and more arid areas to the colder and humid areas. From a general point of
view, the map shows a gradient towards the West with hotter and more arid characteristics. The most represented
climate class in Enderta is Mesotropical Hyperarid.
19
Figure 11-Thermotypes and ombrotypes showed in different maps
20
Figure 12-Thermotypes and ombrotypes combined together

3.2 Geology
3.2.1 Regional geology

Geologically, the study area is located in Mekele Outlier, a nearly circular structure of about 8000Km2, in which
Mesozoic sedimentary rocks have been preserved from erosion. An Outlier is a portion of stratified rocks
separated from the main formation by erosion. The Mekele Outlier is a remnant of an ancient basin covering a
region from Ethiopia to Yemen before the separation of the African and Arabian plates and the opening of the
Red Sea. The Outlier constitutes a graben in which the Mesozoic sedimentary rocks are preserved.
The geology of the Mekele Outlier enjoys a well documented literature such as articles, reports, thesis as well as
other publications. Among these include the scholarly publications of Beyth, 1972; Melis, 1995; Bosellini et al.,
1997; Marini and Melis, 2002; Coltorti et al., 2007.
Mekele Outlier limits are clearly recognisable in the North and the South parts, where they correspond to the
Wukro Fault (N) and Felega Mariam Fault (S); both trending WNW-ESE direction. The boundary of the Outlier
to the west is not well defined as erosional processes have partly modified and reduced the Mesozoic
sedimentary succession. All the publications agree with the eastern limit corresponding to the Rift Escarpment
(the dotted line in Figure 13) eventhough Mesozoic (Jurassic) rocks extend over this boundary. There is no clear
explanation for this division. However, it may be apparently based on a morphological criterion as presented in
21
most documented literature. In this work it was decided to include the Escarpment of the study area in the
Mekele Outlier, because, since this part is lithologically composed of Mesozoic sedimentary rocks (Figure 13).
!
Asmara
Dokomehare
! Red Sea
Mendefera !
!
Adi Keyll
Adigrat
Da
!
Axum Adua
na
k
! !
il D
!
1
Inda Silase
ep
Wukro
res
!
2
sio
3
n
Tekeze river Mekele
!
1-Wukro fault
4
2-Mekele fault
3-Chelekwot fault
4-Felega Mariam fault
Secondary fault system
!
!
Maychew
Sokota Escarpment
Alamata Mekele Outlier
!
Jurassic rocks
Figure 13-General view of Mekele Outlier (mod. from Bosellini et al., 1997)
Generally, the geologic history of the study area is related to the complex tectonic evolution of East Africa and
the Horn of Africa in particular. Following the dynamics of plate tectonics of the region that started from the
Precambrian times through the Tertiary and in to the Mesozoic; these periods constitute the most important
history for the region (opening of the Red Sea and the golf of Aden with the separation between the African and
Arabian plates and the collision between Arabian and Eurasia plates).
The lithostratigraphical succession of the Mesozoic rocks is well known and described in the bibliography. All
geological formations lay on a Precambrian metamorphic basement, constituted by low grade metavolcanic and
metasedimentary rocks (Coltorti et al., 2007). Early Paleozoic deposits unconformably overlay this basement.
These sedimentary rocks are divided in two successive formations: Edaga Arbi glacial deposits and Enticho
Sandstone, of Middle-Upper Ordovician age. Another unconformity separate these old Paleozoic rocks from the
younger Mesozoic sediments composing the Mekele Outlier. During the Triassic, mainly sediments of fluviatile
origin accumulated in the so called Adigrat Sandstone formation. The deposition of following sedimentary rocks
above Adigrat Sandstone is the result of a complete transgression–regression cycle during the Jurassic (Bosellini
A. et al. 1997 citing Dainelli, 1943). Coming from the southeast, sea transgression in Tigray region began by the
deposition of shale, calcarenite and sandstone, forming the basement of Antalo Formation. This transgression
reached its maximum in the west of Ethiopia and Eritrea during the Kimeridgian (late Jurassic). The sea became
increasingly deeper, allowing the deposition of the deepest facies as black marl, fine crystalline limestone, black
lithographic limestone, constituting the upper part of the Antalo Formation. Sea regression toward southeast
generated a lagoon environment characterised by semiarid conditions; where Agula Shale Unit deposition took
place (Beyth, 1972). In the late Jurassic-early Cretaceous period, new fluviatile sediments with lacustrine
episodes (Amba Aradan Sandstone) deposited in angular unconformity on the Agula Formation. This
unconformity is the result of a forced sea regression probably due to a tectonic uplift of the Horn of Africa
(Bosellini et al., 1997). Successive volcanic activity, during upper Tertiary age (Oligocene-Miocene), produced
22
the so called Trap series, constituted by stratified basalts around Mekele with the intrusion of dolerite sills and
dykes mostly in Agula Shale Formation.
The tectonics of the area is dominated by two main fault systems, related to the beginning of the Outlier history
in Mesozoic time, and to the origin of Ethiopian Rift Escarpment and Danakil Depression during Tertiary.
The first fault system is composed of four main fault belts with a WNW-ESE trend. It has been active during
Mesozoic, between the deposition of Agula Shale and Amba Aradan Sandstone formations, and it acted as a pipe
for the Tertiary volcanism. From the north to the south, the main faults are (Figure 13):
Wukro fault (1): it forms the north limit of the Mekele Outlier, showing southward down throw, and
measuring more than 70Km.
Mekele fault (2): it is located at the north of Mekele town, showing southward throw and longer than Wukro
fault. It is highlighted by dolerite outcrops in its northwest part.
Chelekwot fault (3): it starts from the town of Chelekwot and goes on through the NW. It dips southward.
Felega Mariam fault (4): it constitutes the south limit of the Mekele Outlier. It shows a curvature shape and
a northward down throw, in contrast with the other faults.
Wukro and Felega Mariam faults by their downward throw movement (respectively southward and northward)
are responsible of the depression (graben structure) which allowed complete preservation of the sedimentary
rocks from erosion (from which the name outlier).
The second fault system, named Rift Valley System, is oriented N-S, NNW-SSE. This system was active from
Tertiary to Holocene period, leading to the formation of the Escarpment and of the Danakil depression.
3.2.2 Geology of the study area

The study area is mainly composed of two Jurassic formations: Antalo Limestone and Agula Shale. These are
described in detail in the works of Bosellini et al. (1997) and Russo et al. (1996). In addition to bibliographic
descriptions, other useful sources of information were used in this work. Aerial photograph interpretation was
very helpful for the identification of the different geological units in Antalo Formation, as in the delimitation of
dolerite outcrops in the study area. Geological data were collected during the fieldwork and satellite images were
processed for the purpose of obtaining further information related to the geology of the area.
Satellite image analysis
The use of satellite images for geological mapping is becoming increasingly important because they allow a
synoptic view. Increased spatial and radiometric resolutions of new sensors allow the achievement of detailed
and accurate information. With the aim of a better discrimination of the different lithologies and structural
features, different images processing techniques including colour composites, image enhancement, filtering,
principal component analysis and band ratios were applied to Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (Landsat
ETM+) and Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) images. The study
area is covered by two scene images Landsat ETM+, so pre-processing as geo-referencing, and mosaicking, were
carried out. The final image processing was carried out keeping in mind the available geological information
from the literature, the aerial photo interpretation and the field work data that was collected.
The study area was found very complex under a geological, lithological and structural point of view. In fact, this
area was affected by an intense tectonic activity and it is crossed by a large amount of faults and lineaments
(Figure 19). The common problem of geological investigation by remote sensing consists in a difficult
discrimination among rock reflectance contribution and cover reflective characteristics, as rock outcrops are not
so common. Outcrops are usually hidden by vegetation or soil. In addition to this, in the study area even
lithology types do not present such variety of composition, and, consequently, different reflectance values.
Keeping in mind these observations, different Landsat ETM+ bands ratios were applied. The ratio between band
4 and band 3 should be useful to highlight the vegetation, as its spectral signature is characterised by an high
reflectance in near infrared range (band 4) and a great absorption in the red wavelength of the electromagnetic
spectrum (band 3). The opposite of this ratio was useful to mask the vegetation. The ratio between bands 3 and 1
was considered helpful to detect features containing iron oxides, as their spectral signature shows a step between
red and blue bands. For the same reason, the ratio between bands 5 and 1 was considered good for limestone
identification. The RGB false colour composite combining three different band ratios (R: 3/4, G: 5/1, B: 3/1) is
shown in Figure 14. In this image the right part clearly appears different from the rest of the study area (having
bluish dark colours), as the vegetation here is predominant. The area just around Mekele has yellow and greenish
colours, probably because of the great presence of limestone rocks. The reddish strips in this part are probably
agricultural fields, appearing as bear soil during the dry season (when the satellite image was taken). They
correspond very well to the colluvial deposits represented in the geological map (see below in Figure 19). The
North and West part, corresponding to Antalo Formation, is more pinkish than the rest. The great complexity of
factors that are combined together to give a unique reflectance value in a point is one of the reason why no clear
divisions between different elements in the image are appreciable. The central part, just right to Mekele, is a
combination of green and magenta colours, suggesting a mix of different lithologies. The frequent mixture of
23
limestone and dolerite in the same place, found during the field survey, could be a good explanation for these
reflective characteristics. Even rock colour in the field was very similar, going from grey to black for limestone
as for dolerite.
Figure 14-False Colour Composite with band ratios: RGB (3/4, 5/1, 3/1)
Dolerite is more clearly recognisable in the western part, where it consists in a large outcrop visible in most of
the image composites. On the contrary, in the South-Eastern area, dolerite outcrops are hardly identified
probably because of their smaller size, and because they are mixed with other rocks, or covered by soil or
vegetation. To distinguish dolerite in this area, another false colour composite was found more helpful.
Displaying in Red the first PC (Principal Component), in Green band 3, and in Blue band 1, dolerite comes out
in a dark greenish colour, even in the south-east (Figure 15). PC1 is one of the results of Principal Component
Analysis. This is a mathematical operation that allows to eliminate redundancy in the information carried on by
each ETM+ band, and to maximize spectral information in the minimum possible number of bands. Usually
Principal Component Analysis is done on all ETM+ spectral bands. The PC1 (the first transformed band after
this mathematical calculation) usually carries the most part of information (in this case the 92.5%), while the
following PC bands contribute only with 4%, 2.3%, and less than 1%. The PC process was applied even on
selected groups of bands (Melis, 1995). The seven Landsat ETM+ bands were so divided in two groups
following their mutual correlation: bands 1, 2 and 3, working in the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum,
with a very high correlation coefficient; and bands 5 and 7, belonging to the infrared range.
The RGB composition NDVI, PC1 (found for the group of visible bands) and PC2 (found for the group of IR
bands), was useful to highlight the layering of Antalo Formation, in the Northern part of the study area as in the
South-West part (Figure 16).
24
Figure 15-Dolerite (green) in the South-East part of the study area

Aster images, with their higher spatial resolution, were more useful to see structural features (beddings,
lineaments, fault). Some filters were applied on ETM+ band 7 to focus on main fault systems. The directional
filter 60° was useful to identify faults in NE-SW direction (Figure 17), while, using the 330° directional filter, it
was possible to put in evidence the NW-SE major faults systems of Mekele and Chelekwot (Figure 18).
False Colour Composite RGB 731 (30m resolution) was fused with the panchromatic band (15m resolution) of
Landsat ETM+, combining high spatial resolution and multi-spectral information. The fused image was useful
for identifying and delineating structural features, in particular the smallest ones.
Figure 16-Antalo Formation strata in the northern part of the study area
25
Figure 17-Directional filter 60° applied on band 7. North part of the study area: Antalo Formation
Figure 18-Directional filter 330° on band 7. South-West part of the study area in the proximity of Chelekwot
fault
26
Lithostratigraphy
The lithostratigraphy of the study area is composed of Jurassic sedimentary rocks, a Tertiary intrusive dolerite
and Quaternary alluvium and colluvium deposits (Figure 19).
The Jurassic sedimentary rocks are divided in two main formations: Antalo Limestone and Agula Shale, as
accepted by most of the authors. According to Beyth (1971) the subdivisions are: Antalo Limestone, which is
divided into five geological units namely Jta, Jtb, Jtc, Jtd, Jte; Agula shale (Jg), and Undifferentiated limestone
(Jtg) for the Ethiopian Rift Escarpment. Bosellini et al. (1997) keep the main subdivisions but group Antalo
Limestone and Agula Shale under the term “Antalo Supersequence”, and divide Antalo Formation in four
geological units: A1, A2, A3 and A4. For Russo et al. (1997), Antalo Limestone is composed by seven (7)
members, Member 1 to Member 7. The correspondence between the different subdivisions has been summarised
in the Table 4.
AUTHORS
FORMATION NAME
Beyth Bosellini Russo
Undifferentiated limestone Jtg ? ?
Agula Shale Jg Agula Shale Agula Shale
Jte A4 M6,M7
Jtd A3 M4,M5
Antalo Limestone Jtc A2 M2,M3
Jtb
A1 M1
Jta
Table 4-Relation between the different subdivisions
The lithostratigraphic description is based on Beyth’s subdivision, using the detailed observations of Bosellini et
al., (1997) and Russo et al., (1996). Some descriptions of Antalo Limestone have been made in the
“undifferentiated Limestone” by Bosellini et al. (1997). The Jurassic formation comprise Antalo limestone and
Agula formation, the so-called Antalo Supersequence (Bosellini A.1997)
JURASSIC FORMATION
ANTALO LIMESTONE
Antalo Limestone is supposed to be from Oxfordian to Kimeridgian age. It is geographically distributed in the
North, the West and the South-West of the study area. According to Beyth subdivision (1971), Antalo Limestone
is composed of five (5) geological units, starting from the basement, Jta, which is not represented inside the
study area. From down to top there are:
Limestone and marl (Jtb): this unit (20-30m) forms the basal unit of the Jurassic formation and is located in the
North, the West and in the Southwest along the Giba river. Fossiliferous marl forms the lower part and
constitutes the real transgressive facies of the unit. The limestone is composed by marly limestone and a layer of
coral-stromatopoids limestone on the top, characteristic of the unit. An Oxfordian age is given to this unit.
Marl with black and sandy limestone (Jtc): this unit (100-200m) outcrops in the North (where it is dissected
by drainage), and in the West. It is composed by thick interbedded marl, cross bedded sandy limestone and
fossiliferous marly limestone very rich in brachiopods. Some ammonites are signalled. The depositing
environment is considered as estuarine with tidal control.
Fine crystalline limestone with some marl (Jtd): like the other units of Antalo Limestone, it outcrops in the
North, in the West and in the Southwest. The thickness is 120-250m. The lower part of this unit is marlier than
the upper one, and it is composed by marl, marlstone and coquina intercalations. In the Mekele area the upper
part is formed by black finely crystalline limestone interbedded with marly limestone, marl and, on the top, a
characteristic stromatopoid layer. The dark colour of the facies (an evidence of richness in organic mater), the
presence of fossils like Terabratulines, ammonites with Nanogyra together (Melis, 1995) and the occurrence of
pyrite (anaerobic condition) suggest a deeper depositing environment.
Travertine is also found in this unit and its age is supposed to be Holocene. Its formation comes from the
dissolution of limestone by water rich in CO2. The reaction of this water with CaCO3 (composing limestone),
produces calcium bicarbonate, which precipitates again in a sub aerial environment, producing travertine (Photo
1).
27
Figure 19-Geological map
28
Photo 1-Travertine inside Jtd geological unit (photo Sara Minelli)

Marl interbedded with white and black limestone (Jte): It is located in the North, the West and the Southwest
and its thickness is about 70m. The stromatopoids layer in Jtd is the benchmark level. This unit is formed by two
main parts: marl and marly limestone rich in gastropods bivalves in the lower part, overlaid by dark lithographic
limestone (about 15m), considered as benchmark level with Agula Shale. The lithographic limestone is a very
fine grained limestone once used for graphics (from which the name lithographic). It is widely used for
constructions in Mekele area (Photo 2).
Photo 2-Black lithographic limestone (photo Sara Minelli)
29
AGULA SHALE
Shale with interbedded black limestone (Jg): Agula Shale is the widely distributed formation in the study area.
It is bounded in the east by the undifferentiated limestone. In the rest of the area, it outcrops dismembered by the
numerous dolerites intrusion. Its thickness is 10-300m. The typical succession of Agula Shale is a repeated cycle
of interbedded laminated shale, finely crystalline black limestone and fossiliferous limestone (brachiopods and
gastropods) capped with breccia layer with, at the basis, sandstone cross-bedded, and some gypsum layer. In the
vicinity of Mekele, Agula Shale is composed by marl, black limestone, with fossiliferous limestone
intercalations (Photo 3). The limestone is used for construction because it is easily removable from the soft marl,
and also, the layers are thin.
Photo 3-Black limestone in Jg unit (photo Sara Minelli)

UNDIFFERENTIATED LIMESTONE
Limestone and shale (Jtg)
It forms the eastern boundary of the study area. In the geological map of Tigray (Beyth, 1971) this part is
mapped as an undifferentiated finely limestone, marl and shale, above the Agula Shale. No lithofacies
delimitation has been done. According to the fieldwork observations, the lithology is mainly interbedded finely
crystalline limestone (Photo 4), fine laminated limestone, marly limestone, fossiliferous limestone and marl.
A gypsum layer outcrops in the central part of the unit, interbedded in marly limestone; which is capped by
intercalations of marl and fossiliferous limestone (Photo 5). The layer is about two meters thick, finely bedded.
The presence of gypsum suggests the continuity of Agula shale in this area.
30
Photo 4-Interbedded marl and limestone (photo Issouf Ouedraogo)
Photo 5-Gypsum (photo Issouf Ouedraogo)

TERTIARY FORMATION
Dolerite (Tim)
Dolerite occurs as sills, dykes or laccoliths, discontinuously through the study area. Most of the time, they
occupy topographically high areas and mainly outcrop in Agula Shale. The outcrops are different in shape and
size, and come out as boulders or massive layers (Photo 6). Sometimes they are concordant with limestone
layers; sometimes they are moderate discordant, tilting the limestone/shale layers (Photo 7).
31
Photo 6-Dolerite boulders (photo Issouf Ouedraogo)
Photo 7-Limestone layers tilted by dolerite intrusion (photo Issouf Ouedraogo)

The colour is dark and the grain is fine to coarse. In the North West part of the study area dolerite outcrops
highlight the Mekele fault. The biggest outcrop is localised in the West of the airport. Some contact
metamorphism has been founded in relevé 213. In this area the metamorphosed limestone (contact
metamorphism) changes colour and becomes whitish outcropping in about ten meters in contact with the
dolerite.
32
QUATERNARY FORMATION
The quaternary sediments comprise alluvial and colluvial deposits, occupying relatively lower topographic
terrains, and structurally following the valley and the river trend.
Colluvial deposit (Co): Colluvial deposits are mainly located in Agula Shale (Jg) scattered through the entire
unit. It is present also in few parts in Jte (North and Southwest), and in very few spots in Jtd and in dolerite unit.
The deposit consists of loose to moderate compacted residual sediments, ranging in texture from clay to sand
with rock fragments having different composition, size and shape (Photo 8).
Photo 8-Colluvial deposits (Photo Valeria Alessandro)

Alluvial deposit (Al): Alluvial deposit occurs along wider and meandering parts of the rivers, forming sometime
terraces. They are localised in the North, Northwest (along the Giba river) and the Southwest (along May Gabai
river). The Alluvial deposits are predominantly composed of gravel, sand, silt and clay, moderately compacted
and poorly sorted. Alluvial deposits of Giba river form terraces (around relevé 217).
Structural study
An important network of brittle fracturations post Jurassic is encountered in the study area . Two main directions
are represented: NW-SE and NE-SW.
The NW-SE faults are the most important according to their extent and are localised in the North and the South.
They are from the north to the south:
Mekele fault belt in the North which constitutes the limit of Mekele plain and more or less forms the
boundary between Antalo Formation and Agula shale. It crosses almost the entire study area, and passes
through the entire geological unit. In the northern part, it forms the limit between the dolerite and Antalo
limestone.
A lineament follows Edati river, showing discontinuous straight lines, almost as long as Mekele fault.
Chelekwot fault belt in the South starts from the town of Chelekwot and goes on to the North-West. It
appears as a discontinuous lineament.
Numerous faults NW-SE trending at local scale are found between the Mekele fault belt and Chelekwot
fault belt.
The Mekele and Chelekwot faults are normal fault, dipping southwest at moderate to high angle.
The NE-SW faults are widespread through the area, mainly in the southwest and the northeast, more in Antalo
Formation than Agula shale.
33
3.3 Geomorphology
The study area was divided into three land systems according to the main geomorphological aspects,
geographical location and to the dominant lithologies. They are described from east to west. The eastern part of
the study area correspond to the Ethiopian rift escarpment, a complex land system connecting the western
Ethiopian highlands (where Mekele Outlier is located) to the Afar depression, with almost 2000 meters of
difference in elevation range. The central and western parts correspond to the Mekele “Plateau”; the larger part
of the study area, with a complex morphology but of almost homogeneous geological origin, being part of the
Mekele Outlier. This has been divided in three parts, describing the dolerite relieves, the main central “Plateau”,
and its partially surrounding margins showing more ancient sedimentary beddings. The last land system is
relatively small, and describes the main alluvial valleys of Giba River Tributaries which have alluvial origin and
are different from the other landforms (Figure 20).
3.3.1 Ethiopian Rift Escarpment

The eastern escarpment was formed during the genesis of the Afar region, as a consequence of intense tectonic
activity during the Tertiary age. The main lithology is Jurassic limestone and the elevation range is from 2500m
in the north western border to 1300m in south eastern limit of the study area. This sloping area is strongly
dissected, and its classification has been divided according to the density of the drainage system as well as the
geographical location. Four landforms were recognised.
MODERATELY DISSECTED SLOPING SURFACE
This landform is located in the northern part of the eastern escarpment. Generally, it is moderately sloping (30-
50%) and composed of colluvial deposits, with the surface covered by abundant stones. The drainage system
density is lesser than in southern part of the escarpment. Due to overgrazed in some places, it is exposed to
severe sheet erosion (Photo 9)
Photo 9-Moderately dissected Ethiopian Rift Escarpment (photo Ntoh Doris Bate)
STRONGLY DISSECTED SLOPING SURFACE WITH SUMMIT SUB FLAT AREAS
This landform is characterised by almost flat surfaces, often terraced, separated by slopes varying from sloping
slope to strong slope (8-30%). It is situated in the central part of the escarpment. The drainage system is denser
in this area (Photo 10).
STRONGLY DISSECTED SLOPING SURFACE
This is the larger part of the escarpment, almost surrounding the previous landform from north to the southern
limit of the study area. It has complex morphology, going from very steep (50% or more) to strongly dissected
slopes, with some area very similar to badlands. Also, there are some gently sloping parts (4-30%) (Photo 11).
34
Figure 20-Land systems and landforms map
35
Photo 10-Strongly dissected sloping surface with summit sub flat areas (photo Francesco Conti)
Photo 11-Strongly dissected scarps bordering gently undulating surfaces (photo Francesco Conti)
36
DISSECTED SLOPING SURFACE

This landform is situated in the far south-eastern corner, reaching the lower altitudes of the study area (1700-
1300m), and presenting a medium density in the drainage system.
3.3.2 Mekele “Plateau”

This is the most important part of the study area, being strongly anthropised and cultivated. The elevation range
is from 1750 to 2600m, showing a complex and variable rolling region, with an increasing altitude going from
west to east, but still having a generally planar surface, which justifies the name of Mekele “Plateau”.
From a geological point of view, it has been divided in three different parts according to the main lithological
substrata, starting from the recent intrusive dolerites, then the central Agula shale region, and finally the northern
and south-western sides where Antalo limestone beddings are outcropping.
Dolerite
In many parts of Mekele “Plateau” it is possible to find some small hills or dark coloured scarps, in
correspondence of dolerite sills and dykes. These are the consequence of the intrusion of magma during the
Tertiary age into the Jurassic limestone beddings. The dolerite rocks are in fact more resistant to erosion than
limestone and marl beddings, and emerge as massive relieves.
STEEP SCARP
This landform describes the steep scarps of the dolerite outcrops. They are scattered in the central part of the
study area, mostly south-east of Mekele town as well as the transitional area between the “Plateau” and western
and southern scarps of the Antalo formation. They are also visible along the Mekele fault belt north of the town
in the form of long dykes. They are mostly composed of massive doleritic substratum partially covered in lower
portions by colluvial deposits with many coarse fragments of dolerite, mostly stones but sometimes reaching the
size of large boulders. As a consequence of very steep slopes, this landform is subject to very strong sheet
erosion. In some cases this slope is managed with terraces built to minimize this kind of erosion. In other cases
these slopes are planted with eucalyptus, which also helps preventing erosion effects (Photo 12).
Photo 12-Dolerite steep scarp (photo Valeria Alessandro)

UNDULATING CREST
This is a gently sloping surface on the top of dolerite relieves. They are massive and the bigger example can be
observed immediately, East of Mekele Town. The others are scattered in central south-eastern part of the study
area, and along the margins with the Antalo formation. Many outcrops of strongly weathered dolerite are visible
with joints due to the cooling effect of a large diurnal temperature range; the landform is covered by coarse
37
fragments of dolerite, with a rounded shape due to the physical weathering called thermal expansion, which led
to the typical onion-skin exfoliation (Photo 13).
Photo 13-Dolerite onion-skin exfoliation (photo Issouf Ouedraogo)

Agula Formation
The most part of the study area is a gently rolling region, and its dominant bedrock is the upper layer of Jurassic
beddings, called Agula shale, with dominant marl and shale with minor limestone intercalation. It is composed
by four landforms.
SLOPING SCARP
This landform describes the moderate steep slopes (30-50%) which connect the other large landforms,
distributed in altitude varying from 2000 to 2600m. These scarps are related to transition between differently
resistant layers of marls and limestone, with occasional outcrops and often covered by colluvial deposits,
accumulating in the lower part of the slopes. There is evidence of moderate sheet erosion. The slopes are often
covered by abundant coarse fragments, in dimension of stones but also large boulders. Some of these scarps are
used for agriculture, with stone lines trying to minimize erosion, but in most cases they are covered by natural
vegetation, mostly shrubs, which offer a slight protection to sheet erosion.
UNDULATING RISES
This is the most diffuse landform of the study area and can be found through the whole “Plateau” region, mostly
developed to the east. It is complex, with variable degrees of slopes that vary from the most frequent very gently
slopes (2-4%) to the rarest strong slopes (16-30%). It is widely used for agriculture. The slopes and low rises are
a consequence of different erosional processes. For instance, in cases where the underlying bedrock is the softer
marls, while limestone is relatively more resistant to erosion, the limestone and shale beddings are visible in
some outcrops. Some large gullies were observed in this landform, but, in some areas also rill and sheet erosion
were present. The other landforms described in the “Plateau” are generally surrounded by this landform (Photo
14).
GENTLY UNDULATING PLAIN
This is another important and diffused landform on Mekele Outlier. It is the main landform around Mekele town,
mostly to the northwest and central south and it is quite diffused through the whole “Plateau” from western
through the central part reaching the north-eastern and south-eastern corners of Enderta before the limit of the
escarpment. It is composed by colluvial deposits on the Agula shale substratum and its slope degree goes from
level flat to very gently slope (0-4 %), but, in some cases the slopes are increasing especially in transitional areas
near other landforms. Gully erosion is active in this landform.
38
Photo 14-Undulating rises (right side) becoming gently undulating plain (left side) (photo Luca Ongaro)
LEVEL PLAIN
This landform describes flat areas, mostly situated in the central position of valley bottoms inside the “Plateau”,
composed of colluvial sediments. This landform often follows the river channels. Usually covered by grasslands,
they are widely used as grazing land for cattle. Often these landforms conserve high amounts of humidity in the
soil. Some moderate gullies were present (Photo 15).
Photo 15-Level plain valley demarcated by undulating rises (photo Matteo De Stefano)
Antalo Formation
This part of the study area surrounds the central “Plateau” in northern, western and south-western sides. It was
originated by the deep and narrow former erosional activity of the Giba river and its tributaries (May Gabai
39
passing South of Mekele town with direction from SE to NW, and Geyademo river passing in the north, flowing
towards south), or is the consequence of the erosion of Agula shale formation in the parts north of the Mekele
fault belt that were not protected in the past by the graben structure which preserved the Jurassic upper beddings.
It shows eight different landforms which are separated according to the structure of the Jurassic limestone
beddings. They are listed from the younger to the older together with the geological name of the underlying
substratum.
Marl interbedded with white and “black limestone” (Jte)
MODERATE STEEP SCARP
This landform is composed of slopes from moderate steep to very steep (>30%). It is the higher part of Antalo
limestone formation, characterised by a reddish colour and many of its beddings are clearly visible as outcrops in
the steeper slopes. Part of the parent material deposited as a colluvium is coming from the upper layers of Agula
shale and dolerite. This landform is located near the south western scarps going to May Gabai river, and in part
north-east from Mekele town where some Antalo Jte anticlines are outcropping. Many heterogeneous rock
fragments are covering the surface. Antalo Jte beddings are clearly visible as outcrops in the steeper slopes of
this landform.
STRONG SLOPE
This landform is larger than the previous one and can be found along the western scarp to the Giba river and
north-east of Mekele with different characteristics. The difference in comparison to the previous landform is a
lower degree of slope (from sloping slope to moderate steep), the presence of angular coarser fragments like
boulders, and a different landuse, mostly agriculture. The limestone beddings outcrops are also of lesser
proportion. There was evidence of only slight sheet erosion (Photo 16).
Photo 16-Strong slope on Antalo limestone with dolerite stone lines (photo Matteo De Stefano)
UNDULATING RISES
This landform can be found in north eastern part of the study area where a large area of Agula shales has been
eroded and the underlying limestone beddings are outcropping. It is near to steep scarps on the same lithological
substratum and is a transitional unit to similar landforms on Agula shales.
FOOTSLOPE
This landform corresponds to the base of Antalo Jte layer with gently slopes; from level flat up to sloping slopes
(0-16%).It is mostly used for agriculture. It is located mostly in two areas; south of Mekele and north north-east
of the town. There is a lesser abundance of rock fragments which are also smaller; up to the dimension of stones.
There is gully erosion and some cracks are common on the surface.
40
Fine crystalline limestone with some marl (Jtd)

VERY STEEP SCARP
Very steep slope covered partially by colluvial deposits and showing thick grey limestone beddings belonging to
Antalo Jtd layer. It is concentrated north of Mekele and along the Giba river western escarpment. The main
geomorphological process is the transportation of material by gravity. It is covered by shrubs and by a relatively
dense layer of herbaceous plants used for grazing. There is evidence of moderate sheet erosion (Photo 17).
Photo 17- Antalo Formation very steep scarp (photo Valeria Alessandro)
TERRACED SLOPES
This landform is strictly related with the previous one being at the top of Antalo Jtd limestone beddings. The
main slope degree varies from very gently slope to gently sloping slope (2-8%). This landform is characterised
by natural terraces of limestone beddings covered by deposited colluvial material. Many coarse rock fragments
of stone and boulder size are present. Few limestone outcrops are visible and show holes as effect of intense
chemical weathering.
In some cases gullies together with short pipes are eroding the terraces. The natural terraces seems to be ideal for
agriculture and largely utilised (Photo 18)
FOOTSLOPE
This landform is less diffuse than the previous, located in relatively small areas at the base of the other Antalo
Jtd beddings. This landform shows very gently slopes covered by thick colluvial deposits, used for agriculture.
Some rock outcrops strips are only used as grazing land. Evidence of weak sheet and rill erosion, contrasted by
stone lines, and gullies are present. Stone fragments are common on the surface.
Marl with black and sandy limestone (Jtc)
MODERATE STEEP SLOPE
This landform varies form sloping to strong slopes (8-30%) on colluvial deposits lying on alternate beddings of
limestone, fossiliferous limestone and marl. The layers of outcrop rocks are often fracturated. Slight to moderate
sheet erosion is observed and coarse material, mainly stones and boulders, is transported and deposited by
gravity. There is evidence of gully, rill and sheet erosion with various intensity and coverage.
41
Limestone and marl (Jtb)

MODERATE STEEP SLOPE
This landform corresponds to the lower level of Antalo formation visible in the study area. It is characterised by
sloping to moderately steep slopes with thick limestone outcrops. Since this landform reaches the valley bottom,
it is also covered by abundant natural vegetation favoured by the presence of rivers and consequent humidity.
This is also reducing the sheet erosion. No gullies were observed.
Photo 18-Antalo Formation terraced slopes (photo Valeria Alessandro)
3.3.2 Giba River Tributaries

LEVEL PLAIN
This is a flat landform constituted by alluvial deposits, which can be found along the main rivers flowing through
the study area. It is developed along the Giba river but only in its northern part, because going towards south the
valley becomes too narrow. It is present along May Gabai river in the south and along Geyademo river in the
north. Both flow from east to west. It can be observed also along two minor rivers connecting to Geyademo, in
the north eastern part of the study area (Photo 19).
42
Photo 19-May Gabai valley surrounded by limestone relieves and hills (photo Birhane Gebrehiwot
Tesfamariam)
3.4 Land use and land cover
In the study area, there are different types of landuse and land cover (Figure 21 and Figure 22). According to the
land use percentage coverage (Figure 23), the agricultural practices are important and occupy 40 % of the total
land. Moreover, some agriculture areas are mixed with a degradation control systems covering another 24%.
3.4.1 Agriculture
Agriculture in Ethiopia as a whole is the dominant source of subsistence for the majority of the population. In
Tigray, agriculture contributes around 57% to the regional Gross Domestic Product (GDP), of which 36% is
from crop production and about 17% and 4% is from livestock and forestry respectively. Rainfed crop
production is the main economic activity for over 85% of the population, supplemented by livestock rearing
under mixed-subsistent system. Major crops are sorghum, barley, teff, finger millet, wheat and maize accounting
for 26%, 16%, 12%, 11%, 9% and 7% of the total area respectively (Girmay, 2006).
Crops Production
In the study area, the total agriculture covers 49.03 %. This includes the fields inside the land use for
‘agriculture’ and ‘agriculture and degradation control’. This agricultural land contains 48.48% of annual rainfed
crops and 0.55 % of irrigated crops.
RAINFED ANNUAL CROPS
Crop production in the study area strongly depends on rainfed agriculture and the estimated average annual
rainfall is between 500 and 1000mm .The temporal distribution of the rainfall is uneven and the annual rainfall is
mainly concentrated in the rainy season which extends from June to September. Due to the short period of rainy
season, farmers usually cultivate short cycle rainfed annual crops. Most of the products are used for domestic
consumption.
In the study area, agriculture is characterised traditionally by peasant farmers with land holding size of less than
one hectare. The agricultural fields are fragmented over a wide range of different landforms. The farmers use
animals usually oxen as the main source of power with small traditional agricultural equipment to plough their
lands (Photo 20). The ploughing frequency is related to the crop type and the availability of oxen. According to
Esser et al. (2002), there are some farmers who rent oxen or do leasing their land to other farmers having oxen.
Thus, respecting of the ploughing calendar is affected by the availability of oxen.
43
Figure 21-Land use map
44
Figure 22-Land cover map
45
Figure 23-Land use classification
Photo 20-Field ploughing (photo Matar Ndao)

Wheat, barley and maize are the most dominant cereals produced in the district. In order to increase the yield of
these cereals per unit area of land, the farmers apply both organic and chemical fertilizers. Interviews with some
farmers revealed that they may apply 100kg of urea and 100kg of Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) per hectare for
wheat, and the average yield of wheat ranges from 1.4 t/ha to 1.6 t/ha. The composting practice is not very
frequent, but the farmers usually disperse the manure on the soil surface. The agricultural labour is shared among
the family members including children. Accordingly in most cases men participate on preparation of land for
sowing while the following tasks such as weeding and harvesting are shared among men, women and children.
46
IRRIGATED CROPS
In Mekele “Plateau”, the irrigation practice is not recent. The farmers have been using traditional stream
diversion irrigation for several centuries (Yohannes, 2004), but, the performance of this irrigation model is very
minimal. To achieve food self sufficiency, the Ethiopian government has upgraded the small scale irrigation
system by building many earthen dam, river diversion and series of ponds. Most of the infrastructure works are
poor: for example, the channels that convey water to the field are not made with compacted earth. This is
because most of the infrastructures are left for the farmers and as a result they construct the channels out of the
recommended design. Due to this reason seepage and overflow become more serious problems that lower
irrigation efficiency. The farmers do not pay for water use. Though gravity irrigation is the most common system
currently being used in the study area, there are also a few pressurised irrigation systems. Irrigation is used to
cultivate onions, tomatoes, peppers, potato and maize. Most of farmers cultivate maize with irrigation facilities.
Animal Husbandry
Livestock play an important role in the rural development and improvement of the lives of the farmers in the
study area. The main livestock are cattle, donkey, camel, horse, mule, sheep and goat. They are sources of:
draught power for traction and transportation, cash income from sale of livestock and livestock products (hides
and skins, wool, hair), food such as milk, meat for household consumption and manure to maintain soil fertility.
In addition, almost every rural household own chicken which supply eggs and meat. Cattle’s rearing is under the
traditional production system. They are almost entirely of the zebu type and thus, milk and meat production are
poor. However, oxen power supplies the only draught power for ploughing. Most of the sheep and goats are
raised and used as a major source of income generation. Animals have high sales value in urban centres,
particularly during the festival periods in April (Easter/Fasika), September (New year/Meskerem), and January
(Epiphany/Timket). Most horses, mules and donkeys are used to transport produce and other agricultural goods.
Donkeys are mainly used to fetch water for household consumption, to transport agricultural output and fuel
wood to market. In this area, camels also play a key role in the transportation of salt and other commercial
goods.
The major livestock feed sources in the region include crop residues, grazing lands, browse and crop aftermath.
Cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica) is also being used as animal feed during the dry seasons. The spineless cactus is
chopped and given to animals while the spiny cactus is treated for spine removal with fire and knives. Free and
uncontrolled grazing is the dominant system of grazing in the Tigray region. Livestock grazes or browses in
flock freely on grazing or browse lands as well as on cultivated fields after harvest (Birhanu, 2002). In the study
area, most grazing lands are slopes on hills and mountains. In the rainy season, livestock grazes and tramples the
slopes of hills and mountains and this reduces vegetation cover, thus, contributing to soil erosion, reduction of
soil fertility, decreasing in soil organic matter and deterioration of the soil structure. However, grazing lands are
managed as Area Enclosures in order to reduce degradation risk (more information on this may be found in
section 3.4.2). As a consequence they belong to the class “degradation control” of the land use map (Figure 21).
Other grazing lands and ranching lands (Photo 21) are distributed around wetlands, rivers and lakes. Following
the field work survey, they represent only 1.27% of the total area. However, due to overgrazing, these lands
became severely degraded. During the rainy season, when most arable lands are under crop cultivation, livestock
are restricted to graze on valley bottoms, ranching land, farm strips and slopes.
Agricultural Extension and Agricultural Development in Ethiopia
The current economic development strategy of Ethiopia is Agricultural Development Led Industrialisation
(ADLI). Thus, the Ethiopian economy heavily depends upon the speed with which agricultural growth is
achieved. The rate of agricultural growth in turn depends on the speed with which the current subsistence
oriented production system is transformed into a market orientated production system. Among the many
institutional support services that need to catalyse or support the transformation process, is the agricultural
extension service. This plays a critical role, since it contributes to the development of knowledge and skills the
farmers require in order adopting new and improved technologies such as improved seed varieties, animal
breeds, implements, chemicals, new practices and the approaches and processes (Berhanu et al., 2006).
ORGANIZATION OF THE PUBLIC EXTENSION SYSTEM IN TIGRAY
The current extension service in Ethiopia is almost exclusively funded and provided by the government through
its woreda (district) level Offices of Agriculture and Rural Development (OoARD), with NGOs operating in
limited and dispersed areas throughout the country. The fact that the extension service is provided almost
exclusively by the government indicates the urgent need to devise strategies to make the extension service
pluralistic (multi-provider). These woreda level offices are supported by regional level Bureaus of Agriculture
and Rural Development (BoARD). In some administrative regions of the country, zonal level offices also exist to
support the woreda level offices. However, in the Tigray region, the woreda offices of agriculture are directly
supported by the regional Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development (BoARD) (Berhanu et al., 2006).
47
Generally, the BoARDs are organised under five sectors in the region. These are: agricultural development,
natural resources, environmental protection and land administration, water supply and rural roads, and input
supply and co-operative promotion.
Photo 21-Cattle grazing on ranching land (photo Moges Aregay Gebremariam)

Agricultural development sector is the largest unit in the office and is responsible for the extension service. This
sector is further subdivided into four teams: crop production, livestock production, natural resources
management and extension teams. The extension team is expected to have a team leader, several extension
supervisors and a home economic agent, all based at the woreda level. Each extension supervisor is responsible
for the supervision of extension activities in several peasant associations (locally known as Tabias) (Berhanu et
al 2006).
EXTENSION APPROACH AND DELIVERY
Extension services provided in the Tigray region can be categorised into three groups: household package,
regular package and minimum package. Household package extension programmes are based on the selection of
a package of technologies from a menu of package choices provided to farmers. In the moisture stressed areas,
the household packages are centred on the construction of water harvesting ponds or shallow well development
or ensuring access to different forms of irrigation such as river diversion or irrigation dams. Dairy production,
fattening of cattle and small ruminants, poultry and apiculture are also important integral components of the
household technology packages. The regular package extension programme aims at enabling farmers adopt
improved seeds with commercial fertilizers, improved management practices and soil moisture conservation
practices. On the other hand, minimum package stipulates that farmers adopt improved seeds with traditional soil
fertility management practices (e.g. application of compost and manure) and soil moisture conservation
practices. To deliver knowledge, the extension services make use of individual, group and mass media
approaches. In some of the woredas extension messages are transmitted at church/mosque gatherings during
religious holidays or other occasional social gatherings, indicating the need to ensure the effectiveness of
reaching the intended recipients of the message. There seems to be a better understanding and realization by the
extension service throughout the region for the crucial importance of getting farmers adopt new technologies
voluntarily, rather than through different forms of coercion by different means as appears to have been mostly
the practice so far. However, pressure still appears to exist on Development Agents (DAs) to fulfil quota of
farmers expected to join the extension package programs, since fulfilment of quotas still remains a criterion in
DA performance evaluation.
PROBLEMS WITH THE CURRENT EXTENSION SERVICE IN TIGRAY
Top down and non-participatory nature of the extension service is pervasive throughout the country. Top down
approach is not only between development agents and farmers, but also between the woreda offices and the
48
regional bureaus. The extension service uses predominantly supply driven and non participatory approach.
Technology packages are mainly prepared based on the availability of new/improved technologies and attempts
are made to transfer them with little consideration of farmers’ needs. This supply driven approach of extension
has been a common feature of all the extension service programs throughout the country. There is a need to
refocus the extension service to make it more demand driven and based on community needs and resources.
There is also limitation in the availability of technology options both for the crop and livestock sub sectors. The
wealth of indigenous knowledge of farmers can also be used as source of improved technology options.
Land Policy and Land Tenure
Land policy is the tool employed to outline a set of goals and measures for meeting objectives related to land:
tenure, use, management, property rights and administration, and administrative structures. “Land tenure is the
relationship, whether legally or customarily defined, among people, as individuals or groups, with respect to
land.” For convenience, “land” is used here to include other natural resources such as water and trees
(http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y4307e/y4307e00.htm#Contents).
Land tenure is an institution, that is, rules invented by societies to regulate behaviour. Rules of tenure define how
property rights to land are to be allocated within societies. They define how access is granted to rights to use,
control, and transfer land, as well as associated responsibilities and restraints. In simple terms, land tenure
systems determine who can use what resources for how long, and under what conditions
(http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y4307e/y4307e00.htm#Contents).
Land tenure, according to FAO, is often categorized as:
- Private: the assignment of rights to a private party who may be an individual, a married couple, a group of
people, or a corporate body such as a commercial entity or non-profit organization. For example, within a
community, individual families may have exclusive rights to residential parcels, agricultural parcels and
certain trees. Other members of the community can be excluded from using these resources without the
consent of those who hold the rights.
- Communal: a right of commons may exist within a community where each member has a right to use
independently the holdings of the community. For example, members of a community may have the right to
graze cattle on a common pasture.
- Open access: specific rights are not assigned to anyone and no-one can be excluded. This typically includes
marine tenure where access to the high seas is generally open to anyone; it may include rangelands, forests,
etc, where there may be free access to the resources for all. (An important difference between open access
and communal systems is that under communal system non-members of the community are excluded from
using the common areas.)
- State: property rights are assigned to some authority in the public sector. For example, in some countries,
forest lands may fall under the mandate of the state, whether at a central or decentralized level of
government
- In the study area, these four types of land tenure are applied.
In Tigray region, the regional government improved the rural land policy in 1997. The current policy allow
unlimited period of use–rights for title holders as long as they maintain their residency in the village, different
temporary land transfer rights in the form of contract management with restrictions on the duration of contract .
Farmers can sharecrop, lease and lend their individual parcels for a limited period, but can neither mortgage nor
sell them. The policy allows a maximum contract period of two years for tenants using traditional technology
and ten years when the tenant uses ‘modern technology’. Farmers are not allowed to construct a residence on the
field plots or plant non agroforestry trees. Farmers have the right for claiming compensation in the event of state
taking land for their investment, and inheritance right is also recognized. Cutting down indigenous trees growing
on individually allocated plot is not allowed. (Negarit Gazeta of Tigray, in Girmay, 2006).
One of the major problems with the current land tenure management is land fragmentation, because of the desire
for equitable distribution of land of different quality and distance from place of residence. Community members
share a portion of each type. These are rogid (deep soil depth), meakelay (medium soil depth) and rekik (shallow
soil depth). This together with high population pressure in the region, is often claimed to have laid to a sever
farmland fragmentation. The current land policy in Tigray prohibits further subdivision of small plots (0.25ha) of
land beyond their current size during inheritance or other temporary land transaction.
3.4.2 Vegetation
The classification of the Ethiopian highlands into altitudinal zones as described in section 3.1, is primarily based
on the main types of crops that may be cultivated, but, it was sometimes used by early botanists to describe the
vegetation (Muys, 2003; Tigray Rural Development Study, annex 1). As already stated, Enderta District falls
almost entirely in the Weyna Dega zone and, according to the classification given by Pichi-Sermolli (1957), as
well as the vegetation map of the Tigray Rural Development Study and annex 1, two main vegetation types can
be identified in the study area:
49
- Montane evergreen thicket and scrub: the Ethiopian Rift Escarpment and the western part of Enderta, along
Giba river are characterised by this vegetation type. The dominant species are Euphorbia abyssinica,
growing on shallow soils and rocky outcrops, and shrubs belonging to the genera Euclea, Maytenus,
Carissa, Dodonaea, and Rhus.
- Montane savanna: the central part of the study area is characterised by this vegetation type. The vegetation
is made up of patches of shrubby Acacia spp. interspersed by cultivated areas.
The Tigray Region was once covered with evergreen forests dominated by Juniperus procera, and Olea
africana, often regarded as the potential natural vegetation of the Ethiopian highlands, and belts of mixed
deciduous Acacia savannah woodland (TFAP, 1996; Darbyshire et al., 2003). During the last century, the
population growth and the consequence of the increasing rate of unsustainable wood exploitation for subsistence
and economic activities have led to a considerable impact on these forests. The forests have been largely cleared
to expand agricultural and grazing land, to provide fuel wood and timber. Few remnants of the original natural
high forests are still left. They represent only about 0.43% of the entire study area and are found in remote and
inaccessible areas such as on mountain ranges, the Ethiopian Rift Escarpment and around churches. The latter is
a typical case in the northern part of Ethiopia where patchy remnants of old-aged forest can be found on the land
owned by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahids Church (EOTC). Hence, when a traveler sees a patch of indigenous
matured trees in the northern highland of Ethiopia, he/she can be sure that there is an orthodox church in the
middle. These forests are visible from a great distance, with a majestic appearance and usually built on small
hills overlooking the surrounding villages (Photo 22). The locals call these churches with the surrounding trees
debr or geddam. They have great respect for the church organisation, activities and rules and they threat these
places as the most holy grounds. So, they do not collect fuel or construction wood, but collection for traditional
medicine purposes is permitted (Bonger et al., 2006).
Photo 22-A church forest (photo Birhane Gebreiwot Tesfamariam)

From field observation, Juniperus procera was found only in the relevé 315, with coverage of 45%. The main
effect of deforestation has been an acceleration of erosion and a consequent loss of the top soil. Land degradation
is a severe problem across Sub-Saharan Africa, and Ethiopia is among the most affected countries. In order to
reduce this trend, to improve the micro-climate and the environmental stability, to create habitat for wildlife and
to conserve the diminishing floristic richness, the Government of Ethiopia has from the early 1980’s, initiated a
number of projects including the establishment of Area Enclosures, with the financial assistance from
international organisations; mainly the World Food Programme (Nedessa et al., 2005). Enclosures are degraded
portions of land, commonly located on steep slopes and down slopes from a sediment source area. Human and
livestock interference are restricted from these area to encourage natural regeneration of the floristic species.
Grass cutting and collection of fuel wood is allowed only from dead trees. Grazing is usually allowed but with
restrictions. In some areas, soil and water conservation activities are also being carried out. The practice of area
50
enclosures has become very common in the Ethiopian highlands and has, in general, ameliorated the quality of
the sites (i.e. increasing biodiversity, biomass production and improving soil properties and nutrient content)
(Descheemaeker et al., 2006: Birhane et al., 2006; Mekuria, 2007). As from 1991, the Tigray Regional
Government has promoted area enclosures that now cover 15% of the total area (Nyssen et al., 2007). Nedessa et
al. (2005) estimated a cover of 10% of the enclosures with respect to the total available grazing area. In this
study, as indicated at the beginning of section 3.4, the area enclosures occupy 27% of the total surface of
Enderta. The great vegetation recovery in these managed sites is evident from the study of Nyssen et al. (2007).
Protection against theft and grazing in the area enclosures is usually a duty of hired guards who are paid by the
local community or by the central government. Only in few cases the local community members themselves take
turns to protect the areas without any external financial assistance. Nedessa et al. (2005) point out that, this
communal arrangement is the most economically sustainable and the most efficient way of protecting enclosures
in an area with such poor economy and with free grazing traditions. Even though during the fieldwork no forest
guard was seen, the locals confirmed that forest guards are employed for enclosure protection.
The physiognomic classification of the natural vegetation was made according to Eiten methodology (1968),
modified to better fit the Land Cover Classification System (LCCS) (Di Gregorio and Jansen, 2000). Two
parameters were taken into account: total coverage percentage, considering the combination of the different life
forms (tree, shrub and herbs) and relative tree cover proportion. The life forms are defined on the basis of height
and habit to distinguish a tree from a shrub and on the stem structure to distinguish the woody from the
herbaceous plants. Concerning the coverage, the thresholds of 15% (between “sparse” and “open”) and 65%
(between open and closed) were adopted. The data collected in the field were not sufficient to develop a floristic
classification because the fieldwork was carried out during the dry season. So, only the woody species were
taken into account and their relative coverage, height, phenological phase, vigour, regeneration and utilisation
were estimated (vegetation form, annex 4).
The fieldwork data led to the identification of the following physiognomic types of vegetation:
- Closed scrub
- Open scrub
- Sparse scrub
- Grassland
- Sparse forest with open scrub
According to the IAO approach (section 1.2 and 2.1), a process of thematic generalisation led to the Land Unit
Map and Legend, where the different Land Units are described among the other land attributes in terms of land
cover. For each Land Unit, all the relevés and the correspondent vegetation type were taken into account and a
land cover name was assigned. According to the Land Cover Classification System, a Land Unit was described
with a mixed land cover class (up to three mixed classes) if each of the classes identified pertains to facets that
occupy more than 20% (and consequently less than 80%) of that Land Unit.
The physiognomic vegetation types are described below.
Pure vegetation types
CLOSED SCRUB
Scrublands with closed coverage occupy approximately 3% of the total area of Enderta and are found along the
Ethiopian Rift Escarpment (Land Units 1, 3 and 7), on limestone and shale substrate, from moderately to
strongly dissected sloping surface and mainly on Calcisols. The average woody coverage is about 75% and the
height of the formation is around 1.50-2m. The main species are: Tarchonanthus camphoratus (local name ebok)
and Acacia etbaica (local name seraw). Tarchonanthus camphoratus could be seen in the foreground of Photo
23. It is an evergreen shrub belonging to the Compositae family and is well known in different African regions
especially in the Rift upland area. It is often reared in the wild; its oil is a good repellent against insects and can
alleviate irritation of the skin (Rovesti et. al., 1997). Acacia etbaica is one of the most widespread woody plants
on Ethiopian and Eritrean highlands, where it is taking the place of the original evergreen forests, due to its high
spreading capability. It is one of the most exploited species for fuel wood, due to its good calorific power
(Ongaro and Viti., 2001). The young leaves are eaten by Camels. It can also grow as a low tree up to 10m, but in
Enderta, it is typically found as a shrub around 1.50m high.
OPEN SCRUB
The open scrublands cover about 20% of the study area and are found both along the Ethiopian Rift Escarpment
(Photo 24), in the same condition as the closed scrub in terms of lithology, landforms and soils, and on Mekele
“Plateau”, typically in the northern (along the Makele fault), western (along Gibai river) and the southern part.
In the latter Land System, this vegetation type can be found on steep and very steep scarp on dolerite or on fine
crystalline limestone with marl and on soils classified as Leptosols, Regosols, and Calcisols.
The average woody cover is about 35% and mainly pertaining to Acacia etbaica, Tarchonanthus camphoratus
and the evergreen shrubs Maytenus senegalensis (common name kebkeb), and Euclea schimperi (kilyau) (Photo
25). The last two species were found in a very good vigorous state, despite the dry season.
51
Photo 23-Closed scrub in the Ethiopian Rift Escarpment, with Tarchonanthus camphoratus (foreground) and
Acacia etbaica (photo Francesco Conti)
Photo 24-Open scrub with Acacia etbaica (foreground, dried leaves) and Euclea schimperi (evergreen) (photo
Valeria Alessandro)
52
Photo 25-Euclea schimperi (A.DC.) Dandy (photo Erica Matta)

SPARSE SCRUB
Sparse scrublands cover only 2% of the total surface area and were found in the Land Unit 9, on strongly
dissected sloping surface, on Calcisols. The average woody coverage is about 8% and the main species are:
Acacia etbaica, Euclea schimperi and the woody herb Aloe adigratana (Photo 26).
Photo 26-Aloe adigratana Reynolds (photo Junxia Zhang)

SPARSE FOREST WITH OPEN SCRUB
Open scrublands with sparse emergent low trees (“Open tree and scrub woodland” in Eiten’s classification) was
observed in the Land Unit 5 in the Ethiopian Rift Escarpment, on sloping slopes on colluvial deposits and on
53
Luvic Calcisols and fairly on gentle slopes on Haplic Calcisols. The main species are Acacia etbaica (both in the
scrub and in the emergent tree layers) and Tarchonanthus camphoratus. During the generalisation process of the
land cover legend, the Land Unit 5 has been classified as “Open scrub”.
GRASSLAND
Herbaceous formations cover only 1% of the study area and characterise the Land Unit 24, on the Mekele
“Plateau” Land System. They were found on the following relevés 312, 314 and 207, on level flat landforms on
alluvial deposits, where the soils are classified as Fluvisols. The herbaceous cover is almost 100% and mainly
pertained to graminoids. Therefore, this vegetation type corresponds to “short plant field” in the Eiten’s
classification.
ARTIFICIAL FOREST
According to the Land Use Planning and Regulatory Department of the Ministry of Agriculture (LUPRD), 24%
of the Ethiopian Highland is presently, "seriously" eroded and 25 % "significantly" eroded (Thomas, 1984). The
LUPRD recently estimated that an additional 13% of the land will be unsuitable for agricultural production, if
current rates of erosion persist for the next 25 years. The town Kwiha located in the study area experienced an
estimated soil loss of 33000kg/ha during the 1975 rainy season. To combat on this issue, since the times of
Emperor Menelik II eucalyptus trees have been introduced as a potential solution to reclaim the land, for fuel and
timber shortage. Eucalyptus plantations were found on the Land Unit 14, on steep scarp on doleritic substratum,
on Umbrisols (Photo 27). The species employed are Eucalyptus camaldulensis and E. globulus; they are tolerant
to severe periodic moisture stress and low soil fertility. Studies on eucalyptus plantation were carried out only on
relevé 119. This plantation is 24 years old and is generally well developed, except for some recently planted
trees that appeared dried. Uneven age cutting is practised to get timber for construction purposes. The forest
belongs to the community and farmers need an authorisation for cutting. The trees are spaced one meter apart
and are planted along the contour lines, besides stonebunds. The land is also used for grazing.
Photo 27-Eucalyptus plantation, nearby Hawusbba village (photo Erica Matta)

Mixed Vegetation Types
In the land cover legend the following mixed classes are defined:
- Closed to open scrub
- Sparse to open scrub
- Closed scrub and rainfed annual crops
- Open scrub and rainfed annual crops
- Open to closed scrub and rainfed annual crops
- Rainfed annual crops and sparse scrub
- Sparse to open scrub and rainfed annual crops
54
Among these, the highest surface coverage pertain to mixed agriculture-natural vegetation classes as “Open
scrub and rainfed annual crops” (about 10%), “Open to closed scrub and rainfed annual crops” (about 5%) and
“Sparse to open scrub and rainfed annual crops” (about 7%). Except for the latter, these classes have been
assigned to Land Units of the Mekele “Plateau”, where the scrublands are typically found interspersed among
cultivated areas, on natural and managed terraces. Most of these units are included in the area enclosures. The
main species found are Acacia etbaica, Aloe adigratana and Euclea schimperi.
3.4.3 Land Cover Classification System (LCCS)

The Land Cover Classification System (LCCS) was designed by the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO)
and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (Di Gregorio and Jensen, 2000) to develop a
worldwide common standardised method to classify and map the land cover resources, independently from the
geographic location and the data collection methodology. The classes of the legend are built using a set of
diagnostic criteria (called “classifiers”), instead of a fixed nomenclature. Each classifier describes a physical
attribute of the land cover. The classifiers can be compared to small units of information which are chosen in
sequence to obtain a legend code; in a first phase the classifiers are chosen in a dichotomous way, and
subsequently in a hierarchical order. This is a flexible apriori classification system that can be used at different
scales and different levels of detail. Specific software designed for this purpose by Di Gregorio and Jensen (2005)
has been used to translate the 21 land cover classes in terms of LCCS syntaxes. A simple relationship "one to one"
has been applied. The results (Table 5) show that most of the LCCS classes contain more information compared
to the formers. For example, the LCCS class correspondent to the "artificial forest" contains some details about
the crop type (monoculture of broadleaved evergreen crop for timber). Also, the irrigated crops are described in
terms of the irrigation system applied (surface irrigation); the urban areas are distinguished on the bases of the
density of impervious surfaces. In the natural-semi natural vegetation classes, the vertical structure has also been
taken into account (single layer). All the defined mixed classes are cartographic mixed, so the classes are
separated by a single "/". The new classes are composed into four main “structural domains”:
- natural-semi natural vegetation;
- cultivated and managed terrestrial areas;
- artificial surfaces and associated areas;
- artificial water bodies, snow and ice.
LANDCOVER LCCLABEL LCCLEVEL LCCCODE

Monoculture Of Broadleaved
Evergreen Tree Crop(s) A1XXXXC1-A7A9-
Artificial forest 11340-1-S10W7
Crop Type: Wood and Timber S10W7
Crop Cover: Plantation(s)
Closed scrub Thicket, Single Layer A4A10B3XXXXXXF1 20349
Closed scrub
Thicket, Single Layer/Rainfed A4A10B3XXXXXXF1/
and rainfed annual 20349/11391
Graminoid Crop(s) A4XXXXC2D1
crops
Closed to open Thicket, Single Layer/ A4A10B3XXXXXXF1/
20349/20373
scrub Shrubland, Single Layer A4A11B3XXXXXXF1
Closed Herbaceous Vegetation,
Grassland A2A10B4XXXXXXF1 20409
Single Layer
Irrigated Surface Irrigated Herbaceous
A3XXXXC2D3-D4/ 11378-
and rainfed annual Crop(s)
A4XXXXC2D1 13227/11391
crops / Rainfed Graminoid Crop(s)
Open scrub Shrubland, Single Layer A4A11B3XXXXXXF1 20373
Open scrub
Shrubland, Single Layer/Rainfed A4A11B3XXXXXXF1/
and rainfed annual 20373/11391
Graminoid Crop(s) A4XXXXC2D1
crops
Open to closed Shrubland, Single Layer/Thicket, A4A11B3XXXXXXF1/
20373/20349
scrub Single Layer A4A10B3XXXXXXF1
Open to closed
scrub Closed to Open Thicket, Single A4A20B3XXXXXXF1/
21600/11391
and rainfed annual Layer/Rainfed Graminoid Crop(s) A4XXXXC2D1
crops
Open to sparse Shrubland, Single Layer / A4A11B3XXXXXXF1/
20373/20509
scrub Sparse Shrubs, Single Layer A4A14B3XXXXXXF1
Rainfed annual Rainfed Graminoid Crop(s) A4XXXXC2D1 11391
55
crops
Rainfed annual
Rainfed Graminoid Crop(s)/Sparse A4XXXXC2D1/
crops 11391/20509
Shrubs, Single Layer A4A14B3XXXXXXF1
and sparse scrub
Sparse and closed Sparse Shrubs, Single A4A14B3XXXXXXF1/
20509/20349
scrub Layer/Thicket, Single Layer A4A10B3XXXXXXF1
Sparse scrub Sparse Shrubs, Single Layer A4A14B3XXXXXXF1 20509
Sparse to open Sparse Shrubs, Single A4A14B3XXXXXXF1/
20509/20373
scrub Layer/Shrubland, Single Layer A4A11B3XXXXXXF1
Sparse to open
Sparse Shrubs, Single A4A14B3XXXXXXF1/
scrub 20509/20373/113
Layer/Shrubland, Single Layer/ A4A11B3XXXXXXF1/
and rainfed annual 91
Rainfed Graminoid Crop(s) A4XXXXC2D1
crops
Urban area High Density Industrial And/Or
A4-A12A14 5003-10
infrastructure Other Area(s)
Urban area
High Density Urban Area(s) A4-A13A14 5003-13
residential
Village Low Density Urban Area(s) A4-A13A16 5003-15
Water body Artificial Waterbodies A1 7001
Table 5-Land cover legend and corresponding LCCS classes
3.5 Soils
3.5.1 Soil classification

Various studies identify 13 major soil types in Tigray namely: Cambisols, Rendzinas, Lithosols, Acrisols,
Fluvisols, Luvisols, Regosols, Nitosols, Arenosols, Vertisols, Xerosols, Solonchacks, and Andosols. In the
eastern part of the region the soils are mostly developed under arid conditions where the weathering process is
slow and as a result very shallow soils are developed. Lithosols is the dominant soil type on these steep slope
areas. Cambisols and Vertisols are developed in the higher rainfall areas of the south on alluvium derived from
basalt. In the western part of the region, the soil type varies according to the parent material. Generally, the soil
in this region is considered to be highly eroded with low fertility
(http://www.ilri.org/InfoServ/Webpub/Fulldocs/WorkP25/Setting). The area of Enderta has been the subject of a
number of earlier studies at different scales to assess the existing natural resources. These studies range from the
general to a specific overview. The general studies are countrywide and/or basin wide that provide soils and
landforms mapping at very small scales. This study is largely based on image interpretation with minimum field
verifications. One of the widest range studies was undertaken in Mekele University to analyse the status of soil
fertility in Tigray (Gebremedhin et al., 2002). In this study, soil samples which were taken from 300 plots,
stratified by altitude were analysed. The soil analyses showed that the plots in this study, were heterogeneous
and showed very low soil fertility status, especially with regard to total nitrogen and available phosphorous.
On the other hand, the specific studies are concentrated within the regional territory. The type and quality of the
data in these studies greatly vary. According to a reconnaissance soil survey (Virgo and Munro, 1978) which
describes an area of 6000km2 at elevation between 2000-2800m in the Central “Plateau” region of northern
Ethiopia, landforms and soil sequences on calcareous shales, dolerites and sandstones were described. The
principal soil types are Lithosols, Luvisols, Cambisols, Arenosols and Vertisols. From this study, which
considered a single mapping unit, the soils in the Mekele “Plateau”, which represents the most part of the
Enderta district, are shallow soils, formed by weathered mantle on the upper steep slopes on limestone. The
transition to the middle slopes is marked by a scarp face on which Lithosols and bed rock occur. On the highly
calcareous and fine-texture marls and shale of the middle slopes, there is a sequence from Eutric Cambisols on
the more freely draining and less weathered upper position, towards Vertic Cambisols in depressions and lower
situations, where the combination of high base contents and impeded drainage favour the formation of
montmorillonitic clays. This sequence is reported on a smaller scale between local outcrops of limestone. The
progressive down slope accumulation of fine alluvium and an increasingly wetter moisture regime contribute to
the formation of deep Vertisols on the lower slopes and in the drainage line depression.
The soils in the study area (Figure 24) were classified on the basis of the World Reference Base (WRB) for Soil
Resource (FAO, 2006). According to this classification, the major soil groups identified in the study area are
briefly described and discussed based on the profile and surface characteristics such as effective soil depth,
colour, texture, structure, consistency, slope and topography, drainage, together with the soil chemical
properties. In this survey, the major soil types and soil mapping units were classified based on the soil properties
observed in the field and from laboratory analyses. The major physical properties of the soil used as a base for
56
classification include: texture, depth, colour, mottles, clay cutans, mineral nodules, drainage characteristics, and
profile development. The most important chemical characteristics of the soils used as a base for classification
are: CEC, base saturation, organic matter, exchangeable sodium percentage, free carbonates, pH, and electrical
conductivity. About 10 main soil groups and 28 soil types were identified in the study area. The identified soils
groups are: Luvisols, Cambisols, Calcisols, Vertisols, Phaeozems, Regosols, Arenosols, Fluvisol, Kastanozems
and Leptosols. These soils are categorised in three major classes in accordance to the intensity of their
distribution in the Land Units as dominant, major, or as an association of soils. As a consequence of the
heterogeneity of the soils in the study area, a threshold was fixed in order to make a distinction among the three
classes (Table 6).
CLASS THRESHOLDS %
Dominant > 85
Mixed 65< x <85
Associations < 65
Table 6-Classification thresholds
Arenosols
Arenosols are comprised of sandy soils and include soils that developed in residual sands after in situ weathering
of usually quartz-rich sediments or rock, and soils developed in recent deposition of sand such as dunes in
deserts and beach lands. The parent material is unconsolidated calcareous, translocated materials of sandy
texture; relatively small areas of Arenosols occur in extremely weathered siliceous rock (FAO 2006). In the
study area Arenosols are found in sloping and terraced slopes associated with other types of soils in Land Units
4, 10, and 26, while they are dominant in Land Unit 6. These soils are extremely drained, deep to very deep, very
dark grey to brown, dominantly coarse textured derived from coarse colluvial materials with limestone being the
parent material. The soil is neutral to moderately alkaline with pH range from 7.6 to 8.3. In this case the
Arenosols in the study area are expected to be alkaline. The pH range preferred by most crops is 6.3-7.5. The
Arenosols which is found in Antalo formation and on dolerite substratum in the Mekele “Plateau” are not
calcareous, but that in the Ethiopian rift escarpment are strongly calcareous with values of CaCO3 >15%. The
CEC values of the soils are on an average medium to high level and range from 15-26.5 (me/100g of soil) in the
topsoils and 17.9-28.5 in the sub horizons. Base saturation percent is on an average low to medium value and
ranges from 15.0-26.5 in the topsoils and 17.5-28.5 in the sub horizons. Low level of organic matter is the main
constraint of this soil group, together with low water retention capability. The addition of inorganic fertilizers,
use of cover crops, and the incorporation of crop residues help to improve nutrient reserve and buffer the
capacity of these soils. In accordance with the soil map, the area covered by Arenosols represent an area of 4,938
ha which is 3.3% of the entire surface of the study area.
RELEVÉ TYPE OF ARENOSOLS

316, 406 Haplic Arenosol
216 Hypoluvic Arenosol Calcaric
Table 7-Type of Arenosols
Calcisols
It is difficult to quantify the worldwide extent of Calcisols with any accurate measurement. Many Calcisols
occur together with Solonchaks that are actually salt-affected Calcisols and/or with other soils with secondary
accumulation of lime which do not stand out as Calcisols. The total surface area occupied by Calcisol in the
world amount to some 1 billion hectares; nearly all of it is located in the arid and semi-arid (sub) areas
(www.fao.org). The main connotation of Calcisols is a substantial secondary translocation and accumulation of
lime in a diffuse form or as discontinuous concentration into lower horizons, where the whitish layer represents
an accumulation of calcium carbonate. The accumulation may be in the parent material or in subsurface
horizons. However, it may also occur on surface horizon as a result of erosion. Many Calcisols are old soils if the
time of formation is recorded. Their development is slowed down by recurrent periods of drought in which
important soil forming processes like chemical weathering, accumulation of organic matter and translocation of
clay come to a virtual standstill. The most prominent soil forming process of Calcisols (the process from which
the soils derived the name) is the translocation of calcium carbonate from the surface horizon to an accumulation
layer at some depth. This was observed in relevés 303 and 211 in the study area.
57
Figure 24-Soil Map
58
Lime concretions may occur at the surface of the soil in eroded lands or in lands that are intensively
homogenised by burrowing animals. However, it is more common to find the surface horizon wholly or partly
de-calcified. The pedogenetic process that characterises Calcisols is governed by both Carbon dioxide (CO2)
pressure of the soil air and the concentrations of dissolved ions in the soil moisture. In fact, an increase in the
CO2 content leads to the dissolution of calcite and the concentration of Ca2+ and HCO3- in the soil solution rises
because the ions move downward and percolate the soil moisture. Therefore, the formation of an horizon rich in
CaCO3 takes place in the upper layers where root activity and respiration by micro-organisms cause higher CO2
pressure than in the atmospheric air. Alternatively, calcite dissolves if water flushes the soil. Consequently,
precipitation occurs if there is a drop in the CO2 pressure (with a consequent rise in pH) and due to the
evaporation of water that causes saturation of the soil solution. Evaporation of water and a decrease in partial
CO2 pressure in the deeper part of the profile (fewer roots and less soil organic matter and micro-organisms)
cause saturation of the soil solution and precipitation of calcite that can partly be transported back with
ascending water and accumulate at the depth where the capillary water evaporates. Increase in moisture content
enables the translocation of dissolved silica which may cause a further hardening of the layer with calcite
accumulation. However, cementation of a petrocalcic horizon is the first instance of calcium and magnesium
carbonates. In the study area, Calcisols (Table 8) are found dominantly in Land Units 1, 2, 5, 9, 11, 12 and 31; in
association with other soils, also found in Land Units 3, 4, 8, 10, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 33 and 35 besides it is
also found as a major soil in Land Unit 19. Calcisols cover an area approximated as 15% dominantly; and 16%
in association with others in the entire surface area. The main parent material is limestone and shale on
moderately to strongly dissected sloping surfaces of the Ethiopian rift escarpment; fine crystalline limestone with
some marl in very steep scarp of Mekele “Plateau”; and shale with interbbeded “black” limestone in sloping
scarp of Mekele “Plateau”. Calcisols in the study area are found in the land use classified as “degradation
control” and most of the vegetation cover is sparse, open and closed scrub. In addition, they are also found in
agricultural lands with rainfed annual crop. Calcisols cover an area of 48,556 ha of the entire study area and are
found in almost all land use and cover.
RELEVÉ TYPE OF CALCISOL

103,115,122,208,211,213,214,301,407,412 Luvic Calcisol
310 Luvic Calcisol Clayic
120,201,408,414 Haplic Calcisol
114,303,409 Hypercalcic Calcisol
121 Vertic Calcisol
207 Hypocalcic Calcisol Arenic
209 Lixic Calcisol
215 Haplic Calcisols Skeletic
Table 8-Type of Calcisols
Cambisols
Cambisols represent soils in which soil formation is characterised by a certain development of structure, or by
colours that indicate moderately pronounced alteration and development. This soil combines with at least an
incipient subsurface soil formation. Transformation of the parent material is evident from structure formation
and mostly brownish discoloration, increased in clay percentage, and/or carbonate removal. The parent materials
are medium and fine-textured materials derived from a wide range of rocks. Cambisols are characterised by
slight to moderate weathering of the parent material and by the absence of appreciable quantities of illuviated
clay, organic matter, aluminium, and/or Iron compounds. Generally, Cambisols result to a good agricultural land
which can be intensively used. Acidic Cambisols, although less fertile, are used for mixed arable farm land,
grazing and forest land. Cambisols on steep slopes are best kept under forest while Cambisols on undulating or
hill terrain (mainly colluvial) are suitable for a variety of annual and perennial crops or are used for grazing. In
the study area, Cambisols are found in association with other soil types in Land Units 3, 4, 8, 10, 17 and 22.
Cambisols (Table 9) in association with other soils cover 45% of the entire study area. The main parent material
are limestone and shale, mostly found on strongly dissected sloping surfaces and/or with summit sub flat areas of
the Ethiopian rift escarpment, and shale with interbedded “black” limestone on undulating rises and sloping
scarp of Mekele “Plateau”. These soils are found in the land use classified as “degradation control”,
“agriculture” and “agriculture and degradation control” with rainfed annual crops, open scrubs and open to
closed scrubs. Cambisols cover an area of approximately 17,810 ha of the study area.
59
RELEVÉ TYPE OF CAMBISOLS

404 Vertic Cambisol
212 Epileptic Cambisol Calcaric
111, 118 Haplic Cambisol Calcaric
Table 9-Type of Cambisols
Fluvisols
Fluvisols (Latin name fluvis, river) accommodate genetically young, azonal soils in alluvial deposits. The name
Fluvisols may be misleading in the sense that these soils are not confined only to river sediments; they also occur
in lacustrine and marine deposits (FAO, 2006). Fluvisols develop in alluvial plains, river fans, valleys and tidal
marshes on all continents and in all climate zones. Under natural conditions, many Fluvisols are flooded
periodically. The soil profiles have evidence of stratification and weak horizon differentiation, but a distinct
topsoil horizon may be present. Redoximorphic features, like mottles, are common particularly in the lower parts
of the profile. In our study area the parent material of these soils is the alluvial deposit, with levels (10 cm) of
heterogeneous calcareous material stratified with sand and sandy loam (Lime). These soils are found in level flat
areas in alluvial deposits with grassland, irrigated and rainfed annual crops. Fluvisols (Table 10) are present in
association with Luvisols (relevé 104). These soils in association cover an area of 3,485 ha which is 2.3% of the
entire study area.
RELEVÉ TYPE OF FLUVISOLS

104 Calcic Fluvisols
314 Haplic Fluvisol Calcaric
Table 10-Type of Fluvisols
Kastanozems
Kastanozems (Latin name “castaneus”, brown) are dark brown soils rich in organic matter with a soil profile
similar to that of Chernozems, but the humus-rich surface horizon is thinner and less dark. They show more
prominent accumulation of secondary carbonates. Kastanozems are potentially rich soils which periodically lack
soil moisture. This is the main limitation of the soil and is an obstacle to high yields. Therefore irrigation is
always necessary to have a good crop yield. However, care must be taken to avoid secondary salinisation of the
subsoils. Phosphate fertilizers might be necessary to improve the quality of the soil. Small grain crops, irrigated
food crops and vegetables are the principal crops grown on these soils. Wind and water erosion are problems to
Kastanozems, especially on fallow lands. Extensive grazing is another important land use on Kastanozems.
However, the sparsely vegetated grazing lands are inferior to the tall-grass steppes on Chernozems and
overgrazing is a serious problem. Kastanozems (Table 11) which are found in the study area are mainly in
association with Phaeozems, Calcisols, Cambisols and Leptosols. Kastanozems cover an area of 6,436 ha, which
is 4.3% of the entire study area.
RELEVÉ TYPE OF KASTANOZEMS

102,403 Luvic Kastamozems
106,107,210,402 Calcic Kastanozems
Table 11-Type of Kastanozems
Leptosols
Leptosols are very shallow soils which are limited in depth by continuous hard rock and soils that are gravely
and /or stony. Leptosols are azonal soils which are particularly common in mountainous regions (FAO, 2006).
The Leptosols are developed on relatively young surfaces which are originated from colluvial deposits and
limestone that are homogeneous and heterometric. Moreover, since they occur on steep slopes, they are exposed
to a high degree of erosion, which results to a further decrease in depth. These soils commonly occur on highly
eroded areas on undulating and steep slopes, high to very high mountains, moderate and severely dissected side
slope with strongly sloping to very steep topography. The topography varies with strongly sloping slope to very
gently slope and flat level surfaces. In some areas, Leptosols are found with 15 cm depth, with lots of cracks and
some thick sealing on the surface. Leptosols in the study area are Haplic, Lithic, Mollic and Vertic, which has
different location, nature and contents of the different formation processes. They are characterised by fine to
coarse texture, interbedded shale and grey limestone (20cm), colluvial deposits composed by stones of
fossiliforous limestone interbedded with marl blocked fracture, many dolerite outcrops and dolerite stones on the
surface (rel. 304) and colluvial material on horizontally bedded crystalline limestone. In the study area, these
60
soils are found (Table 12) in association with other soils and cover an area of 15,024 ha, which is 10.2% of the
entire study area.
RELEVÉ TYPE OF LEPTOSOLS

304 Lithic Leptosol
204 Haplic Leptosol Calcaric
110,206,311 Mollic Leptosol
306 Haplic Leptosols Skeletic
109,305 Vertic Leptosols
Table 12-Type of Leptosols
Luvisols
Luvisols are soils that have an argic horizon and have a base saturation of 50% or more at least in the lower parts
of the B-horizon. These soils show textural differentiation in the soil profile and are characterised by surface
horizon depletion in clay and clay accumulation. These soils are derived from different parent materials.
According to WRB for soils (FAO 2006), Luvisols are described as soils with a pedogenetic clay differentiation
(especially clay migration) leading to an argic subsoil horizon. Luvisols cover an extensive area and are
dominantly found on moderate steep slope on colluvial deposit in the Antalo Limestone formation. These soils
are also found on flat to gently undulating surfaces but are limited in extent. Luvisols have depths that are
moderately to very deep. They possess physical features like: very dark grey to black colour, fine texture,
moderate to strong granular, crumb and sub angular blocky structure, very friable to firm, slightly sticky to
sticky and moderately well to well drained. In the study area, Luvisols are found as Vertic, Cutanic Calcic and
Epileptic, which have different location, nature and content of formation processes. Typical Luvisols are found
in the relevé 117 as Vertic Luvisols and also in the relevé 203 as a Calcic Luvisols. These two soils characterize
the two dominant classes (L.U. 34 and L.U. 37) representing 0.7% of the study area, with a surface covered of
1,137 ha. Other mixed classes and associations are found with Vertisols, Leptosols, Phaeozems, Calcisols and
Cambisols. The areas covered by Luvisols represent 45% of the study area with a surface area of 66,395 ha. Pure
classes are found on very gently to moderately steep slopes. The slope is very important for the illuviation of
clay in the soils, while the colluvial parent material permits good drainage in the horizons (Table 13).
RELEVÉ TYPE OF LUVISOLS

113, 203,217,308 Calcic Luvisol
205 Cutanic Luvisol Profondic
101,105,117, 405 Vertic Luvisol
202 Epileptic Luvisol
312 Cutanic Luvisol
307 Calcic Luvisol Humic
Table 13-Type of Luvisols
Phaeozems
Phaeozems are soils of relatively wet grasslands and forest regions in moderate continental climates. Phaeozems
are like Chernozems and Kastanozems but are intensively leached. Consequently, they have dark humus and rich
surface horizons in comparison to chernozems and kastanozems but are less rich in bases. Phaeozems may or
may not have secondary carbonates but have a high base saturation in the upper parts of the soil profile. In
Enderta, Phaeozems are found on moderately steep and steep areas where the vegetation is more or less
dominant and represent the dominant class of soil in the Land Unit where eucalyptus plantation is leading on
dolerite substratum (relevé 119). This unit (L.U. 14) represents 1.7% of the entire study area and covers an area
of 2,589 ha. Phaeozems are also found in relation with other soils, particularly Kastanozems and Calcisols.
Phaeozems cover complessively an area of 4,476 which is 3 % of the entire surface area. The organic content of
these soils varies from medium to very high with a range of 2-5% in the first and second horizons. The CEC of
these soils ranges from high to very high; it is more than 30% and attimes goes up to 40%. The soil depth is quite
deep in most of the relevés and could exceed 90cm in Haplic Phaeozems. However, there is also Epileptic
Phaeozems which is characterised by a shallow horizon of 40cm followed by continuous rocks. These soils are
very fertile and are found on moderately steep and steep vegetated areas. This is an indication that the soils are
potential for the development of forest plantation as means of soil conservation (Table 14).
61
RELEVÉ TYPE OF PHAOZEMS

119, 315 Haplic Phaeozem
410 Epileptic Phaeozem
Table 14-Type of Phaozems
Regosols
Regosols form a taxonomic remnant group containing all soils that could not be accommodated in any of the
other soil groups. In practice, Regosols are weakly developed mineral soils in unconsolidated materials.
Regosols are extensively found in eroding lands, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas and in mountainous
terrain. The general description of Regosols in accordance to the WRB (FAO 2006) for soil resources shows that
they are weakly developed soils in unconsolidated or finely grained parent material with no diagnostic horizon.
The profile development is minimal as a consequence of young age and/or slow formation especially due to
aridity. These soils are found in all climate zones without permafrost and at all elevation. They are common in
arid area and mountainous regions. These soils (Table 15) are found on strong and moderately steep slopes on
dolerite and Agula shale formations with open shrub vegetation. In the study area, Regosols are found only in
association with other soils, particularly with Cambisols, Calcisols and Leptosols. The surface area covered by
Regosols is 2,884 ha with a percentage of about 1.9%. Regosols are present in relevé 401, 309 and 302.
RELEVÉ TYPE OF REGOSOLS

401 Haplic Regosol
302 Colluvic Regosol Calcaric
309 Haplic Regosol Calcaric
Table 15-Type of Regosols
Vertisols
The name Vertisols (from Latin vertere, to turn) refers to the constant internal turnover of soil materials.
Vertisols are churning, heavy clay soils with a high proportion of swelling clays. These soils form deep wide
cracks on the surface when dried. Alternate shrinking and swelling causes self-mulching, where the soil
materials consistently mixes itself, causing soils to have an extremely deep A horizon. They are characterised by
sediments that contain a high proportion of “2:1” swelling clays (montmorillonite) or products from the
weathering of rocks that have the characteristics of swelling clays. Vertisols are present in depressions, level and
undulating areas, mainly in tropical, sub-tropical, semi-arid to sub humid and humid climates with an alternation
of distinct wet and dry seasons. Typical Vertisols are black due to the great amount of organic matter and the
presence of alternate swelling and shrinking of expanding clays, which results to deep cracks in the dry season,
and formation of slickensides and wedge-shaped structural elements in the subsurface soils. Vertisols are
typically formed from highly basic rocks such as basalt in climates that are seasonally humid or subject to erratic
droughts and floods. Depending on the parent material and the climate, they can range from grey or red to the
more familiar deep black. These soils have considerable agricultural potential but adopted management is a pre-
condition for sustainable production. The comparatively good chemical fertility and their occurrence on
extensive level plains where reclamation and mechanical cultivation can be envisaged are assets of Vertisols.
The physical characteristics and notably, the difficult water management of these soils pose problems. Buildings
and other structures on Vertisols are at risk and engineers have to take special precautions to avoid
damage.Vertisols (Table 16) are present in one mixed class with Luvisols and in other case, in association with
Calcisols and Leptosols. Vertisols cover an area of 15,901 ha which is 10.7% of the entire study area.
RELEVÉ TYPE OF VERTISOLS

112 Calcic Vertisol
411,413, Mollic Vertisol
313 Haplic Vertisol Calcaric
116 Mollic Vertisol Pellic
108 Endoleptic Vertisols
Table 16-Type of Vertisols
3.5.2 Soil map according to the legend of the Soil Map of the World FAO-UNESCO
The soil map of the Enderta district (Figure 25) was prepared on the bases of the Land Unit map at a nominal
scale of 1:100,000 using Transverse Mercator projection and Adindan UTM Zone 37N as coordinate system.
The legend was extracted from the original soil map of the World (FAO, 1974) comprising an estimated 4930
different map units, which consist of soil units or associations of soil units. According to this legend, when a
62
map unit is not homogeneous, it is composed of a dominant soil and component soils (Table 17). The latter are
associated soils, covering at least 20 % of the area, and inclusions, important soils which cover less than 20 % of
the area. The list of components for each mapping unit could be seen on the map. The soil associations are
indicated by the symbol of the dominant soil unit, followed by a number which refers to the descriptive legend of
the map (Table 19), where the full composition of the association is given. These numbers are simply
progressive, and their use is to distinguish the different cases in which one dominant soil is found alone or with
associated soils or with inclusions. They do not correspond to those of the Soil Map of the World due to the
impossibility to have a perfect match between the soil classes derived from the FAO WRB soil classification
(2006) and the FAO legend. One example can be (in Table 19), the three cases of vertic Luvisols; once found
alone (LVv1-2ab), associated with Arenosols (LVv2-2a), and finally, associated with Kastanozems and Regosols
(LVv3-2a). Associations in which Leptosols are dominant are a particular case: they are marked by the Leptosols
symbol combined with one or two associated soil units or inclusions.
DESCRIPTION OF MAPPING CODES

SOIL MAPPING
PARAMETER CODES PARAMETERS
CODES
VRm Dominant soil
Refers to the soil components described on the map
(associated soils: CLl, VRk, VRh each covering 20 %
2
VRm2-3a of the mapping unit and inclusions: LVv covering 10
% of the mapping unit);
3 Texture classes of the dominant soil
a Slope classes of the dominant soil
Table 17-Description of mapping codes
The code of dominant soils (e.g. VR) is derived from Landon (1991) classification and the prefixes (e.g. m) are
retrieved from the FAO WRB classification (2006). For this reason we created new codes (Table 18) for some
attributes as follows.
SOILS CODE NAME OF SOIL PREFIX CODE

AR ARENOSOLS luvic l
CL CALCISOLS vertic v
CM CAMBISOLS calcic k
FL FLUVISOLS mollic m
KS KASTANOZEMS haplic h
LP LEPTOSOLS cutanic cu
LV LUVISOLS lithic s
PH PHAEOZEMS colluvic co
VR VERTISOLS endoleptic enl
epileptic epl
hypocalcic hok
lixic lx
hypercalcic hek
hypoluvic hol
Table 18-Code and prefix of soils
When information on the texture of the surface layers (upper 30 cm) of the dominant soil is available, the
textural classes follow the association symbol, separated from it by a dash. Textural classes reflect the relative
proportions of clay (fraction less than 0.002mm), silt (0.002-0.05mm) and sand (0.05-2mm) in the soil. Three
textural classes are recognized:
- Coarse (1): sands, loamy sands and sandy loams with less than 18 percent clay and more than 65
percent sand.
- Medium (2): sandy loams, loams, sandy clay loams, silty loams, silt, silty clay loams and clay loams
with less than 35 percent clay and less than 65 percent sand. The sand fraction may be as high as 82
percent if a minimum of 18 percent clay is present.
- Fine (3): clay, silty clays, sandy clays, clay loams, with more than 35 percent clay.
63
Figure 25-Soil map according to FAO-UNESCO (1988)
64
The textural class given in the mapping unit refers to the upper 30 cm of the dominant soil. Where two or three
texture classes are indicated, each is taken to apply to 50 or 33 percent respectively of the dominant soil unit.
Slope classes indicate the slope that dominates in the area of soil association. Three slope classes are
distinguished:
- level to gently undulating, with generally less than 8 percent slope (a);
- rolling to hilly with slopes between 8 and 30 percent (b);
- steeply dissected to mountainous, with more than 30 percent slope (c).
Where two or three slope classes are indicated, each is taken to apply to 50 or 33 percent respectively of the
dominant soil unit. Slope classes are indicated by a small (lower case) letter: a, b or c, immediately following the
texture notation. In complex areas where two or three types of topography occur that cannot be delimited on the
map, two or three letters may be used.
MAP SYMBOL ASSOCIATED SOILS INCLUSIONS

Arh1-2b KSl PHepl
CLh1-2b
CLh2-2b LVk
CLhek1-2c ARhol
CLhek2-2c CLl
CLl1-2b
CLl1-2c
CLl2-2c KSk PHh RGh
CLl3-2c CMh
CLl4-2c CLh
CLl5-2c CMv
CLlx1-2b CMepl
CLlx2-2b CLl CMepl KSk
CLv1-2ab VRm
CMv1-2a LPh CLl LVk
FLk1-2a LVk
KSk1-2b
KSk2-2c CLl PHh
KSk3-2c CLl RGh PHh
LPm-CLhok1-1c
LPs-RGh1-1c
LPv-CLh1-2a
LPv-LPm1-2b
LVcu1-2a FLh
LVk1-2b
LVk2-2a LPv PHepl
LVv1-2ab
LVv2-2a ARh
LVv3-2a KSk RGco
PHh1-2c
VRenl1-2ab LVepl
VRm1-2ab LPm
VRm2-3a CLl VRk VRh LVv
Table 19-Descriptive legend of the map units
3.5.3 Physical and chemical characteristics

In order to obtain excellent results, the physical properties (such as colour, hardness, texture, structure) of the
soils were determined in situ during the fieldwork, while detailed chemical analysis of the collected soil samples
were carried out in the IAO soil laboratory. The methodologies used and results obtained are described below.
The interpretation of the results is in accordance with Landon (1991). For the determination of organic carbon
(C), nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), exchangeable bases and Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC), only the first
35cm of the soil depths were taken into account. The topsoil and sub-soil of the most common soils were
analysed and the averages of the laboratory results for each soil type are shown in Table 20.
65
Carbonate --- Extractable bases ---

Textural classes C OM N P as CaCO3 - pH - Ca++ Mg++ Na+ K+ CEC ESP EC (1:5)
USDA (%) (%) (%) (ppm) (%) ( H2O ) ---------- ( cmol(+) / Kg ) ------------ ( dS / m )
topsoil LS/CL/SL/SiL 1.16 1.99 0.08 2.50 27.63 7.92 13.42 2.20 0.09 0.46 18.59 0.49 0.15
ARENOSOLS
subsoil L/LS/SiL/SLSiCL 0.83 1.42 0.07 2.35 21.18 8.01 18.47 3.22 0.17 0.31 23.13 0.72 0.14
topsoil CL/L/SiCL/SiL/SL 2.13 3.66 0.15 2.11 33.20 7.93 - 2.02 0.11 0.50 25.51 0.41 0.23
CALCISOLS
subsoil CL/L/SiC/SiCL/SiL/SL 1.74 1.49 0.19 1.94 42.09 8.12 - 2.32 0.16 0.51 18.98 0.82 0.37
topsoil L/SiL/SiCL 1.71 2.94 0.13 8.00 29.83 7.88 15.01 2.34 0.29 0.57 25.25 1.13 0.29
CAMBISOLS
subsoil CL/SiL/SiCL 1.18 0.87 0.08 2.95 28.04 7.94 17.23 2.39 0.17 0.39 15.34 1.13 0.24
topsoil L 1.28 2.21 0.07 1.15 14.40 8.00 - 3.26 0.18 0.75 31.20 0.58 0.22
FLUVISOLS
subsoil SL/L - - - - 21.65 8.05 - - - - - - 0.18
topsoil SiCL/SiL/SiC/CL/L 2.40 3.62 0.14 2.28 15.63 7.93 - 2.22 0.09 0.73 38.64 0.24 0.16
KASTANOZEMS
subsoil SiCL/SiL 1.57 0.90 0.08 1.10 43.22 8.13 - 1.65 0.10 0.25 28.77 0.35 0.17
LEPTOSOLS topsoil SiL/SL/CL/SiCL 2.55 4.39 0.20 3.93 23.89 7.93 35.21 3.29 0.21 0.67 35.31 0.58 0.21
topsoil CL/L/SiCL/SiL/SL 2.14 3.68 0.16 3.03 22.19 7.83 23.92 4.27 0.20 0.65 32.92 0.61 0.23
LUVISOLS
subsoil SiC/SiCL/SiL/SL/CL/L 1.68 1.50 0.11 1.47 21.93 7.90 30.16 4.21 0.16 0.58 32.21 0.49 0.17
topsoil L/SL/SiL 1.63 2.80 0.11 1.10 - 7.63 28.59 5.19 0.14 0.39 34.31 0.42 0.20
PHAEOZEMS
subsoil SiL/L 1.25 2.15 0.10 0.80 - 7.65 26.76 7.65 0.16 0.17 34.73 0.45 0.12
topsoil L/CL 1.57 2.71 0.13 1.65 27.20 8.00 - 0.84 0.13 0.46 23.75 0.53 0.23
REGOSOLS
subsoil L/CL/S/SiL 0.87 1.49 0.07 3.20 32.00 8.10 20.06 1.97 0.09 0.19 19.87 0.45 0.19
topsoil CL/SiCL 1.72 2.97 0.19 1.78 8.76 8.13 43.17 4.36 0.41 0.80 45.36 0.90 0.22
VERTISOLS
subsoil SiC/SiCL 1.74 2.99 0.09 1.30 9.41 7.95 - 6.94 2.10 0.58 45.00 4.66 0.79
Table 20-Averages of the laboratory data for the chemical and physical characteristics analysed.
Texture
The soil texture was the only physical property that was further analysed in the laboratory. It mainly influences
the porosity and the degree of compaction of the soil, which in turn, influences the movement and availability of
water in the soil. Following the Gravimetric Method (pipet) and United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA) Soil Textural Classification System, the proportional amount of coarse sand (2.0-0.2mm), medium sand
(0.2-0.1mm), fine sand (0.1-0.05mm), coarse silt (0.05-0.02mm), fine silt (0.02-0.002mm), and clay (<0.002mm)
were measured. The predominant textures of the soil profiles in the entire study area were found to be: silty loam
(SiL), loam (L) and silty clay loam (SiCL), which constitute 27%, 22% and 21% respectively.
Soil Reaction (pH)
The Hydrogen ion concentration (also referred to as pH) of the soil is a very important value which helps to
determine the availability of nutrients to the plants and eventually, controls the plant growth. Before soil nutrient
is taken-up by the roots, it must be dissolved in the soil solution. The pH greatly affects the grade of the soil
solution and the ions that can be dissolved into the soil solution for plant absorption. The determination of the
pH of the soil samples was carried out to make some generalisation on the availability of nutrients. The preferred
pH range for most crops is between 5.5 and 7.5 (1:2.5 soils water suspension). This measure was done through
the water solution method using potentiometric determination of soil water (1:2.5) suspension. The soils in the
study area are from moderate to high alkaline, with pH values that range from 7.1 in relevé 101 to 8.4 in relevé
211. Generally, the pH increases with depths in most of the profiles.
Electrical Conductivity (EC)
Salinisation occurs where the supply of salts, for example from rock weathering, capillary rise, or flooding,
exceeds their removal by processes such as leaching. These conditions are common in warm and dry climates
where the evapo-transpiration exceeds precipitation during the year. This also strongly affects crop yields (Table
21). Electrical conductivity is an indication of the accumulation of soluble salts in the soil. This parameter was
measured through the determination of the Specific Conductivity of the soil-water filtrate of proportion 1:5 at
25°C. From laboratory results, 94% of soil samples show values less than 0.5ds/m, with an average rate of
0.2ds/m. In Vertisols higher values with a maximum of 1.3ds/m were found, indication of a moderate salinity,
probably due to a relatively higher amount of exchangeable sodium (Na) in the soil. A maximum value of
3.1ds/m was registered in Haplic Calcisol.
66
RATING EC DS/M (250C) COMMENTS

Salt free <0.15 Salinity effects are mostly negligible
Slightly saline 0.15-0.4 Yield of many crops restricted
Moderately saline 0.4-0.8 Only tolerant crop yield satisfactory
Strongly saline 0.8-1.6 Only very tolerant crops yield satisfactory
Very strongly salty 1.6-3 Only very strongly tolerant crops
Extremely salty >3
Table 21-Acceptable rates for the interpretation of EC values in soil mapping and land evaluation (adapted from
FAO: values divided by 5).
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)
The presence of CaCO3 affects both the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil. Continuous horizons of
carbonate accumulation may not restrict water perculation severely, but may prevent root penetration. Discrete
particles of carbonates also affect the moisture characteristics and tend to create a less fertile environment for
plant roots. CaCO3 can have the effect of increasing moisture diffusivity in soil, causing water perculation to be
faster than in non-calcareous soils of similar distribution of particle size. The presence of free carbonate
normally indicates that the clay complex is dominated by calcium, which usually implies favourable physical
condition. However, high calcium carbonate in the soil affects the physical and chemical characteristics of soils.
Excess of calcium can also lead to deficiencies of minor elements as well as antagonising the action of others. It
can as well cause physical impedance to root penetration if cemented. There are no precise ratings of free
carbonates levels, but values over 40% can be considered as extremely calcareous. Generally, high calcium
carbonate content in the soil (>15%) affects physical and chemical characteristics of soil. Calcium carbonate
equivalent of >15% is used in the FAO definition of Calcic and Calcaric horizons which refers to soils that are
calcareous (showing strong effervescence with 10% HCl in most of the fine earth or which contain more than
2% calcium carbonate equivalent). Carbonates in the soils may be derived from carbonate-rich rocks (mainly
from calcite and dolomite) or by secondary deposition from groundwater. Most of the soils in the project area
have free carbonates which are believed to be derived from the parent materials on which the soils are developed
and/or secondary deposition of transported materials. Carbonates content was determined as calcium carbonate
equivalent (%) using the gas volumetric method. The range of carbonates content in the examined soils was
between 2% in relevé 305 and 73% in relevé 303. The 23% of soil profiles were found to be “extremely
calcareous”, that is with values greater than 40%. According to the standard classification of carbonate reaction
in the soil matrix, referred in third edition of FAO Guideline for soil description (2006), the average free calcium
carbonate level for most of the soils in the study area is in the range of 14.40-33.2% which is high for the topsoil
and 21.18-43.22%, which is even higher value for the sub-soils. In contrary, no evidence of CaCO3 was observed
for the only soil type categorised as Phaeozems. Soils classified as Vertisols have moderate value of CaCO3
which ranges in average 8.76% for the topsoil and 9.0 in sub horizon. Even soils that have relatively low levels
of CaCO3 concentration (<15%) showed strong effervescence with 10% HCl. Regosols, Cambisols and Calcisols
have the average values of 27.2-33.20% of CaCO3 in the first horizons and 28.04-42.09% in sub horizons, which
is extremely calcareous. Exceptionally, Kastanozems have in average the relatively low value 15.63% in top soil
and 43.22 which is the highest value of the sub horizons of all soil types.
Exchangeable Bases
The level of exchangeable cations in soil is usually of more immediate value in advisory work than the CEC,
because they not only indicate existing nutrient status, but, can also be used to assess balances amongst cations.
This is of great importance because many effects, for example on soil structure and on nutrient uptake by crops
are influenced by the relative concentrations of cations as well as by their absolute levels. High productive soils
naturally often have an exchange complex dominated by calcium and magnesium and containing only minor
potassium and sodium. In highly acidic soils a high portion of the exchangeable site are occupied by
exchangeable hydrogen or aluminium ions than nutrient bases. Such soils tend to be unproductive. Highly
productive soils are usually at least 40% base saturation with preponderance of calcium (Table 22). Cation
Exchangeable capacity (CEC) values and the base saturation percentage are indicators of the potential fertility of
a soil and possible response of fertilizer application. Cation Exchange Capacity measurements are commonly
carried out as a part of the overall assessment of the potential fertility of a soil. The results are generally related,
at a given pH, to the sum of the cations held by the negative charges of clay minerals and of the organic matter.
The determination of CEC was measured in cmol/Kg (meq/100g) through the BaCl2 centrifuge method or simply
by the sum of the extractable bases and exchangeable carbonates of a soil without CaCO3 or CaMgCO3.
Generally, the CEC value of the study area is categorised as medium to high and very high. The CEC results can
also be used as a rough guide to the types of clay minerals present. It should be noted that CEC values critically
depend on pH. Vertisols is the only soil unit that has very high value of CEC, which is 45.6 and 45 cmol/kg of
soil in the first and second horizon respectively.
67
CEC (ME/100G) RATING COMMENTS

>40 Very high Good
25-40 High As above, but few amendment required
15-25 Medium Major amendment required
5-15 Low Moderate to poor response to fertilizer
<5 Very Low Poor agricultural land
Table 22-Acceptable ratings that have been used for the interpretation of CEC
Whereas, Phaeozems, Kastanozems, Luvisols, Fluvisols and Leptosols were found to be in the high rating with
average value of 32.92-38.62cmol/kg of soil in the upper horizons and 23.75-32.21cmol/kg of soil in the sub
horizons. Cambisols, Calcisols, Arenosols and Regosols with CEC value rated as medium with the range of
18.59-25.51cmol/kg of soil and 15.34-19.87cmol/kg of soil in the first and second horizons respectively.
Exchangeable calcium (Ca)
Soils of low CEC at pH of 5.5 or less can be good indication of Ca deficiency as a plant nutrient. Large input of
K fertiliser or high natural K reserve in soil may however restrain plant uptake of Ca in soils having more neutral
reaction. Ca may also be effectively deficient at high pH level when there is excessive sodium content. In this
condition (high sodium soils), additional calcium may not only be important to nutritive purpose, but also to
promote flocculation of the clay micelles, and the soil structure. In calcareous soils and soils with high
exchangeable Ca, P may be less available to plant. The average values of exchangeable Ca in the soils of the
study area rated as high to very high with the minimum value of 15.84cmol/kg and maximum value of
39.8cmol/kg in the top horizon of Arenosols and Vertisols, respectively, and minimum value of 12.39cmol/kg
and maximum value of 35.38 cmol/kg of the sub horizons of Cambisols and Vertisols.
Analysis type Very low Low medium High Very high

Exchangeable Ca <2 2-5 5-10 10-20 >20
Table 23-Acceptable ratings that have been used for the interpretation of Exchangeable Ca (meq/100g soil/
cmol/kg)
Exchangeable Magnesium (Mg)
Exchangeable magnesium is the amount of cation exchange sites occupied by magnesium ions in the cation
exchange complex. In other words, exchangeable magnesium is the percentage of magnesium ions compared to
cation exchange capacity (Soil survey in NSW). The presence of Mg deficiency in a crop may not only be
associated with low Mg content in a soil, but also with the presence of other cation, particularly Ca and K. With
increasing the Ca and Mg ratio, the Mg may become progressively less available to plants, although soils can
remain fertile over a very wide range of this ratio. When Mg is present in a very much larger amount than Ca,
the latter may become somewhat less available and soil structure becomes weaker due to increased
deflocculating of the clay. The level of magnesium in the soil of the study area is in average ranges from low to
high rated (0.84-5.19meq/100g) in the topsoils and medium to high (1.65-7.65meq/100g) in the subsoil (Table
24).
Analysis type Very low Low Medium High Very high

Exchangeable Mg <0.5 0.5-1.5 1.5-3.0 3.0-8.0 >8.0
Table 24-Acceptable ratings that have been used for the determination of Exchangeable Mg
Soil types such as Vertisols, Luvisols, Phaeozems and the top horizon of Leptosols and Fluvisols have average
topsoil Mg content ranges from 3.26 to 5.19meq/100g, and average subsoil Mg content is between 4.21 and
7.65meq/100g. All these soils are rated as high Mg value in the study area in accordance to the lab analysis and
acceptable ratings. The other soil types rated as medium Mg content, having the value between 0.84 and
2.34meq/100g in the top soil and 1.65-2.39meq/100g in the subsoil. The level of magnesium in the soil of the
study area is medium to high, which indicates that magnesium is sufficient in the soil.
Exchangeable potassium (K)
Potassium occurs in the soil in three forms: as exchangeable (available) potassium (K+), adsorbed onto the soil
CEC, fixed by certain minerals from which it is released very slowly to available form, and in unavailable
mineral forms (most of the potassium in soils). Plants take up potassium as the K+ ion. Exchangeable potassium
levels are of only limited value for predicting crop responses since they give no direct indication of the capacity
of the soil to release currently unavailable K over a period of time.
68
In general terms K fertiliser is likely when a soil has an exchangeable value of below 0.2meq/100g soil and
unlikely above 0.4meq/100g soil. However these limits should not be considered as definitive, since they are
subjected to variation dependent both on the nature of the soil, the environment and the crop. The soil types such
as Fluvisols, Kastanozems, Leptosols, Luvisols and Vertisols, have a high average topsoil K content (Table 25)
which ranges between 0.65-0.8meq/100g soil, and a medium average subsoil K content which ranges between
0.25- 0.58meq/100g soil.

Exchangeable K <0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.6 0.6-1.2 >1.2
Table 25-Acceptable rating that have been used for the interpretation of Exchangeable K (meq/100g soil)
Cambisols and Calcisols have medium rated value in all topsoil and subsoil which ranges between 0.5-
0.57meq/100g soil and 0.39 -0.51 meq/100g respectively. Phaeozems and Regosols have values of 0.39 and
0.46meq/100g in the topsoil which are medium values and 0.17 and 0.19 in subsoil that refers to low value in
accordance to the lab analysis and methods (ratio). Generally, all these soil types that are found in the study area
are rated as medium to high in top horizons and low to medium in sub horizons. In this regard, response to K
fertilizers is unlikely due to the fact that all the soils rated have favourable K values for most crops in the study
area.
Exchangeable sodium (Na) and Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP)
Although Na may, in particular circumstances be utilised by some plants as a partial substitute for K, it is not an
essential plant nutrient. The presence of small quantities of Na in the soil profile is not detrimental to plant
nutrition. However, if the presence is in significant quantities, particularly in proportion to other cations, then it
can have an adverse effect on crops as well as on the physical condition of the soil. This effect of high sodium is
expressed by Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP). An ESP value of 15 is often regarded as the boundary
between sodic and non sodic soils. High levels of exchangeable sodium ions affect crop either directly (sodium
toxicity) or indirectly by structure deterioration when soil material with a high portion of adsorbed sodium has
resulted in poor aeration. A more suitable criterion for the assessment of sodic or potentially sodic soils is that of
an exchangeable sodium content of >2-3meq/100g soil. In general terms high ESP values have deleterious effect
up on soils with 2:1 lattice clays than on those with 1:1 clays. The value of exchangeable sodium in the most of
the soils of the study area rated as low ranging from 0.11- 0.29meq/100g soil on the first horizon and 0.10-0.17
meq/100g soil on the second horizons. However, some types of soils like Vertisols have medium value of Na
which is 0.41 and 2.10meq/100g soil in the first and second horizons, respectively. Soils like Kastanozems have
very low Na content. The exchangeable sodium percent of most of the soils in the study area is less than 15, so
that they are generally non sodic (Table 26) and requiring no amendments.

Exchangeable Na <0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.7 0.7- 2.0 >2.0
ESP value <2 2-8 8-15 15-27 >27
Table 26-Acceptable ratings that have been used for the interpretation of Exchangeable Na and ESP (meq/100g
soil)
Organic matter (OM) and Organic Carbon (OC)
The soil organic matter improves both physical and chemical properties. It is an important source of nutrients for
the plants and it ameliorates the soil structure. Organic carbon measurements are often made as a measure of the
quantity of organic matter in a soil, which in turn is taken as a basic measurement of fertility status. Organic
Carbon is about half of the value of organic matter content. Value of organic carbon content of soil are
sometimes expressed as total organic matter by multiplying the figures for organic carbon by a factor 1.724,
assuming that the soil organic matter contains 58% carbon. Many important soil properties are dependent on the
quantity of organic matter present. The main properties which are dependent on organic matter content are the
reserve of exchangeable bases, the capacity to supply nitrogen, phosphorous and other nutrients to the higher
plants, absorption and retention of water, stability of soil structure and adequacy of aeration. The low value of
organic matter (Table 27) is highly influencing, particularly the availability of nutrients as well as the physical
condition of the soil. Under such low organic matter level, the soil will have low buffering capacity and suffer
more from soil acidity and deficiency of micronutrients. The organic carbon content of the soils decreases with
depth. Organic Carbon in % was measured using combustion method. It is the difference between the total
content of carbon (CO2) obtained by gas chromatographer and the inorganic carbon of CaCO3. According to
Landon (1991), organic matter can be estimated simply multiplying this value by 1.72.
69

Organic Carbon (OC) <2 2-4 4-10 10- 20 >20
Organic matter (OM) <1 1-3 3-5 >5
Table 27-Acceptable ratings that have been used for the interpretation of Organic Carbon (OC) and Organic
matter (OM) in Percentage (%)
The organic carbon content of most of soils in Enderta is low to very low. However, in very limited soil type it is
rated as high. On the whole these values range from an average minimum value of 1.16 up to an average
maximum value of 2.55 in topsoil and an average minimum value of 0.83 up to an average maximum value of
1.74 in subsoil. In a similar way, the organic matter content of most soils in Enderta is in a medium range of
2.21-2.94% in the first horizon and 1.42-2.99% in the horizons that follow. However, very limited soil types like
Calcisols, Kastanozems, Leptosols and Luvisols are rated as high on the top soil ranges 3.62-4.39%, where as in
the sub horizons the value varies from medium to very low rating ranging 0.9-1.5% These low values indicate
that organic matter contributes very little to soil fertility and adequate application of both organic and inorganic
fertilizers may be required for better yields.
Total Nitrogen (N)
Nitrogen is found in the arable horizon of the soil, mostly in organic materials. In soil, N is not directly available;
instead solution of organic N is gradually transformed in to NH3, NO2, and NO3 by microbial process. The total
nitrogen is an indicator of the soil potential for the element, not the measure in which it becomes available to the
plants. The total nitrogen is a pointer of the total amount of the different forms of nitrogen such as organic
nitrogen, NO3, NO2, and NH4 ions. Apart from nitrogen fertiliser application, the only additional source of
nitrogen in soil is the breakdown and humification of organic matter and atmospheric nitrogen fixation by
leguminous plants. Nitrogen determination is very difficult to interpret as it may be present in the soil in several
forms (organic compounds, nitrate, nitrite, ammonium ions, etc) and their interactions. Nitrogen occurs in the
soil in several forms: organic compounds, nitrate and nitrite anions (the form of N most used by the plants) and
ammonium ions, which can be exchangeable bases. Total Nitrogen in %, was determined following to the gas
chromatographic method. The total nitrogen content of most of the soils in the study area was found to be very
low to low (Table 28).

Total Nitrogen (N) <0.1 0.1-0.2 0.2-0.5 05-10 >10
Table 28-Acceptable rating that has been used for the interpretation of Total Nitrogen (N) in percentage
The majority of the soils have a very low to low (<0.1-0.2%) total nitrogen levels, with the topsoil values
ranging from 0.07-0.19%. An exception is the Leptosols where the total nitrogen percentage lies within the
medium level of 0.2-0.5, with values of 0.20%. This low to very low level of total nitrogen content indicates that
a response to nitrogen fertilizer is expected. Most of the soils of the study area have a C:N ratio rated as poor
(>10). This implies that the breakdown and humification of humus materials are low.
Available Phosphorus (P)
Phosphorus is present in soils in both organic and inorganic forms. The inorganic form is usually more important
as a plant nutrient. The phosphorus availability to plants therefore differs between different forms of phosphorus
in soils. Available phosphorus refers to the form readily available to the plant and is also referred to as the P
intensity comparing to the P capacity, which is fixed by clays and organic matter and becomes slowly available.
Available phosphorus is the amount of P readily available for nutrient absorption by the plant roots. Phosphorus
stimulates early plant growth and hastens maturity. It is found in the soil in organic and inorganic forms. The
latter usually being the most important for crop nutrition. The available P was determined using the Olsen
Method. Most soils of the study area have medium to low (Table 29) available phosphorus with an average value
of 3.0ppm for the topsoil and 2ppm for the subsoil, which indicates that the fertilizer response is probable.
Rating Low Medium High

Fertilizer response most
Available P (ppm) Fertilizer response probable Fertilizer response unlikely
likely
Available P (ppm) <5 5-15 >15
Table 29-Acceptable rating that has been used for the interpretation of Available Phosphorous (P) in ppm
70
3.6 Main environmental issues
3.6.1 Introduction
Development is essential for every country if it is to improve the quality of life and to satisfy the needs of her
citizens. However, a short-term view may destroy the very long-term development a country sets out to achieve.
Any country may maximise economic growth over a very short term through the unsustainable use of its
resources, especially the non-renewable resources, faster than the resources may regenerate naturally; for
instance, by harvesting more than the sustainable yield of its renewable resources (e.g. forests). Also through the
disposition of wastes into ecosystems that cannot assimilate them and thus by degrading its soil, aquatic, and
atmospheric resources. However, basing economic growth on such a policy would be like building a house on
shifting sand (NCS, 1996).
What is sustainable development? There have been alternative definitions of sustainable development. The
definition proposed by the World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission) is:
“Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs" (Barbier, 1987). A primary goal of sustainable development is to achieve a reasonable and
equitably distributed level of economic well-being that can be perpetuated continually for many human
generations. The three major identified dimensions of sustainable development, as quoted descriptions within the
Brundtland Commission are subsequently contained in Agenda 21. These dimensions are: the economic, social
and environmental aspects. A sustainable development incorporates three necessary and complementary
elements: environmental sustainability, social sustainability and economic sustainability.
Major environmental issues in Ethiopia
The main environmental problems in Ethiopia are land degradation followed by pollution. Ethiopia is an agrarian
country and her economy is based on natural resources. Renewable natural resources, that is, land, water, forests
as well as other forms of biodiversity, which meet the basic needs for food, water, clothing, shelter, as well as
other needs for the welfare of the people, have now been deteriorated to a low level such that their ability to meet
the needs of the locals is limited. In many highland areas of Ethiopia, the present consumption of wood is in
excess of unaided natural sustainable production. Deforestation, which is mainly due to the expansion of rainfed
agriculture, is estimated to vary from 80,000 to 200,000 hectares per annum (EPE, 1997).
The capital city, Addis Ababa, is one of the most thickly populated urban areas with industrialised centres in the
country. The pollution problems are high in this city since it is not provided with adequate solid and liquid waste
management facilities. One of the most polluted rivers in the country, Akaki River, is located in this City. The
main pollution sources for this river are industries, domestic and municipal waste. Wastes generated from
different non-point sources like agriculture are the main pollution sources in rural areas (FDRE et al., 2005).
According to MoFED (2005), the challenges facing Ethiopia are daunting. The dynamics of population growth,
very low productivity, structural bottlenecks, dependence on unreliable rainfall, and being land-locked combine
to pose challenges almost unequalled anywhere in the world. The different mechanisms hindering Ethiopia’s
progress are not independent, but rather interact with each other and constitute what can be seen as “poverty
traps”, self- reinforcing mechanisms that prevent the country from breaking out from a combination of low
income levels and low productivity growth.
The Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, being concerned about the accelerating
deterioration of the human environment and natural resources and the consequences of that deterioration for
economic and social development, has exerted multifaceted efforts to lapse the challenges and to bring about
environmentally sustainable development in the country. Some of the Government’s efforts to accelerate
progress as rapidly as possible include, a big push on education, expanding infrastructures, opening the
economy, building institutions, and involving the administration in the process of attaining sustainable
development. Similarly, the government has taken quite a measurable action in environmental conservation and
management.
National efforts and initiatives undertaken so-far
There are a number of policies and legal measures that have been taken by the government. Among these are a
few which are relevant to this study are briefly discussed below:
AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT-LED INDUSTRIALIZATION (ADLI)
The framework economic development strategy of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia is the
Agricultural Development-Led Industrialisation (ADLI). The strategy envisages agriculture as the engine of the
country’s economic growth. Agricultural intensification, commercialisation and increasing the proportion of
marketable outputs are identified as strategy to set this engine into motion and to achieve the ADLI objectives.
In line with this strategy, the government has declared the pursuit of a liberalisation policy, including the
withdrawal of input subsidies, regulation of different markets and tariff reduction. In addition to this,
71
Government efforts have continued to focus on rural development and measures to improve productivity of
smallholders’ peasant agriculture through “extension packages” as well as rural credit services, primary
education, health care, domestic water supply and farm to market roads construction.
CONSERVATION STRATEGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
The Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia (CSE) provides an umbrella strategic framework, detailing guiding
principles, and strategies for environmental management. The CSE, as the sole environmental management
package includes: the baseline information on the natural resources of the country, policy and strategy
descriptions, institutional arrangements and action plans needed for its realisation. In line with this framework,
all the Regional States and City Administrations have prepared their respective Conservation Strategies.
THE ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
This policy emanated from the Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia. It constitutes ten-sectoral and ten cross-
sectoral policy pronouncements. The overall goal of this policy is “to improve and enhance the health and
quality of life to all Ethiopians, as well as the promotion of sustainable social and economic development
through the sound management and use of natural, human-made and cultural resources. Consistent to this,
different proclamations, relevant to the protection and proper management of the environment in the country,
were passed by law. Among these, some are discussed in brief below.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROCLAMATIONS
The environmental organs establishment proclamation (295/2002) is an important enactment that provides for
institution for environmental management at federal and regional levels. This proclamation provides for the
establishment of The Federal Environmental Protection Authority at federal level with broader mandates and
strategic standing, being accountable to the Prime Minster office. The proclamation demands the establishment
of regional states environmental agencies as well as sectoral environmental units. This has created favourable
conditions to mainstream environmental concerns into sectoral development initiatives as well as in the regional
state's environmental protection agendas. There are other two mainstream proclamations in the environmental
sector, which are: the Impact Assessment proclamation (299/2002), and the Pollution Control Proclamation
(300/2002). Impact Assessment Proclamation (299/2002), is intended to guide the socio-economic development
projects, programmes, plans and public instruments planed and to execute sustainability. Several of these
initiatives have benefited form the EIA tool. Pollution Control Proclamation (300/2002) was proclaimed to put
into effect the constitutional provisions on sustainable development and environmental protection. It is
specifically designed to prevent pollution as undesirable social and economic consequence on social and
economic activities.
MULTILATERAL ENVIRONMENTAL AGREEMENTS
Ethiopia is a number to Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEA) such as: Cartagena Protocol on
Biosafety, Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change, Vena Convention on the Protection of Ozone Layer, Montreal
Protocol on the Ozone Depleting Substances, Basel Convention on the Trans -boundary Movement of Hazardous
Wastes and other Wastes, Stockholm Convention on POPs and Rotterdam Convention on the PIC. A number of
measures have been taken to implement MEAs.: National Action Plan to Combat Desertification, Biodiversity
Conservation Strategy and Action Plan, national Plan of Adaptation and Mitigation to the Climate Change,
National Implementation Plan for the implementation of the Stockholm convention on POPs, National Biosafety
framework and guidelines. These measures are being implemented. It is important to note that, the policies and
legislations issued by the federal government are implemented at regional state but the regions can issued more
stringent law than the federal state.
INSTITUTIONAL MEASURES
Since the early 90’s, efforts have been made to institutionalised environmental issues within the federal
government system. The Environmental Organ Establishment Proclamation (295/ 2002), urges the establishment
of different institutions that would hold the responsibility and coordination of resolving environmental issues.
Accordingly, environmental institutions have been established at the federal and regional levels. At the federal
level, the Environmental Protection Authority is the main responsible body for the regulation, coordination and
implementation of all environmental policies within the country. At regional state level there are organisations
responsible for environmental issues as well.
Main sources of environmental problems and their impacts
FERTILIZER CONSUMPTION AND ITS IMPACT
Fertilizer consumption by small-scale farmers has been very low, but this has changed substantially in recent
years following the government’s agricultural intensification policy. The volume of fertilizers imported over the
period from 2001 to 2006 avaraged 320,707 MT per year (Figure 26). The demand for fertilizer after 1999 is
expected to show a significant increase as a result of the new extension approach that the Government is
undertaking. Concerns have been raised about the continued reliance on imported fertilizer for sustainability of
72
the country’s agricultural development. However, the Government is promoting the use of indigenous nutrient
resources, both organic and inorganic to sustain and improve soil fertility and to reduce the country’s
dependence on fertilizer import. For long-term sustainability, the Government has embarked on a number of
projects and feasibility studies related to nutrient supplies with the aim to reduce reliance on imported chemical
fertilizers but most of the farmers want to use Urea and DAP (50kg /ha each) because they give short term
benefit (EIA, 2004).
It should be noted that, unwise uses of fertilisers are contributors to the present day environmental ills, which is
prime source of pollution; for instance the eutrophication of fresh and marine waters and increased nitrate
concentrations in ground and surface water in the country.
Figure 26-Increased in fertiliser importation from 2001 to 2006 (Addis Z., 2008)
PESTICIDE CONSUMPTION AND ITS IMACT
Over 3000 tons of various types of pesticide are imported annually to Ethiopia (FEPA, 2004). Before 1998, all
the pesticides used in the country were imported from abroad. Presently, the Adami-Tulu Pesticide Processing
Plant, situated in the Rift Valley, formulates insecticides, which are now locally used. This plant has an average
capacity of producing about 16 percent of the total pesticides imported by the country. Major pesticides
formulated by this plant include: Malation, (Ethiolation 5% Dust and Ethiolathion 50%EC), Endosulfan
(Ethiosulfan 25% ULV), Diazinon (Ethiozinone 60% EC), Fenithrothion (Ethiothrothion 50%EC) and DDT for
malaria eradication (FEPA, 2004). Pesticides, specially Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), contain chemical
compounds that are highly toxic, persist in the environment, bio-accumulate in fatty tissues of living organisms,
travel long distances and naturally migrate towards colder climates. These pesticides produce adverse condition
to both human health and the environment. For example, they can impair reproduction, dysfunction the
endocrine system, suppress the immune system and could also cause cancer. In Ethiopia 3000 tons of obsolete
pesticides were accumulated in different regions of the country. The cost to dispose a tone of obsolete pesticides
is estimated between $3,500 and $5000 (FEPA, 2004). DDT, being one of the POPs, was used firstly for
agricultural purpose but now it is used for the eradication of malaria. DDT, once introduced into the environment
is amplified and can produce detrimental effect into the food chain which can affect man and his environment.
The Figure 27 below illustrates the biological amplification of DDT in the fatty tissues of organisms.
In Ethiopia, the Safe Environment Group (SEG) in collaboration with the Environmental Protection Authority
(EPA) conducted a study to identify the sources, quantities used and distribution of DDT for the control of
mosquito vectors that caused malaria during 1996-2002. The safety of handling, potential health and
environmental impacts of DDT were also examined. Data from 5 regions and one city administrative council
were collected through field research and surveys.
73
DDT in fish-eating birds (ospreys) 25 ppm
DDT in large fish (needle fish) 2 ppm
DDT in small fish (minnows) 0.5 ppm
DDT in zooplanktion 0.04 ppm
DDT in water 0.000003 ppmor 3ppt
Figure 27-Biological amplification of DDT (mod. from FEPA, 2004)

The results during the 6-year period revealed that, of the 1888 tonnes of imported or purchased insecticides,
DDT accounted for 90% by weight. This however, protected over 33 million people against malaria. SEG also
observed that the majority of the spray team staff loading and unloading DDT in and around malaria control
stores were highly exposed and had inadequate personal protective equipment and facilities. In addition to this,
some stores were inadequate for pesticide storage or were poorly managed. In some cases, the actual dosage of
DDT sprayed on interior walls was higher than the recommended dose. The study on human health and
environmental effects on POPs chemicals conducted during the POPs inventory phase identified probable cases
of health problems amongst DDT storekeepers and sprayers as well as communities residing in nearby stores
(FEPA, 2006). Although farmers in Ethiopia find pesticides and fertilizers very supportive to agricultural
production, their improper use in the past has shown that, small scale peasant farming and some large scale
mechanized agriculture have caused an impact on air, water, soil and human beings. Chemicals have short term
benefit with a long term side effect on environment and humans as mentioned above. Therefore chemicals
should be used as a last resort if there is no other alternative.
GENERAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF PLASTICS
Plastics look the same even if they are chemically different. The Classification of Plastics according to the
Constituent Elements is shown on the table below (Table 30).
STEP CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS SAFETY

1 Carbon, Hydrogen, oxygen Safe
Safe when incinerated to
2 Carbon (containing benzene ring) hydrogen, oxygen
suitable standards
Carbon (containing benzene ring) hydrogen, oxygen, Safe when incinerated to
3
phosphorus, sulphur suitable standards
Carbon (containing benzene ring) hydrogen, oxygen, Dangerous dioxins appear
4
phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine, bromine, florin when incinerated
Table 30-Source current petrochemical industry, 1998 Japan
Plastics containing chlorine release dioxins when incinerated. These chemicals when inhaled can disrupt the
humans’ hormone systems (endocrine disruptors). Generally, when plastics are thrown on agricultural fields,
water infiltration into the soil is reduced. The plastics also destroy the useful micro organisms needed for the
recycling of the soils. This however, reduces the fertility of the soil.
IRRIGATION PROBLEM
Mismanagement of irrigation results in severe water quality problems such as salinisation, alkalinisation and
water logging. In Ethiopia, large-scale irrigation schemes such as Amibara, Melkasedi, OmoRatti and Children’s
Amba have many hectares of abandoned land due to the build-up of soluble salts in the root zone. This resulted
in saline-sodic and sodic soils thereby reducing the value of the land for agricultural production. Main causes of
the abandonment are: lack of appropriate irrigation water management, leaching, and lack of appropriate
74
drainage facilities. Tigray faces the same problems. Studies conducted at Gumsalasa dam in the eastern part of
Tigray, indicated that the electrical conductivity of the seepage water was about fourfold (1.1 dS/m) of that in the
reservoir (0.27 dS/m). Irrigation using this seepage water can therefore aggravate salinity problems in Tigray.
Preliminary studies on few earthen dams on irrigation schemes in Tigray have generally indicated a progressive
accumulation of soluble salts in the irrigated fields. As a law, the problem of crop yield reduction is due to water
logging and salinity sources (DMIL, 2005).
The above mentioned problems are elaborated because these problems are seen in the study area.
3.6.2 Major environmental issues of the study area

Land degradation
Land degradation is a major cause of poverty in rural areas of the developing countries. Enderta is one of the
most remote areas in Ethiopia and experiences a high rate of natural resources degradation. Land degradation,
especially soil erosion, nutrient depletion and soil moisture stress were observed during the fieldwork as severe
problems in the study area. Land degradation is the result of several factors of both physical and socio-economic
nature. These factors include:
- the cultivation on steep slopes and erodible soils;
- low vegetation cover of the soil;
- burning of dung and crop residues;
- declining fallow periods;
- low and unreliable rainfall;
- lack of access to credit;
- the limited knowledge of the farmers on integrated soil and water management measures.
The immediate consequence of land degradation is the reduction of crop yield followed by economic decline and
social stress. The integrated process of land degradation and increased poverty has been referred to as the
“downhill spiral of sustainability” leading to the poverty trap (Yibabe Tilahum, 2002).
Agriculture and livestock are the backbone of the economy of the study area. Agricultural land covers 49,03 %
of the total study area (see Chapter 3.4.1). Like in other parts of the world, population pressure is imminent in
Enderta. This increase in population accelerates increasing agricultural activities in response to the need of
providing more crops for consumption. This was observed during fieldwork as close to 53% of the land is used
for agriculture and ranching (landuse map). Erosion has made cultivation of old farmlands impossible. Farmers
have been forced to constantly cultivate new and more marginal areas. There is therefore, a progressive change
in the land cover as the virgin lands are converted to agricultural lands. To improve on the crop production,
fertilizers (Urea and DAP) are used by the peasant farmers (50Kg/ha each). Fertilizers are very important for
crop production as they help to improve the crop yield by adding nutrients (Nitrogen) to the soil. However, the
unwise use of fertilizers could lead to serious environmental ills. According to Peoples (1995), fertilizers are
hardly used efficiently. Based on interview with the local farmers, these peasant farmers are not literate.
Therefore, the correct use of these fertilizers is doubtful. If this is not wisely guided and controlled, these
increasing agricultural activities may ultimately result to severe degradation of the ecosystem.
The crops grown in the study area are mainly rainfed annual crops and irrigated crops which depend on irrigation
for continuous food supply. To supply water for irrigation, micro projects were constructed since 1998 E.C.
(Ethiopian Calendar) in Enderta district with 4 projects sites which serve an area of 158ha of land with 201
beneficiaries to grow 6 types of crops. From 1995-1997, 16 dam projects were constructed to divert water to an
irrigated area of 856ha with 2249 beneficiaries. From field observation, most of these dams are non-functional
due to the poor construction.
Areas which are irrigated have outstanding environmental problems such as salinization. There is a progressive
accumulation of soluble salt in the irrigated fields. This was observed in the southern part of the study area
around Aduke Agero Michel Church area where crystallised salts were visibly observed on the top soil on some
agricultural fields (Photo 28). The farm owner commented that the whitish portions have low productivity as
compare to the un-whitish portions. This field observation was however, confirmed in the soil laboratory
analysis (IAO, 2008) in that all the soil units except Arenosols showed a slight accumulation of salt.
75
Photo 28-Salinisation in agricultural fields, south of Mekele, relevé 104 (photo Erica Matta)
Ploughing is the traditional farming method used to prepare the land for seed sowing or planting. From field
reports, the land is ploughed three consecutive times before planting. This exposes the land for a longer period
without adequate vegetation. The lands are used for cropping every year due to limited land. The short period
after harvesting is used for grazing. This implies that the soil is worked all year round beyond the carrying
capacity of the land. Therefore, normal fallowing periods of five years are not respected. The long term
mismanagement of the soil is very destructive and can take more time and high investment to restore its
components. Before major human intervention started, the Enderta district was covered by forests with deep soils
and can still be observed in some remnant forests around church areas. Erosion was the major cause of this
vegetation lost followed by deforestation. The high demand for fuel wood, grazing, and plant medicines have led
to the disappearance of the natural forest with a reduction in the CO2 sink. To reverse this situation, the
introduction of the establishment of enclosures (i.e., areas closed for grazing and agriculture) has become an
important measure to combat land degradation and restore vegetative cover. Enclosures are commonly found on
steep slopes and downslopes from a sediment source area. It is an efficient soil conservation measure. This has
been successful to a lesser extent because dark soils rich in organic matter have been developed in these enclosed
areas with vegetation regeneration. From field observation, the implementation of the binding rules in these
enclosures is weak. Trees cutting for commercial fuel wood (Photo 29 and Photo 30) and grazing (Photo 31)
were observed in these enclosed areas.
Houses in this area are constructed with stones (Photo 32). It therefore implies that increase in population means
increase in the use of stones. The expansion of this area influences the management of natural resources, due to
the high demand for construction materials, particularly stones. The farmers use quarrying as a means of income
generation. These quarries were observed in a greater proportion of the district. The quarries are not only found
on the rock outcrops but also in the agricultural areas. This action reduces the agricultural land and facilitates
land degradation, mainly soil erosion. With the present-day atmospheric conditions of erratic rainfalls and
droughts, these channels are wide traps for large volume of water which can result to serious gully erosion with
the washing away of the top soil. In critical periods, such as during the drought of the 1980s, gully volumes
increased rapidly, with the expansion of existing gullies and the incision of new gullies. Average gully erosion
rate at catchments scale over the last 50 years is 6.2 ton/ ha/ yr (Nyssen et al. 2006) in this district. Rapid gully
development in the study area has being in the last 50 years and is mainly caused by human induced
environmental degradation (Nyssen et al. 2006).
76
Photo 29-Tree cutting for fuel, escarpment (photo Ntoh Doris Bate)
Photo 30-Commercial fuel transportation, escarpment (photo Ntoh Doris Bate)
77
Photo 31-Grazing in enclosures, escarpment (photo Ntoh Doris Bate)
Photo 32-A typical house in Enderta (photo Francesco Conti)

Soil erosion is severe in this area and poses a major threat to continuous agricultural production in the area.
According to records from the Land Use Planning Regulation and Regulatory Department Report, the Kwiha
watershed area had an estimated average soil loss of 33000Kg/ha during the 1975 rainy season. This fact can
also be confirmed from the observed soil profiles. Some soil profiles of the sloping land area had their top soils
and part of the subsoils removed leaving stones (Photo 33). To combat on this issue, micro projects such as tree
planting and the creation of terrace (stonelines) are developed in the area for soil reclamation. This has been a
success so far as large portions of the sloping land are covered by Eucalyptus plantations. These Eucalyptus
species have largely replaced indigenous species and this is very important to the rural population today. The
Eucalyptus plants can not produce a wide variety of products and services as do indigenous trees. Since
78
Eucalyptus is the most used wood in this area, its exploitation is great. Therefore the primary objective of this
micro project to produce a greater vegetation cover is questionable.
Photo 33-Erosion of top soils leaving stones, relevé 109 (photo Erica Matta)
From field observation, most of the farmers own large agricultural fields with no trees (Photo 34). As a result,
the environmental problems are aggravated. These problems could be controlled through the introduction of
agro-forestry practices (the planting of trees on agricultural fields). Such practice, may be advantageous in that,
they may help to reduce erosion, act as wind breaks, help in water recycling, and the leaf litter may add to the
soil fertility.
Based on field observation, the Eucalyptus species which was for re-afforestation is under human pressure (fuel
wood and poles for electricity transmission). This pressure was also observed on the indigenous species (Acacia
etbaica), which are highly grazed by camels. To reduce the human pressure the following measures could be
taken such as the introduction of a new tree species that could be better managed using the coppice management
system. This will help to reduce pressure on the Eucalyptus and the indigenous plants and secondly may be used
for fuel wood. Also, the indigenous population could be trained on the sustainable management of the introduced
species (harvesting of branches instead of the trunks).
79
Photo 34-Large agricultural field with no interbedded plants (photo Sara Minelli)
Pollution
Limited research has been carried out in the study area. Therefore, information on pollution and/or chemicals
such as: the type of imported chemicals, level of pollutants in the environment, mechanism of transport, the
appropriate handling of chemicals (i.e.: the storage and the application of managing chemicals) is difficult to
find.
The data for this pollution report has been supported by literature review, field observations, interviews and
photos that were collected during the field work. No laboratory analysis was done regarding the issue of
pollution.
As mentioned in land degradation above, farmers in Enderta District use chemical fertilizers (Urea and DAP 50
Kg each per ha) to improve crop yields. The farmers believe that the soil does not give good production unless
fertilizer is added for each cropping season. This is an indication that the farmers solely depend on inorganic
fertilizers. It is difficult to say that the farmers are aware of the impact of fertilizers and pesticides on the
environment. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides produce long term environmental problems although they give
short term benefits by increasing production.
According to the research that was carried out by Ewards (2007) on the use of chemical and non chemical
fertilisers (composts) in the Tigray region, the research revealed that the yield of crops treated with composts
was greater than the yields of crops treated with chemical fertilisers. Therefore, composts fertilisers are most
preferred because they are cheap and environmentally friendly than chemical fertilisers.
Although the laws and some research findings such as that of Edwards (2007) support the use of organic
fertilisers, practically the laws are weak and not implemented.
Even though laboratory analysis for water pollution problems was not carried out in the study area,
eutrophication problems were clearly observed in some rivers around some relevés.
This problem was observed in Aduke Agero Michael Church area in relevé 104 (Photo 35). The main crops
grown in this area are: maize, pepper, onion, garlic and pulses (locally called Guaya). May Gabai river, which is
very close to this relevé, was diverted by gravity to irrigate the arable land. A network of earth channels for
water distribution was greatly observed in this area.
80
Photo 35-May Gabai river, relevé 104 (photo Aynalem Abebe Gizachew)
Some degree of eutrophication was observed in the river which is used for the irrigation. This could be as a result
of inadequate use of the irrigation system and the unsustainable application of fertilisers in the agricultural land
which has been leached into the water. This problem was also observed around the Kwiha town, 4 Km north of
Mekele at relevé 205 (Photo 36).
Photo 36-4 Km north towards Kwiha near relevé 205 (photo Aynalem Abebe Gizachew)
81
Eutrophication was clearly observed in the Ashgoda River found close to the Mekele International Airport. Lots
of algae and the greyish colour (Photo 37) of the water are indications of eutrophication (Photo 38). This River is
highly used by animals for drinking. It is also used by the locals for irrigation, washing and other domestic
purposes. The main sources of the river pollution are from the agricultural fields (Photo 39), which are very
close to the river. Animals that drink from the river and other domestic sources (washing) are as a result of
urbanisation of the Mekele town.
Photo 37-The Ashgoda river, along the main road, with abnormal color (photo Aynalem Abebe Gizachew)
Photo 38-The Ashgoda river with eutrophication problems (photo Aynalem Abebe Gizachew)
82
Another serious environmental problem that was observed in the study area was the littering of plastic bags in
the towns and on some agricultural fields. This action helps to close the sewage systems which could result to
severe flood during heavy rainfall. This wrongful disposal of plastics can reduce crop production since it reduces
water infiltration into the soils. Following the interview with the staff of the Regional Environmental Bureau of
Tigray, it was apparent that the plastic bags are burnt as a solution to minimise the solid wastes and to avoid
further impacts on the environment. This initiative was highly encouraging and internationally accepted in terms
of solid wastes management, if only the type of plastics safe to burn is taken into consideration. This is however
a pertinent problem in the society since little is known about the chemical composition of plastics. As illustrated
in the introduction, pollutants from plastic incineration are very dangerous to human health and the environment
as a whole. Therefore, qualitative knowledge on the use of plastics and their impact is necessary.
In Enderta District, the poorly disposed plastic bags are spreading into some agricultural lands (Photo 40 and
Photo 41) and this impact the productivity of the agricultural lands due to the non-biodegradable nature of the
plastics which require a minimum of 20 years or more to decay into soils. This hinders the recycling process in
the soil and affects the plant growth and the production as well.
Photo 39-Agriculture fields at the side of the river (photo Aynalem Abebe Gizachew)
Following the impacts of the unwise disposal of plastic bags into the environment has caused the Federal
Government to recently issue updated measures fixed under directive to be issued by the authority. It is lawless
to put on the market any plastic bag that is not labelled on how and if it is biodegradable or not (Art 8.1) and it is
also prohibited to grant permit for the manufacture or importation of any non-biodegradable plastic bag with a
maximum thickness of 0.03mm (Art 8.2, proclamation No 513/2007). This indicates that plastic bags, especially
those with a thickness greater than 0.03mm, are a big problem of the country and also for the study area.
83
Photo 40-Plastic bags on agricultural fields (photo Aynalem Abebe Gizachew)
Photo 41-Plastic sheets on agricultural fields (photo Aynalem Abebe Gizachew)
84
CONCLUSION
The global concern in recent times is that we are exploiting our natural resources faster than they could be
replenished by the earth’s natural processes and have made natural resources a key requirement for continued
existence of humanity. The rehabilitation of natural resources is slow and very expensive. Although, there have
been some efforts in the study area to reduce land degradation and pollution to a lesser extent, environmental
management still remain an issue of utmost priority. Many policies and legal measures have been set up in this
area to protect the environment, but practically these laws are weak in implementation. Therefore, highest
priority should be given to the implementation of the laws and to educate the citizens on environmental
protection strategies, such as information exchange which is relatively poor in this area. Local human activities
that bring about environmental problems may have their effects exerted beyond the boundaries of the local
environment. Therefore to ensure an environmentally sound planet, it is imperative for us to think globally and
act locally to achieve the world’s peace.
85
86
4 . L A N D E VA L U A T I O N
Evaluating the land means to analyse its qualitative characteristics in order to understand and program the most
convenient land use for human purposes and to minimise the impact of the different land uses on the
environment and grant its future sustainability (Landon, 1984). Many different methods were developed in past
to obtain standardized descriptions of land, soils, and their possible agricultural use, such as land capability and
suitability classifications, which has been chosen and applied to the study area obtaining useful evaluation maps.
4.1 Land Capability
Land Capability Classification is a method prepared to asses a general land capacity to welcome agriculture or
other land uses, keeping in mind the erosion risk and possible environmental limitations. It is not centred on
specific crops, kind of recommended practices or economical considerations, but rather considers permanent
physical soil parameters, and their effects on vegetation growth. These parameters are not considered on their
own, but related to the surrounding landscape (morphology) and environmental conditions (climate). The
original methodology was elaborated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (Klingebiel and Montgomery, 1961)
when urgent measures for soil conservation were needed. The land is subdivided and represented on a map in
units belonging to eight classes, from those most fit for human purposes to the most delicate where only natural
vegetation is suggested, and which require adequate conservation measures to avoid further soil degradation. The
capability classes are represented by roman numbers (from I to VIII) ordered according to the increasing severity
of their limitations, in number and degree, and include indications about allowed land uses. The capability
classes are shown in Table 31 (Landon, 1984).
MAIN RESTRICTIONS CLASS DEFINITION

I Soils with slight or no limitations to their use
Soils with moderate limitations, that reduce the choice of crops
II
and require some conservation practices
Soils Suitable for Agriculture Soils with strong limitations, that reduce the choice of crops and
III
require accurate maintenance practices
Soils with severe limitations to agriculture which allows a limited
IV
number of choices and require continuous management practices
Soils with little or no erosion hazard, but other limitations which

V restrict their use to forage production, grazing or natural
environment conservation
Soils suitable for grazing or
Soils with permanent limitations which restricts the use to
afforestation VI
woodland, pasture or forage production
Soils with such permanent limitations that requires conservation
VII
practices even for utilization as woodlands or pastures
Soils unsuited for any type of agriculture or forestry use. Areas to

Soils unsuitable for agro- be used exclusively for natural reserves or recreational activities,
VIII
silvo-pastoral use providing necessary intervention for soil conservation and
vegetation aid
Table 31-Capability classes description
Following this classification, classes from I to IV are suitable for cultivation, but also grazing and forestry, with
increasing need of technical intervention, classes from V to VII can be used only for grazing or forestry, while
class VIII should be left for natural vegetation growth. Class V is particular since considers limitations not
related to erosion risk, such as flooding and soil wetness, surface stoniness or climatic hazards which
permanently preclude the use for agriculture, and it can be found in almost level flat areas. In the following
figure is shown the range of possible land uses for every capability class (Figure 28).
87
INCREASE IN INTENSITY IN LAND USE
CAPABILITY GRAZING CULTIVATION
WILDLIFE FORESTRY
very
CLASS limited moderate intense limited moderate intense
intense
II
INCREASED
III
LIMITATIONS
IV
AND
V
HAZARDS
VI
VII
VIII
Figure 28- Land capability classes and increasing limitations

According to Land Capability methodology, more information can be stored in the subclass category, which
specify, when possible, which is the dominant limitation for a given capability class, and also shows the
direction for the best interventions (Table 32). For example soils belonging to class IV and subclass “e” could be
promoted to class III or II after successful soil conservation interventions. Capability class I has no subclasses.
SUBCLASS DESCRIPTION
Soils for which the susceptibility to erosion is the dominant problem or hazard affecting
e their use. Erosion susceptibility and past erosion damage are the major soil factors that
affect soils in this subclass.
Soils for which excess water is the dominant hazard or limitation affecting their use. Poor
w soil drainage, wetness, a high water table, and overflow are the factors that affect soils in
this subclass.
Soils that have soil limitations within the rooting zone, such as shallowness of the rooting
s zone, stones, low moisture-holding capacity, low fertility that is difficult to correct, and
salinity or sodium content.
Subclass c is made up of soils for which the climate (the temperature or lack of moisture)
c
is the major hazard or limitation affecting their use.
Table 32- Land capability subclasses
In this work the capability evaluation is referred to the traditional agriculture systems, and a set of parameters
were considered and weighted according to the characteristics of this kind of agriculture.
In order to obtain the capability classes for the study area, thirteen parameters related to the topography,
environmental conditions and soils were selected and considered for every relevé, according to crop
requirements as defined by the actual scientific knowledge. A range of thresholds was subjectively defined for
every parameter according to local conditions and inserted in a set of interpretative tables to obtain a rating used
for the evaluation (Table 33). The erosion parameter is obtained through another complex evaluation operation
derived by Van Zuidam erosion assessment methodology (Van Zuidam, 1986). The results coming from Van
Zuidam assessment were partially modified excluding the parameter “natural vegetation”, which is usually
protecting soil from erosion, to obtain a result more realistic in terms of agricultural use. The areas subject to
flooding were rated manually as class V, while the other factors were added from the field database or from the
soil laboratory results.
88
The capability classes are obtained using the “maximum limiting factor” method, and subclasses are assigned in
case one factor is the only dominant one. Every parameter was rated with a value varying from 1 to 8. For every
relevé all ratings were compared and the highest value is defining the capability class for the given relevé. After
a procedure of generalization the capability classes are assigned to every Land Unit. In order to better represent
the spatial variability of the land capability derived by the complex morphology, the criterion of mixed classes
was introduced, showing in some cases transition classes (ex III to IV, from class III to class IV) and in other
cases the presence of more classes in the same Land Unit but in different land facets (ex VI and IV, with class VI
dominant and class IV in lesser proportion or IV and VI in case of vice-versa proportion.). In this work the
subclasses were introduced only in case that a given limitation is not permanent, and specific interventions could
be useful to obtain an improvement in terms of land use. The general climatic conditions, giving a high degree of
aridity during the long dry season, were considered in the phase of subjective weighting of the parameters, but
not specified at subclass level.
LAND CAPABILITY CLASSES

PARAMETERS
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Slope % <8 8-16 16-30 - 30-50 >50
Very Extremely
Erosion No sign to slight Moderate High -
high high
Surface stoniness
0-40 >40 - >40
(area coverage %)
Soil Stoniness <5 5-15 15-40 40-80 - 80-100
Soil depth (cm) >60 45-60 15-45 <15 <15
Rarely Saturated for short
Soil drainage Never saturated - Saturated for long period
saturated periods
Si, SCL,
Soil texture(*) L, SL, LS SiCL,SiL, SiC, SC S, C Any
CL
From none to Abunda Domi
Rock Outcrops Common Many - Abundant
few nt nant
Available Water
>30 16-30 8-16 - 4-8 <4
Content (mm)
0.6-
Organic matter (%) >1 0.8-1 0.4-0.6 - 0.2-0.4
0.8
Carbonates (%) <25 25-40 >40
4.5-5.5 or
pH 5.5-7.9 <4.5 or >8.4 - <4.5 or >8.4
7.9-8.4
Flooding - X -
(*)L (Loam), SL (Sandy loam), LS (Loamy sand), Si (Silt), SCL (Sandy clay loam), SiL (Silty loam), CL (Clay
loam), SiC (Silty clay), SC (Sandy clay), S (Sand), and C (Clay).
Table 33-Land capability parameters and thresholds
Results
The summary of the findings of the evaluation are presented in the maps shown in Figure 29. As a general
consideration, the results reflect the actual land use, since the soils belonging to class II, III and IV, suitable for
agriculture, correspond to the largely exploited areas of Mekele “Plateau” and Giba river tributaries, while the
areas with high class values correspond to the eastern and western escarpments and dolerite relieves, were
natural vegetation is mostly found. Below are briefly presented the characteristics of each main and mixed
capability classes. In the Enderta study area, according to the evaluation of land capability, no Land Units have
been categorized as class I and VIII due to the fact that no Land Unit has been identified with regard to the
parameters stipulated for these classes.
Class II is categorized as good agricultural land as it is located along the main rivers surrounding the Mekele
“Plateau”, where there is relatively low level of erosion comparing to the adjacent Land Units. This class is
covered by irrigated and rainfed annual crops. The soils are fertile Fluvisols and Luvisols developed on alluvial
deposit parent materials, which are rich enough in content of organic matters that indicates significant value for
growth and development of crops.
Class III is introduced as soils with strong limitations that reduce the choice of crops and require accurate
maintenance practices. In the study area, this class is broadcasted in different land forms with various types of
land uses. In most of foot slopes, gently undulating and terraced slopes, areas are occupied by agricultural lands
which are moderately susceptible for erosion. As the soils are dominantly calcareous and clay associated with
89
some shallow soils, it requires adequate management practises and conservation techniques to sustain the
productivity of the soils. Some agricultural units were also obtained down to the eastern escarpment, mostly
along river valleys in presence of flat terraced areas. On the other hand, within the undulating crest on Dolerite,
strong slope and terraced slopes of Antalo substrata, the cultivated land with rainfed annual crops is categorized
in class III with significant degradation control practises that are traditionally undertaken by local communities.
Along the escarpments, on the strongly dissected slopping surfaces with summit sub flat areas, these classes are
observable as open scrub land. The soils characterizing Land Capability class III are mostly deep heavy to
medium structured calcareous and clay soils like Kastanozems and Vertisols associated with shallow and sandy
soils. With regard to erosion risk, they are highly susceptible on the agricultural lands and moderate on the areas
where conservation measure is practised.
Class III to IV is independently categorized as one unit due to the tendency of loosing its capability, on the
dissected sloping surface of Ethiopian rift escarpment. The deep Calcisols covered by open to sparse scrub are
originally developed on strongly sloping limestone and shale. This area is under heavy pressure of degradation
with fuel wood collection, extensive grazing and soil erosion.
Class III in association with class VI is also categorized as stand alone capability unit placed on rainfed
agricultural lands. On the agricultural lands along Agula formation of north and west of Mekele, where rainfed
annual crops are originated, young and calcareous soils associated with clay, and shallow soils are moderate to
high susceptible for erosion.
Class IV is present only in association with class VI, situated in the lowest part of the study area, the far south-
eastern corner, were agriculture is not practiced. This area is covered with open scrubs. Traditional degradation
control measures are undertaken by the local community, to protect the deep Calcisols.
Class V is the only unique unit in the study area, which is observed in some colluvial-alluvial places of the
“Plateau” where there is accumulation of water and flooding during and after the rainy season and which are
covered by grassland utilized mainly for ranching.
Class VI in the study area is distributed in different scarps, dissected and steep slopes of Ethiopian rift
Escarpment, Antalo substrata and Agula shale formations on mixed agricultural lands with some conservation
measures. The soils of these areas are dominantly calcareous and clayish combined with young, sandy and
shallow soils covered by open scrubs, whereas, in closed scrubs Kastanozems and Phaeozems are common.
These two soils are even dominantly observed in artificial forest plantation on the steep scarp of dolerite and
Agula formations. Generally, this class is highly susceptible for erosion, though the soil degradation control
measures are significantly practised. The soils found in this class are deep and relatively rich in organic matter,
so that important consideration should be taken to further develop of initiated degradation control and forest
plantation activities rather than utilizing it for agricultural land.
Class VI is often in association with class III along Antalo formation, north and west of Mekele, where rainfed
annual crops are found, and class IV in eastern escarpment, where the occupation of the soil is mainly
represented by natural vegetation. Calcisols are dominant on the steepest sloping side of the escarpment covered
by open scrub. They are under conservation practises along the flat crests and terraces that allow some
cultivation of rainfed annual crops. In general, these classes are sparsely distributed on steep slopes, dissected
and undulating landforms of different limestone formations. They are under high risk of soil fertility depletion,
unless continuous adequate soil management measures are considered before it alters to the poorer capability
classes for agriculture.
The mixed class VI to VII is present widely in the Ethiopian rift escarpment and on the “Plateau” in
correspondence of steep scarps or along the Mekele fault line. This class is situated on very steep slopes, which
are covered by open scrub on calcareous soils associated with young, shallow and sandy soils. The erosion risk is
evaluated as very high. These soils have permanent limitations that require conservation practices even for
utilization as woodlands or pastures.
Class VII in the study area is located in strongly and moderately dissected sloping surfaces of Ethiopian rift
escarpment and in very steep scarps and moderate slopes of limestone with marl of Antalo formation. The soils
of these units are dominantly calcareous and clayish with some fertile shallow soils in open to sparse scrubs. The
susceptibility of this class to the erosion risk is high to very high.
The subclasses map shows that the main limitations derive by the “erosion” factor, in most of the study area,
except units belonging to classes II, III and V.
90
Figure 29-Land capability classes and subclasses maps
91
4.2 Land Suitability

Land suitability is the fitness of a given type of land for a defined use and application. The land may be
considered in its present condition or after improvements. The process of land suitability classification is the
appraisal and grouping of specific areas of land in terms of their suitability for defined uses such as crop
cultivation, forestry as well as applications of furrow and drip irrigation. Land evaluation is the process of
assessment of land performance for specified purpose. It is the comparison of land and land use and/or
application. In this case the evaluation is the examination for suitability of the study area to different kinds of
crops, forests and irrigation applications which are common to the study area. Basically, land evaluation deals
with two major aspects of the land. These are physical resources such as soil, topography and climate, and socio-
economic resources such as farm size, management level including others. In the study area, the parameters set
for land evaluation is only restricted to the physical resource parameters. The parameters used to evaluate the
suitability are taken from fieldwork and laboratory analysis of soil samples that were collected from the field.
According to the suitability classification (FAO, 1976), the study area is classified into different classes from S1
to N2 for different land uses and applications and each class is described as follow:
Class S1 stands for Highly Suitable:
Land having no significant limitations to sustain application of a given use, or only minor limitations that will
not significantly reduce productivity or benefits and will not raise inputs above an acceptable level.
Class S2 stands for Moderately Suitable:
Land having limitations which in aggregate are moderately severe for sustained application of a given use. The
limitations will reduce productivity or benefits and increase required inputs to the extent that the overall
advantage to be gained from the use, although still attractive, will be appreciably inferior to that expected on
Class S1 land.
Class S3 stands for Marginally Suitable:
Land having limitations which in aggregate are severe for sustained application of a given use and will so reduce
productivity or benefits, or increase required inputs, that this expenditure will be only marginally justified.
Class N1 stands for Currently Not Suitable:
Land having limitations which may be surmountable in time but which cannot be corrected with existing
knowledge at currently acceptable cost. The limitations are so severe as to preclude successful sustained use of
the land in the given manner.
Class N2 stands for Permanently Not Suitable:
Land having limitations which appear so severe as to preclude any possibilities of successful sustained use of the
land in the given manner.
Mixed classes
According to the percentage of the different facets in each unit, if the dominant suitability class does not
represent at least 60% of the Land Unit, a mixed class is created. There are two kinds of conditions:
- if two adjacent classes constitute together more than 60% of the Land Unit, “to” is applied to express the
mixed classes: for example, S1S2 stands for “Highly Suitable to Moderately Suitable”;
- otherwise, if the classes are not adjacent, “and” is used to describe the mixed class: for example, S1/S3
stands for “Highly Suitable and Marginally Suitable”.
Moreover, the symbol “NR”, which stands for “Not Relevant”, is used to describe areas excluded from the
evaluation (i.e.: urban areas and water bodies).
4.2.1 Land suitability for rainfed crops

There are 7 crop types (teff, wheat, maize, barley, sorghum, pea and bean) cultivated in the study area. All these crops
are used as main grain production. Evaluation of land suitability was aimed to survey the ability of parts of the land to
support the production of different crops. This can provide the farmers with information to select optimal types of
crops in suitable land, and improve the yield. Generally, the land suitability evaluation takes account of all the
inventory attributes of land and compares them with the requirements of the crops, to get a suitability map which is
easy to understand for crop production. The methodology used for the evaluation is according to the Sys et al.
parametric method (1991), based on FAO guidelines for land evaluation for rainfed agriculture (FAO, 1983). It
requires matching land characteristics against crop requirements and assigning a suitability rating for each land
characteristic. Crop requirements were further adjusted to fit better with the study area. In order to evaluate land
suitability, data regarding landform, soil properties and climate condition should be collected from the field and the
soil laboratory analysis. Landform parameters include depth, slope, surface coarse fragments, and drainage. Soil
parameters include: texture, Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3), EC (electrical conductivity), and pH. However; due to lack
of data, climatic parameters like radiation, temperature, rainfall and relative humidity were not taken into account and
the climate was considered homogeneous and equally suitable for all the analysed species. To obtain suitability classes
for each crop type in each Land Unit, firstly, the value of the established parameters was calculated for each relevé.
These values were calculated as the average along the so called “control section” which coincides with the medium
92
depth reached by the roots of each crop type. Then, according to the crop requirements, a rating was assigned to each
parameter value and the final score for each relevé was computed using the following mathematical formula:
B C D E F G H
Si = A ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Where:
Si: suitability index for rainfed crops
A: rating of drainage
B: rating of soil depth
C: rating of slope percentage
D: rating of soil texture
E: rating of surface coarse fragments
F: rating of CaCO3
G: rating of Electrical conductivity (salinity)
H: rating of pH
The classes of the relevé are classified according to the suitability classification index (Table 34). Finally, based on the
Land Unit generalize method (see 2.1 IAO approach) and the percentages of facets, the suitability class of each Land
Unit is obtained.
VALUE OF INDEX CLASS

0-25 N2
25-40 N1
40-60 S3
60-85 S2
85-100 S1
Table 34-Land index values and the corresponding suitability classes
Results
The land suitability maps for rainfed crop production, in the study area, are shown from Figure 31 to Figure 34.
The results of the land suitability evaluation are presented in 16 basic suitability classes. 5.0% of the study area
is categorised under the class NR (Not Relevant), because this percentage is occupied by urban, villages and
water bodies. According to the obtained result, the suitability of the study area for annual rainfed crops ranges
from highly suitable to permanently not suitable. The suitability class percentage for the different types of crops
is different; for example, the study area is relatively high suitable for wheat and less suitable for bean cultivation.
Permanently not suitable land of each crop occupied most part of the study area. This is mainly due to
topographic limitations. Most of the lands are moderate to steep slopes and scarps, and their soil is shallow,
which is not suited to retain rainfall water. Surface coarse fragment, through it plays an important role in
retaining moisture of the soil, but also affects the growth of the crops to some extent.
TEFF
As it may be observed in the suitability histogram (Figure 30), from the total coverage of the study area, about
21.6% is suitable for the growth of this crop and about 73.5% is not suitable. Generally, the suitable land for teff
is found in Land Units 15, 23, 24, 26, 33, 34 and 37, and with some restrictions in Land Units 6, 22 and 30
(Figure 31). Most of the non suitable lands for this crop are areas with moderate to steep slopes like in the
escarpment, high content of CaCO3, abundant to dominant coarse fragments and, to some extent, texture. The
rest of the other parameters are optimum for the suitability.
MAIZE
Maize is suitable to grow in 20.8% of the study area categorised in different classes of suitability, pure as well as
mixed, but, 74.2% is not suitable (Figure 30). Generally, the suitable lands for the growth of maize in the study
area are Land Units 15, 23, 24, 26, 34 and 37 (Figure 31). In the study area among the parameters, the limiting
factors for the growth of maize are high availability of CaCO3, depth, moderate to steep slope and dominant
coarse fragments. Almost all the area around the escarpment is categorised as permanently not suitable class.
This is primarily due to the steep slope.
93
Figure 30-Crops surface distribution in relation to suitability classes

WHEAT
Out of the total surface area of Enderta District, 40.4% of the land is evaluated as suitable while 54.6% is
categorised under the not suitable class. In comparison to the other types of annual rainfed crops, wheat is more
suitable to this area. In the case of wheat, like the other crops, the limiting factors are slope, depth, surface coarse
fragments and CaCO3. Land Units 37, 24, 23, 34, 15, 33, 30, 32 and 22 (Figure 32) are suitable. The above Land
Units are arranged in decreasing order of suitability respectively.
BARLEY
Even though depth and texture contribute negatively in some sites, the dominant limiting factors for the growth
of barley in the study area are slope, surface coarse fragments and CaCO3. Since most of the lands are moderate
to steep slope, with abundant to dominant surface coarse fragments, and excess CaCO3, about 75.47% of the
study area is categorised under the not suitable class. Only 19.5% of the total area is suitable and these are Land
Units 23, 24, 34, 37, 15, 33, and 30 (Figure 32) in decreasing order of suitability respectively.
PEA
Pea can grow on a wide range of soil types, from slightly sandy to heavy clay. The footslope and terraced slopes are
the most suitable sites. About 20.9% of the study area fell under the currently not suitable to permanently not suitable
suitability class, while about 54.5% of the area is categorised under permanently not suitable, due to drainage and pH
problems (Figure 33). Since moisture requirement of pea is similar to that of cereals, it is difficult to have good
production in poorly drained and saline soils. The crops do well on most soils with good drainage and with a pH of
about 5.5-6.5 (http://www.fao.org/Landandwater/ag/w/cropwater/pea.stm). In the study area, the pH is slightly higher
than the above range, and thus, pH becomes a limiting factor for pea growth. However, peas have lower tolerance to
saline and water-logged soil conditions than cereals. Water requirements for pea are similar to that for bean (350 to
500 mm) (Kent et al., 2003).
BEAN
The study area is less suitable for the growth of bean in comparison to the other crops. According to the evaluation,
87.7% of the study area fell under the class of permanently not suitable. The physical and chemical characteristics
which the crop demands for its growth are: good depth (from 50 to 75cm), well drained soil (from moderately well to
well drained), soil texture with the range from loamy sand to clay, moderate pH with the range from 5.2 to 8.2 and low
salinity. So in the study area, only the level plain area is suitable for bean cultivation (Figure 33).
SORGHUM
Sorghum does not require much for its development. It grows on many types of soil. It grows particularly well on
heavy soil, especially on the deep cracking valley bottoms in the tropics (soils with vertic properties). 14.7% of the
area is highly suitable for sorghum (Figure 30), and mainly distributed on colluvial and alluvial deposits with
Vertisols, Luvisols and Fluvisols. A mixed area of permanently not suitable and moderately suitable covers 19.4% of
the total area on undulating rises. The other categories, currently not suitable to permanently not suitable, cover 56.3%
(Figure 34) of the study area, and are distributed in sloping surface and scarp. The main limitations for this crop are
the presence of large amounts of coarse fragments, high amount of CaCO3, strong slope and not suitable texture, which
are considered very important factors since they determine the capacity for the penetration of the roots and the capacity
to retain water and nutrients.
94
Figure 31-Land suitability map of Teff and Maize
95
Figure 32-Land suitability map of Barley and Wheat
96
Figure 33-Land suitability map of Bean and Pea
97
Figure 34-Land suitability map of Sorghum
4.2.2 Land suitability evaluation for perennial crops

Generally, perennial crops are not common in Enderta as her climate is characterised by long periods of dry
season and erratic rain fall patterns. In addition, there are no currently well developed irrigation facilities that
may be used to support the production of perennial crops. So the land suitability evaluation was carried out,
principally, to assess the potential of the soils all over the study area for the production of tree crops in the future,
provided that irrigation facilities are developed.
The evaluation was performed for nine different species of tree crops. Generally, most of the crops are common
crops in Ethiopia and in some parts of the Tigray Region in particular. These include Banana, Guava, Mango,
Orange, Papaya, Pineapple and Cactus. Besides, two additional tree crops; Apricot and Plum, which are new to
the Region, were also considered in the evaluation process. The evaluation of these new crops was carried out
mainly to assess the potential productivity of the land in the study area. In turn, incorporating these crops in the
evaluation process can give meaningful information that can be used to create awareness in this Region. From
the list of crops above, eight are irrigated perennial crops as they require high moisture levels to flourish whereas
cactus is rainfed since it is drought tolerant. The land suitability evaluation for all these crops was made based on
traditional agriculture, taking into account the farming system dominantly practised in the study area. In the
entire region and particularly in Enderta, agriculture is characterised by small peasant farmers who use oxen as a
plough power.
The same methodology was adopted for all the crops and six parameters were used in the evaluation. These
include drainage, soil depth, slope class, soil texture, surface coarse fragments and pH of the soil. The suitability
rating is a multiplicative function of the parameters as algebraically explained below.
98
B C D E F
Si = A × × × × ×
100 100 100 100 100
where:
Si =suitability index;
A =Rating for drainage;
B =Rating for soil depth;
C =Rating for slope class;
D =Rating for surface coarse fragments;
E = Rating for soil texture and
F = Rating for soil PH
Results
BANANA
A wide range of soils are suitable for banana production provided that there is good drainage, adequate fertility
and moisture. Banana grows well on soils with less than 40% clay content. It is tolerant to pH ranges from 4.5-8,
but the best growth is on soils with a pH range from 6-7.5. Concerning topography, flat terrain is preferred for
commercial banana production for reasons of transport, irrigation and prevention of erosion. However, a fair
proportion of the world’s banana is grown on slopes (Samson, 1980).
According to the results of the evaluation, there are different land suitability levels for the production of banana
in the study area. Soils with combination of Luvisols and Cambisols, which are located on undulating crest are
found to be highly suitable for banana production. Similarly, Vertisols with Calcisols and Luvisols on gently
undulating plain are an example of moderately suitable area. Marginally suitable land, on the other hand, is
found mainly on Calcisols with dissected sloping surfaces. Proportion of the land with moderate suitability is
relatively larger as compared with the highly and marginally suitable classes. The percentages for the suitable
classes of land are summarised in Table 35 and all the remaining suitability ratings can be observed from the
map (Figure 35) below.
SUITABILITY CLASS DESCRIPTION AREA (ha) PERCENTAGE

S1 Highly suitable 4345 3
S1S2 Highly to moderately suitable 702 0.50
S1/S3 Highly suitable and marginally suitable 4155 3
S2 Moderately suitable 18921 13
S3 Marginally suitable 14096 10
Table 35-Summary of the suitability classes for Banana
As explained in the table above more than 15% of the study area is suitable for the production of banana. So this
crop could be produced on these soils in Enderta if irrigation is provided.
PAPAYA
Papaya is quite similar with banana regarding soil requirements. It needs well drained, well aerated, fertile soils
preferably rich in organic matter, with pH ranges of 6-7. Samson (1980) states that 22-26oC is probably the
optimal temperature for papaya growth. A large number of soils and their combinations are suitable for the
production of papaya in the study area. However, the proportion of the suitable land is smaller compared to the
proportion of land that may support banana production. Papaya has smaller area of moderately suitable and
larger area of marginally suitable land. The most suitable soils for papaya according to the evaluation are areas
with Luvisols with Cambisols on undulating crest topography. However, Vertisols with Calcisols and Luvisols
which are located on gently undulating plain are marginally suitable. The main suitability percentages are
summarised in Table 36 below with all the suitability classes shown in Figure 35.

S1/S3 Highly suitable and marginally suitable 1873 1
S1/N1 Highly suitable and currently unsuitable 2282 2
S2S3 Moderately to marginally suitable 12834 9
Table 36-Summary of the land suitability classes for Papaya
Although the suitable area is smaller in comparison with banana, papaya can be grown well in some parts of
Enderta. The traditional farming culture using animal traction also enhances the opportunity of papaya
99
production in relatively sloppy and fragmented areas of land. It is also currently produced in some parts of the
region at a small scale.
GUAVA
Guava is adapted to a wide variety of soil types. It responds well to soils with good drainage and high organic
matter content with a pH ranging from 5-7. According to Nakasone and Paull (1998), the cultivation of guava in
soils with a pH lesser than 5 or higher than 7 have been observed for deficiency symptoms in zinc and iron
respectively. Concerning moisture, it grows well in places with 1000mm to 2000mm average annual rainfall.
However, it also tolerates drought. Therefore guava can grow relatively well in Enderta with supplementary
irrigation. The land suitability evaluation of the study area shows that guava can grow best on Luvisols with
Cambisols which mainly have undulating crest type of land forms. It can also, moderately grow on Vertisols
with Calsisols and Luvisols. Such types of soils are found mainly on gently undulating plains. On the other hand,
Association of Luvisols and Fluvisols, association of Kastanozomes, Arenosols, Phaozems and Vertisols have
ratings ranging from highly suitable to marginally suitable. This shows that this crop can grow in different soil
types and land forms in the study area. The results are shown in Figure 36 and the more suitable ones are
quantitatively summarised in Table 37.

S1/S3 Highly to marginally suitable 4857 3
S2/N1 Moderately suitable and currently unsuitable 1651 1
Table 37-Summary of the land suitability classes for Guava
ORANGE
Orange is a sub-tropical and not tropical fruit tree. During the growing period, the temperature should range from
12.78º-37.78º C. The soils for growing oranges should be well drained and there must be of adequate depth.
Shallow soils of high water holding capacity should be avoided. Alkaline soils are not good for orange
production as there will be decline in productivity, Morton (1987). Orange can moderately grow in small parts of
the study area on some soils and land forms. In this evaluation, there were no soils which were found to be
highly suitable for orange production. The suitability class for this crop ranges mainly from moderately to
marginally suitable and unsuitable according to the evaluation. This may be due to the high pH value of the soils
in the study area, because all the soil samples have a pH value higher than 7. All the suitability classes are shown
in Figure 36.
ANANAS
According to Samson (1980), pineapple needs a sunny climate though there are no exact figures on hours of
sunshine required. The optimum temperature for fruit ripening is reported to be 25oC. As it needs more sunny
hours, it is not tolerant to frost. Thus, the first climatic requirement must therefore be that, it is practically
frostless. Pineapple preferably grows well on sandy loam soils with a pH of 5-6. Luvisols with Cambisols are
moderately suitable for pineapple production in the study area. These soils are predominantly found on
undulating crest type of land form. The remaining suitability classes are almost the same with that of mango
since they have similar soil pH requirements. This is shown in Figure 37.
MANGO
The climate for mangoes varies from sub-humid equatorial to sub-arid frost free subtropical. Light frost is
tolerated, but the minimum for growth lies above 10oC, the optimum near 25oC and the maximum at 42oC.
Rainfall requirements vary from very little where irrigation is possible to a lot if the soil is permeable. Mangoes
do not demand much from the soil. It may be sandy, loamy, lateritic or alluvial as long as it is not waterlogged.
However, very poor, shallow, alkaline soils should be avoided. This crop prefers a pH range of 5.5-7. At higher
pH values, deficiencies of iron and zinc are observed, Samson (1980). In the suitability evaluation, the
proportion of land with high suitability class for mango is negligible. As explained above, mango needs soils
with a pH less than 7. However, according to the result of the analysis of the soil samples that were carried out in
the IAO soil laboratory (2008), all soils of the study area were found to be alkaline. Perhaps, this is the main
reason for the less suitability of the soils for mango production. This being the case, there are still some soils in
the study area with ranges from moderately to marginally suitable for mango production. These classes are
mostly constitutes by association of Vertisols, Calcisols and Luvisols on gently ondulating plains of Mekele
“Plateau”, or by Calcisols on strongly dissected sloping surfaces occupying the Escarpment area. The
geographical location of each soil type is schematically explained in Figure 37.
100
Figure 35-Land suitability classes for Banana and Papaya
101
Figure 36-Land suitability classes for Orange and Guava
102
Figure 37-Land suitability classes for Mango and Ananas
103
PLUM
For the production of plums, soil depth is one of the most important factors determining the success of an
orchard. For successful prune growing, the depth of the soil should not be less than 100cm. Extreme sandy or
gravely soil does not have sufficient moisture holding capacity for non irrigated orchards, but may be
satisfactory with irrigation. Although shallow soils, which are often found on hilltops, may support a prune
orchard, low production and poor fruit quality may cause uneconomic production (Stebbins, 1993). The result of
the land suitability evaluation for plum or prune is similar with apricot as they need similar soil type and climatic
conditions. Land suitability classes are shown in Figure 38. It is important to note that Plum and Apricot are
temperate crops. This evaluation focuses mainly on the potential of the soils. However, further studies are
needed on the adaptation of these crops to the local environment by considering additional parameters.
APRICOT
Apricot varieties might be expected to do well where the mid-winter temperatures are not too cold. However,
apricots lose resistance to low temperature when exposed to warm spells, and will not do well where winter
temperatures fluctuate widely. Apricots flourish best in light textured, well-drained soils. They will not tolerate
poorly drained soils where waterlogged conditions may prevail in the spring or where there is a shallow,
impervious layer in the subsoil. Apricots are susceptible to Verticillium wilt and should not be planted where
tomatoes, peppers, potatoes, raspberries or strawberries have been grown in the previous three or four years
(Robert et al.1983). The soil depth required by apricot is in the range between 50 and 100cm. It grows well on
soils with a pH value of 6.5-7.5. Limitations on the growth of apricot is observed when the soil pH is less than
4.5 or higher than 8.5 (Costantini, 2006). This indicates that it can grow on a wide range of soils. Almost all the
soils samples of the study area have pH values between slightly alkaline to moderately alkaline. Most soils also
have suitable depth for the growth of apricot. As shown in Figure 38, soils which constitute association of
Vertisols, Calcisols and Luvisols on gently undulating plain, and Luvisols with Cambisols on undulating crest,
occupy most of the area classified as highly to moderately suitable for apricot production. These suitability
classes cover about 20% of the total study area.
CACTUS
The cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica), is a species that originated on the “Plateau” of central Mexico. It is
cultivated for fruit production on a total area of about 100,000hectares and more than a million hectares of land
is allocated for pasture. The production of forage is destined for bovine and ovicaprine fodder in Mexico, South
America, USA, North Africa, western Asia, the horn of Africa and South Africa. Each of these derivative
products are worked up from the processing of both the fruit and the cladodes, and these are destined for human
consumption or for non alimentary uses. The Opuntia have a strategically important role in the diet and therefore
in the subsistence agriculture of the semiarid regions where their cultivation is wide spread.
Some authors state that the suitable soil for cultivation of cactus is about 20-40cm in depth, medium texture and
with a pH value of between 5.0 and 7.5. It is however tolerant to varied soils, temperatures, and moisture levels.
104
Figure 38-Land suitability classes for Apricot and Plum
105
The plants grow best in a sunny position, in well-drained sandy loam soils. With excellent drainage, cactus pears
can tolerate almost as much water as any other cultivated plant. They are, however, drought tolerant once
established. Cactus pear is a well known crop in most parts of Ethiopia in general and particularly in the Tigray
region. This crop plays an important economic and cultural role in Tigray. Because of ever-increasing human
and livestock pressures on the land, a decline in soil productivity, and recurrent drought and famine, there is
increasing reliance on cactus pear to minimise risk and ensure crop and food security. Cactus pear is playing a
crucial economic role in the region, as a source of food, animal feed, fuel wood, and, in some cases, as a means
of additional income, thereby increasing the efficiency and economic viability of small and low-income farmers
(Brutsch, 1997). Cactus is the most suitable crop in this evaluation since it grows on a wide variety of soils,
topography and climatic conditions as explained above. In the study area, cactus can suitably grow on Cambisols
associated with Luvisols in the “Plateau”, or with Calcisols even in the Escarpment. It can also grow on
diversified land forms including strong slopes or escarpments. The most suitable classes are summarised in
Table 38 with all the other classes shown in Figure 39.
SUITABILITY CLASS DESCRIPTION AREA (HA) PERCENTAGE

S1S2 Highly to Moderately suitable 20018 14
S1/N1 Highly suitable and currently unsuitable 2883 2
S2S3 Moderately to Marginally suitable 36947 25
Table 38-Summary of the land suitability for Cactus
Figure 39 Land suitability classes for Cactus
106
4.2.3 Land suitability for irrigation

In Enderta’s district, the irrigation development constitutes a privileged solution for improving agricultural
production. Irrigation reduces the crop failure risk due to rainy deficit and ensures the possibility to cultivate
during dry season. Using irrigation, farmers have to apply a lot of water to the crops and soil. In order to avoid
land degradation, irrigation water and techniques must be compatible with the soil properties. For this reason, it
is necessary to evaluate the suitability of land for irrigation.
The methodology is based on Sys et al. (1991) parametric approach, which consists to evaluate land suitability
for irrigation taking only in account soil proprieties (physical and chemical) and the topography (slopes) of the
study area. Chemical and physical soil proprieties are determined in the soil laboratory using different kind of
analysis processing. The texture classification is based on the USDA triangle.
This approach allows a calculation of a suitability index for irrigation considering some factors influencing the
soil suitability. These factors are (Sys et al., 1991):
- Texture: rated taking in account the permeability and available water content, and calculated, as weighted
average, for the upper 100 cm.
- Soil depth: rated with regard to the thickness and the characteristic of the soil layers (horizons).
- Calcium carbonate status: influencing the relationship between soil and water, and the availability of
nutrient supply for plant. It is rated with regard to the CaCO3 content effect on soil profile.
- Drainage: a limiting factor when it is imperfect or weak. The rating for drainage is related to texture.
- Slope: estimated considering the difference between terraced and non-terraced slopes.
- Salinity or alkalinity: rated on the base of the exchangeable sodium percentage and electric conductivity.
- Surface stoniness: rated with regard to the rock fragment coverage.
Applying the parametric method, all these factors can be linked by a mathematic formula:
B C D E F G
Si = A * * * * * *
100 100 100 100 100 100
where:
Si: capability index for irrigation;
A: rating of soil texture;
B: rating of soil depth;
C: rating of CaCO3 status;
D: salinity/alkalinity rating;
E: drainage rating;
F: slope rating
G: rating of surface stoniness
The suitability classes for irrigation are defined by taking into account the values of the suitability index (Si)
(Table 39).
SUITABILITY INDEX CLASS DEFINITION SYMBOL

>80 I Highly suitable S1
60-80 II Moderately suitable S2
45-60 III Slightly suitable S3
30-45 IV Unsuitable (currently) N1
<30 V Unsuitable (permanently N2
Table 39- Suitability indices for the different suitability classes (Sys et al., 1991, modified)
A rating was assigned to each factor influencing the soil suitability. Each of the rating was then linked to the
Land Unit Map, generating a thematic layer. The spatially overlay of seven thematic layers gave a final map for
drip irrigation suitability or surface irrigation suitability.
Results
Most of escarpment areas were classified as unsuitable for both drip and surface irrigation, and the limiting
factor is the slope. Topography (slope) influences the water flow in the pipes, channels and increases open
channel erosion and pressure variation. To apply a drip or surface irrigation systems, the steep slopes in an
escarpment fields should be modified. The reduction of slope for irrigation demands a lot of investment and
could be inadequate (beneficial). But, there are around few streams, very narrow areas that could be irrigated by
drip irrigation (Figure 40).
107
Figure 40-Land suitability map for irrigation
108
In the western part of the study area, the landform characteristics (steep slope and stones) reduce the land
suitability for irrigation. Surface irrigation method (border or furrow irrigation) requires less stones on the soil
than the drip irrigation. The surface stoniness is related to the soil workability (build channels). Restrictive limits
on surface stoniness parameter were applied in this land evaluation.
SURFACE IRRIGATION
According to the percentage of the facets into the Land Unit map, some land suitability classes are mixed (Table
40). In Figure 41, on the other hand, only not mixed classes are considered: each Land Unit was classified on the
bases of the suitability class owing to the more extended facet composing it. The result indicate that 1.5% of the
land is highly suitable (S1), 14.3% moderate suitable (S2), 22.3% slightly suitable (S3). Most of the study area is
permanently unsuitable (55.6%) and currently unsuitable (1.2%).
AREA
SUITABILITY CLASS LAND UNIT
ha %
Highly suitable (S1) 34, 37 2226 1.5
Moderate suitable (S2) 24 1873 1.3
Slightly suitable (S3) 15 4345 2.9
Highly suitable to moderate
23 17638 11.9
suitable S1S2
Moderate suitable to permanently
30 1650 1.1
unsuitable (S2N2)
Slightly suitable to currently
33 1110 0.8
unsuitable (S3N1)
Slightly suitable to permanently
22 28635 19.4
unsuitable (S3N2)
Currently unsuitable to permanently
6, 21 3910 2.6
unsuitable (N1N2)
1, 2, 3, 4,5, 7,8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17,
Permanently unsuitable (N2) 78852 53.4
18, 19, 20, 26, 27, 28, 29, 25, 31, 32, 35, 36,
Urban, urban infrastructures, villages,
Not relevant (NR) 7361 5
Water bodies,
Table 40-Land suitability classes for surface irrigation
In unsuitable areas slope, stoniness, and depth are the main parameters which affect the land suitability for
surface irrigation. For suitable areas, it is not possible to use all the surface irrigation methods
There are three surface irrigation methods: basins irrigation, borders and furrow irrigation. Each method needs a
specific topography. For basins irrigation, the land should be flat. To use borders or furrow irrigation, the slope
must be uniform. Inside the terraced areas with uniform slope, furrow irrigation could be developed on small
scale if the water availability is not a constraint.
In the alluvial deposit, where Fluvisols are developed, some farmers have already used furrow irrigation. From
the point of view of sustainability, farmers have to improve their irrigation system (design, channel etc). Taking
in account the scattering of the land suitable for surface irrigation (Figure 40), small schemes irrigation could be
a good irrigated agricultural politic in this area. Small irrigation system can be easily managed by farmers.
DRIP IRRIGATION
As for surface irrigation, Table 41 considers even mixed classes, while Figure 41 presents the comparaison
between the two irrigation systems for not mixed classes only. The result show 15.8 % of the land is highly
suitable (S1), 22.8 % moderately suitable (S2), 2.3 % slightly suitable (S3), 49.2 % permanently unsuitable (N2)
and 4.9 % currently unsuitable (N1). Some lands are more suitable for drip irrigation than surface irrigation
(Figure 40). Drip irrigation can be a good method of irrigation in this region, if it is managed properly (best
design, filters, etc.). The Table 40 and Table 41 indicate that the very gentle slope on colluvial deposit (L.U. 34)
and the level flat on alluvial deposit (L.U. 37) are highly suitable for both irrigation drip and surface.
109
AREA
SUITABILITY CLASS LAND UNIT
ha (%)
Highly suitable (S1) 23, 24, 34, 37 21736 14.7
Moderate suitable (S2) 15 4345 2.9
Moderate suitable to slightly suitable S2S3 6, 33 1812 1.2
Highly suitable to currently unsuitable (S1N1) 30 1650 1.1
Moderate suitable to permanently unsuitable (S2N2) 22 28635 19.4
Slightly suitable to currently unsuitable (S3N1) 26 2282 1.5
Currently unsuitable to highly suitable (N1S1) 21 3208 2.2
Permanently unsuitable to slightly suitable (N2S3) 35 3857 2.6
Currently unsuitable to permanently unsuitable (N1N2) 28, 29 4162 2.8
Currently unsuitable (N1) 20, 19, 27, 32, 4019 2.7
1, 2, 3, 4,5, 7,8, 9,10, 11, 12, 43.7
Permanently unsuitable (N2) 64532
13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 25, 31, 36,
Urban, urban infrastructures,
Not relevant (NR) 7361 5
villages, Water bodies
Table 41-Land suitability classes for drip irrigation
The Figure 41 indicates that the land can be irrigated with drip irrigation or surface irrigation. However, drip
irrigation gives higher water distribution efficiency, and minimizes the soil erosion, fertilizer/nutrient loss due to
localized application, reducing leaching. Initial cost can be more than overhead systems of surface irrigation, but
in the long ran it could be useful to prevent land degradation and pollution problem. For this reason, it is better to
promote drip irrigation in Enderta’s region. Moreover, surface irrigation is strongly dependent from a suitable
water source.
Figure 41-Comparison land suitability for drip and surface irrigation
110
4.2.4 Land suitability for forestry

Land suitability assessment for forestry was based on the FAO guidelines (FAO, 1984) and led to the
identification of areas more or less suitable for the following species, autochthonous and not, actually or
potentially, present in the study area:
- Juniperus procera;
- Eucalyptus globulus;
- Eucalyptus camaldulensis;
- Acacia etbaica;
- Olea africana;
- Boswellia papyriphera.
This evaluation was carried out with the collected fieldwork data that regards exclusively physical and chemical
land characteristics and lack detailed economic and social aspects. The considered parameters from field survey
and soil laboratory analysis were the following:
- drainage;
- depth;
- texture;
- CaCO3;
- pH;
- EC;
- altitude;
- slope.
Climatic data such as elevation range, mean annual temperature, and mean annual rainfall were not considered
because of the homogeneity of the study area from this point of view. To each parameter of each species, ranked
scores were assigned according to the specific ecological requirements taken from literature
(http://www.worldagroforestry.org/; Bekele-Tesemma et. al., 1993; Jagger and Pender, 2000; Mehari, 2005;
Rijkers et al., 2006). The scores range from 0 (worst condition) to 100 (optimum) and a weight of 1 or 2 was
assigned according to the importance of the ecological parameter as limiting factor. The suitability results by
relevé were generalized to the Land Units, according to the facets percentage inside the unit. A threshold of 60%
was chosen to define a pure class. In cases where there was no dominant class with a percentage greater than
60%, mixed classes were introduced.
Results
The following maps (Figure 42 to Figure 44) show the land suitability classification for the considered species.
Juniperus procera
This species, known by the locals as “tidh” and used as Christmas tree, is one of the typical tree species,
toghether with Olea africana, of the ancient evergreen forests that once covered the Ethiopian Highlands (see
paragraph 3.4.2). It is often 30-35m high and can even reach 50m, being the largest tree of its genus. The best
ecological conditions that allow its growth are found between 1100 and 3500m of altitude, on well drained soils
no heavier than sandy clay, with mean annual rainfalls between 400 and 1200mm. Because of that, a portion of
almost 30% of the study area, mainly located on the Ethiopian Rift Escarpment, came out highly suitable for
Juniperus procera; besides, 17% is assigned as a mixed class moderately to highly suitable and another 10% is
from marginally to moderately suitable. The species is susceptible to fire and the wood has a good calorific
power.
Olea africana
The african wild olive is potentially the main codominant tree of Juniperus procera in the dry evergreen forests
and its ecological requirements are very close to this ones. The area classified as “highly suitable” for Olea
africana is around 40% and includes almost the whole Ethiopian Rift Escarpment Land System. The wood of the
olive is fine-textured, hard, heavy and durable; besides fuel wood and construction timber (poles to hold the roof
of the houses), it can provide a nice material to make ornaments. The fruits of the wild olive are much smaller
than the commercial varieties cultivated in the mediterranean region and don’t produce oil. In the Ethiopian
Highlands, the wild olive has been employed as root stock for grafting oil productive cultivars only in some
experimental field, but never at large scale in the rural areas, where there is an evident lack of a knowledge and
technical and economic support that kind of cultivation requires. The high drought tolerance of Olea africana
suggests that it is a good candidate for reforestation in Enderta; however, its seeds have a poor germination rate
and the growing rate of the plant is very slow.
111
Figure 42-Land suitability for Juniperus procera and Olea africana
112
Eucalyptus globulus and Eucalyptus camaldulensis

These are the species of eucalyptus that commonly grow in Enderta. They are native of Australia and they have
been planted to provide wood for fuel and construction purposes.
Eucalyptus globulus is adapted to subtropical climates with winter rainfall, such as the Mediterranean region,
and to cool zones of tropical mountains, up to 3000m of altitude. The main soil limiting factors to its growth are
low depth, poor drainage, salinity and the presence of a high content of assimilable carbonates. Especially due to
the latter factor, 46% of Enderta District results permanently not suitable for this tree and only the Land Units
14, 23 and 34 of the Mekele “Plateau”, for a total of 14%, result highly suitable for this tree. The Land Unit 14,
on the dolerite steep scarp of Mekele “Plateau”, is comprised in the highly suitable class, while the other Land
Unit with eucalyptus plantation (n.18), where no relevé were carried out, is classified as permanently not
suitable.
E. camaldulensis grows under a wider range of climatic conditions, in respect to E. globulus, from temperate to
hot and from humid to arid zones. It grows best on deep, silty or loamy soils with accessible water table. It
tolerates drought as well as waterlogging and periodic flooding and acid soils. In Enderta District, this
eucalyptus species appears to be more suitable than E. globulus. Indeed, only 12% of the study area is
permanently not suitable. 19%, included the Land Unit 14 as well as Land Units on level plain (24, 37), is
classified in the highest class of suitability and another 13% as mixed moderately to highly suitable. The Land
Unit 18 is comprised in the mixed class marginally suitable and permanently not suitable.
E. globulus is one of the better Eucalyptus species for papermaking and provides good firewood, better than the
E. camaldulensis’, that it is too smoky and burns too fast. On the other hand, the wood of the latter is harder,
more strength and durable than the former and provides timber for heavy construction.
Acacia etbaica
As already stated in the paragraph 3.4.2, Acacia etbaica is one of the most widespread woody plants on the
Ethiopian Highlands as well as one of the most exploited species for fuel wood, due to its good calorific power.
More than 50% of the study area is highly suitable for it. Only a portion of 11%, including all the Land Units on
the doleritic substratum, is classified permanently not suitable.
Boswellia papyriphera
This small deciduous tree is distributed in a savanna belt that stretches from northern Nigeria eastwards to the
highlands of Eritrea and Ethiopia. Here it appears to be able to grow, under semi-arid conditions, on shallow
soils on rocky slopes, being the most fertile and deep soils devoted to agriculture. In the Horn of Africa, by
tapping the living bark of Boswellia papyriphera, local people obtain frankincense (an aromatic hardened wood
resin) that is of great economic and social importance world-wide, as one of the main element of incense and
perfumes.
In Enderta District, the most suitable land for this species, as for most of the other species taken into account, is
found along the Ethiopian Rift Escarpment. 16% and 10% of the total study area came out respectively as highly
and moderately suitable. As well as Acacia etbaica, all the Land Units on dolerite are classified permanently not
suitable.
113
Figure 43-Land suitability for Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Eucalyptus globules
114
Figure 44-Land suitability for Acacia etbaica and Boswellia papyriphera
115
4.3 Erosion risk evaluation

Soil erosion is a serious problem in Ethiopia, particularly in the Northern provinces, which are fixed with
sedentary agriculture for millennia. Population density has caused major damage to the soil’s physical base,
organic and chemical nutrients and the natural vegetation cover. Even on the cool “Plateaus”, where good
volcanic soils are found in abundance, the traditional system of cultivation have exposed the soils to heavy
seasonal rain which are the cause of extensive gully and sheet erosion.
Soil erosion is severe in all of Tigray and poses a major threat to continued agricultural production in the area.
Virtually all topsoils and parts of the subsoils in some areas are removed from sloping land leaving stones or
bare rock at the surface. The severity of soil erosion in the Tigray region and in Ethiopia in general, is the result
of the mountainous and hilly topography, torrential rainfall and low degree of vegetation cover. According to
Hamilton (1977), deforestation started already 2000 years ago. In many parts of Tigray, soil erosion has made
the cultivation of old farmland impossible and farmers are forced to constantly cultivate new and more marginal
areas (Esser and Vagen, 2002), therefore, erosion hazard is significantly substantial in the study area. Thus,
emphasis is given to evaluate the risk of erosion and to prepare the erosion susceptibility map for the study area
in order to give some highlight on the subsequent risk of erosion which could be prevented in the future. Erosion
hazard is a measure of the susceptibility of an area of land to prevailing agents of erosion. It is determined by
climate, topography, soil erodibility and land use. Each specific land use has its own erosion hazard. Soil erosion
creates strong environmental impacts and high economic costs due to the effect on agricultural production,
infrastructure and water quality (Breetzke, 2004). Many developing countries depend on agriculture. Soil loss is
one of the major factors affecting sustainability of agricultural production. “Rainfed crop production is the main
economic activity for over 85% of the Tigray population, supplemented by livestock rearing under mixed-
subsistent system” (see chapter 3.4)”. In such situations erosion processes have to be controlled to avoid severe
soil loss which reduces the fertility of the soils. For these reasons, studies on soil erosion and water conservation
were carried on in this area suggesting new management techniques to combat erosion risk (Nyssen et al., 2007).
Anthropic activities like uncontrolled grazing, deforestation due to high demand for agricultural lands and
firewood collection to supply the needs of the increasing population are the principal causes of soil erosion. For
soil conservation planning, erosion risk maps, typically created using erosion models, are becoming more and
more important.
4.3.1 Van Zuidam susceptibility classification

The Van Zuidam susceptibility classification (1986) is a qualitative methodology initiated from the collected
field data to obtain significant information about the parameters that are linked to erosion dynamics. The erosion
risk analysis for the study area was performed using Van Zuidam methodology slightly modified, that was also
helpful to evaluate the quality of the field data. The most important terrain characteristics/parameters used by
Van Zuidam to obtain the erosion risk evaluation are:
- slope: steepness, length and form;
- soil and geology: depth of unconsolidated material, texture, sealing, consolidating and jointing,
structure of underlying strata, depth of first impermeable layer;
- vegetation and land use: vegetation density, land use;
- climatic data like rainstorm frequency;
- conservation practices;
- erosion: wind, sheet, rill and gully;
- mass movements.
The method gives the general erosion susceptibility rating for a terrain unit. Erosion susceptibility maps can thus
be produced, in which the terrain units are represented as susceptibility mapping unit in accordance to the terrain
characteristics and the erosion susceptibility classes.
In accordance to the Van Zuidam methodology, the collected field data was the main source of data used for the
evaluation process. This data was selected consistently with the above mentioned parameters and data relating to
soil properties were imported from the soil laboratory result (IAO, 2008).
The slope form was calculated through the analysis of a “Digital Elevation Model” with a resolution of 30m,
derived from SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission). The standard evaluation model of Van Zuidam takes
into account only three forms: convex, concave and straight, but according to the morphological conformation of
the study area, standard parameters where modified due to the presence of a huge flat area inside the “Plateau”.
The texture and the depth of impermeable layers were calculated by processing the field and laboratory data
fixed at a depth of 100cm. Vegetation and land use values were derived from a combination of land use, total
cover and type of vegetation. The climate condition was rated in accordance to the frequency of the heavy
rainstorm per year and the sun or rain exposure carrying winds for the specific areas. Considering the
homogeneity of the climate in the study area, identical rating was given to all relevés. With regard to the soil
conservation practices like terracing, contouring, plowing and stone boundary, were considered as having no
116
effect on the acceleration of erosion intensity, but in contrary they showed a positive impact on the erosion
evaluation model.
A rate was given to each terrain characteristic in accordance to its contribution for the erosion process. To each
relevé was given a global score obtained from the sum of the rates assigned to each parameter. For the
classification, the final values were generalised to the level of Land Unit to obtain the erosion risk classes as
shown in Table 42 . According to this system, the classification of the classes was set up to simplify the values of
the erosion risk and to produce a susceptibility map for the Land Units (Figure 45). The system is prearranged to
extend the evaluation results from the relevé to the facet level and then to generalise over the entire Land Unit
map, considering the weight of each facet inside the Land Unit. The final erosion value was assigned to each
Land Unit considering the class given to the facet extended for more than 60% of it surface. If no dominant class
with a percentage greater than 60% was composing a Land Unit, mixed class was introduced, by summing two
following classes of erosion risk. This expresses the trend of a class which migrates to the next but without well-
defined limits. In the case of the Enderta district, characterised by a very complex morphology, a third class type
was forced to be introduced, to express the coexistence of two separate classes of erosion risk in the same Land
Unit (Table 43).
VAN ZUIDAM EROSION RISK CLASSES

Class Description
1 Not or insignificantly susceptible to erosion
2 Slightly susceptible to erosion
3 Moderately susceptible to erosion
4 Highly susceptible to erosion
5 Very highly susceptible to erosion
6 Extremely highly susceptible to erosion
Table 42-Van Zuidam classes
VAN ZUIDAM EROSION RISK CLASSES IN THE STUDY AREA
Classes Surface (ha) Surface (%)
2 1.872 1.3
2+3 1.649 1.1
2/4 19.042 13.5
3 5.885 4.1
3+4 38.653 27.5
4 45.006 32.0
4+5 13.096 9.3
5 11.294 8.0
5/3 3.857 2.7
Total 140.358 100
Table 43-Van Zuidam classes in the study area
The evaluation results showed that no Land Unit in the study area falls under Class 1, which corresponds to areas
“not or insignificantly susceptible to erosion”.
Class 2, as a pure class, is present in the study area on level plane with a substratum of alluvial deposits covered
by grassland used for grazing (L.U. 24). As the unit is on level land and also used for ranching, the area is
classified as slightly susceptible. However, the observed gullies have the probability to extend severely because
of the young fluvial soils developed along the natural drainage channels. Therefore, an adequate measure should
be taken in advance to avoid further degradation of this land. On the other hand, the class 2 is found with the
class 3 (2+3) in two Land Units (L.U. 37, 23) where the slope form is level flat and gently undulating plains.
This unit is classified as a mixed unit which is covered by irrigated and rainfed annual crops. The erosion
susceptibility is relatively higher when compared with the class 2 exceptionally on the undulating plain where
there are Vertisols, Calcisols and Luvisols. On the level land, the nature of the material is alluvial deposits
derived from seasonal flooding; therefore this area can be minimally susceptible to erosion, due to the
characteristics of the weakly structured soil type. Finally, the same class 2 is present with class 4 (2/4) only in
one unit (L.U. 30). This area is an agricultural field on footslope. In this unit the erosion risk is high in the upper
part of the slope where Leptosols are dominant; on the other hand, in the lower part of the slope, the erosion risk
may not be significant, even if the soil is classified as Vertisol.
Class 3 is spread over two Land Units which are classified with respect to their slope types as footslope and
terraced slopes with rainfed annual crops. The traditional terraced practice done by the local farmers reduces the
susceptibility of the land to erosion when compared to the un-terraced sloping agricultural lands. The land
117
classified as class 3 has the tendency to move to class 4 where the morphology is undulating with rises and
scarps. In this case, the units are classified as standalone units for example class 3/4 in a mixed category.
The effect of class 4 increases when the slope becomes steeper and the land not cultivated but with natural
vegetation cover. In some cases, the units that are covered with dense shrubs are also categorised in this group
when they are on strongly dissected sloping surfaces with summit sub flat areas (L.U. 3). Meanwhile, on
undulating rises (L.U. 20, 21, 22) and terraced slopes (L.U. 32), the area is under cultivation with sparse shrubs.
This area is well managed with stonelines. This proves that farmers can control erosion moderately with some
well known conservation practices. On the other hand, class 3 is also categorised as independent class with class
5 in one unit on moderately steep slope with open shrub and agricultural lands (L.U. 35). This area has no
significant difference when compared to class 3/4, however, the erosion susceptibility is higher due to the
geological formation; the associated soils are mostly developed from marl with black and sandy limestone which
is very soft and loose in structure.
The class 4 is mostly concentrated in the escarpment and also, well distributed in the “Plateau” on undulating
crests (L.U. 15), strongly and moderately dissected surfaces with or without summits (L.U. 1, 3, 5, 6, 10, 11, 12).
The slope form is the main factor that can accelerate the intensity of the soil erosion and can be aggravated by
considerable vegetation loss. There are three types of land use which are observed in these classes. In most of the
Land Units classified as sloping scarp (L.U. 16, 17, 18, 19), the scattered forest plantation is dominant with some
stonelines. On the other hand, degradation control is practiced in the units on dissected sloping slope and
undulating crests (L.U. 11, 12, 15) with open shrubs and rainfed annual crops. However, the tendency of erosion
risk is very high due to the geological formation in most areas of the class and the different exposable slope
forms like crests, sloping scarps, steep and strong slopes and strongly dissected slopes. Another important factor
that can accelerate soil erosion in the area is the rapidly growing human population on the existing poor
vegetation cover. The Eastern highland which creates a distinction between the Ethiopian rift escarpment and the
Mekele “Plateau” is mostly covered by open and close scrubs. However, erosion is provoked by human pressure
on the natural vegetation, for the demand of fuel wood and construction materials and extensive grazing. Class 4
is also categorised as a mixed class with class 5 on moderately steep, steep scarp and strongly dissected surfaces
(L.U. 25, 13, 8), which are geologically characterised by interbedded marl with white and black limestone,
dolerite and limestone and shale in the Escarpment respectively. The heterogeneity of these formations is the
base for this class to be associated to different soil units. The susceptibility to erosion hazard was observed due
to the high intensity of slopes, even though degradation control is practiced in the agricultural lands with the
open scrubs by the local community. Erosion risk is considerably high on strongly dissected sloping surface with
closed scrubs due to the erodibility of Calcisols and Cambisols on the drainage lines of the escarpment. The
Class 5 is the most susceptible class which is widely distributed on very steep slopes of the Antalo substrata
(L.U. 31) and moderately and strongly dissected slopes of the Ethiopian rift escarpment (L.U. 2, 7, 9) that
characterise the most significant erosion process. The erosion process is highly susceptible on the agricultural
areas due to the poor textured of the soils and lack of vegetation cover, although the soil conservation measures
are well practiced.
The Van Zuidam model is very important to evaluate the erosion risk on the land resources, however it should be
noted that, this general model can give only a primary conclusion on the erosion risk. According to the Van
Zuidam, the general erosion trend over the entire study area depends more on the slope parameter than the
vegetation cover, therefore, the susceptibility values indicate more erosion risk in the high gradient slopy areas
even though there are significant cover of vegetation that can minimise the intensity of rainfall before reaching
soil, which may reduce the run off that can cause severe erosion (e.g. class 4, sloping scarp).
To conclude, future users of this methodology should consider the weight of the impact of vegetation cover as a
parameter which is very important during rating in the susceptibility evaluation.
118
Figure 45-Van Zuidam erosion risk map
119
4.3.2 Application of RUSLE methodology

Many different models are used to estimate soil loss and, among them, we can cite the Water Erosion Prediction
Project (WEPP), which is a process based on continuous simulation of the erosion model that simulates climate,
infiltration, water balance, plant growth and residue decomposition, tillage and consolidation, surface runoff,
erosion, sediment transport and decomposition, as well as winter processes (Breetzke 2004). In the mid- to late-
1980’s the Agricultural Research Service of the United States developed The Universal Soil Loss Equation
(USLE). This is an erosion model designed to predict the “long time average soil losses in run-off from specific
field areas in specified cropping and management systems” (Wischmeier and Smith, 1978). In response to the
poor predictive ability of the USLE in Zimbabwe (then Rhodesia), the Rhodesian Multidisciplinary Team on
Soil Loss Estimation, under the leadership of Elwell in the 1977 (Breetzke 2004), developed the Soil Loss
Estimation Model for southern Africa (SLEMSA) for estimating long-term mean annual soil loss from sheet
erosion on arable land (Hudson, 1987 cited in Breetzke 2004). SLEMSA is a relatively widely used soil loss
model in the African environment (Elwell and Stocking, 1982, cited in Breetzke 2004), but for this study it was
decided not to use SLEMSA because of the different local conditions between South and East Africa. The
Department of Agriculture (USDA-ARS) developed an improved USLE-based model for the north-eastern areas
of the United States of America (USA) (Smith, 1999). This was called the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation
(RUSLE). The main differences with the previous version (USLE) being that RUSLE incorporates more data
than USLE; it corrects errors in the USLE analysis and fills gaps in the original data. The most important
characteristic of RUSLE is that it is much more flexible than USLE and allows for the modelling of a greater
variety of systems. That is why this model was chosen for soil loss estimation in this study.
Methodology
The factors causing erosion such as climate, soil properties, vegetation cover and management practices are
considered for estimating soil loss. The RUSLE equation is a multiplicative function of five factors controlling
the interrill and rill erosion:
A = R * K * LS * C * P
where:
A is the mean annual soil loss expressed in ton\ha*yr
R is rainfall and runoff erosivity index (in MJ* mm\ha*yr)
K is soil erodibility factor (in ton*ha*h/ha*MJ*mm)
LS is slope and length factor (dimensionless)
C is the cover factor (dimensionless)
P is the conservation practice factor (dimensionless).
R FACTOR
It is the so called Erosivity, which means the driving force of the rain to cause detachment and successive
transport of soil particles. Precipitations are a very important erosion factor particularly in arid areas, where the
soil is usually directly exposed to rain drops and its composing particles do not have a great cohesion power. The
effects of rain are manifold. The first contribution of precipitations to the erosion starts when rain drops touch
the soil causing the “splash erosion”. Depending on the energy of the drops (size, height from which they start to
fall) and on the characteristics of the terrain on which they fall down, it will be a great or little detachment and
displacement of soil particles. In a following phase, when the rainfall event is so strong that not all the water is
penetrating the soil, the water which accumulates on the ground (facilitated by low soil permeability) starts to
flow following the maximum sloping direction and digging more and more big and deep channels (rill and gully
erosion). From these bases the R factor expresses the power of the rain to start an erosion process. Traditionally,
R is calculated for each rainfall event as the kinetic energy of a rainstorm, times its maximum intensity over 30
minutes divided by 100 (erosion index, Wischmeier, 1959 cited in Arnoldus 1977):
R = E ∗ I 30
Repeating this calculation for all the rainstorm events, it is possible to get R values for a month or a year or the
overall average for many years. As such type of data are not easily collected, Arnoldus proposed an equivalent
equation using only mean monthly and annual precipitation data (Fourier’s modified index cited in Arnoldus
1977):
12
Pi 2
∑1 P
Where:
Pi is the mean monthly rainfall and P the annual average precipitation, both expressed in mm.
120
From some studies on 178 experimental stations in USA, the relation between the Wishmeier and the Arnoldus
equation was found to be the following :
12
Pi 2
LogR = 1.93 * log ∑ − 1.52
1 P
with a correlation coefficient of 0.91 (Arnoldus 1977). To compute this calculation Worldclim raster data (with
spatial resolution of 1Km, see chapter 3.1) were used (http://www.worldclim.org) and processed in ArcGIS
software to get R values in the entire study area. Finally, data owing to each relevé were extracted from this grid
sheet and exported in excel format to join them with other RUSLE factors data.
K FACTOR
This factor is known as Erodibility; the susceptibility of the soil to be eroded by water. It depends on a lot of
biological and chemical soil characteristics such as its mineralogical composition, particle size, the permeability
and the presence of organic matter. The granulometry can be considered as the most important factor influencing
K. It was found that the erodibility of a soil increases proportionally with the amount of fine sand and silt content
(Giordani and Zanchi, 1995) and the middle range of granulometry classes (diagram of Hjulstrom cited in Roose,
1996). In fact, finer textured soils, very rich in clay, are more resistant to particles detachment, because of their
great cohesion, while coarser textured soils allow to a high infiltration of water, avoiding superficial runoff. Even
the organic matter content is important to stating Erodibility, as it contributes to increase particle aggregation (by
the presence of chelating agents) and water infiltration. All the factors mentioned above are grouped in one
equation, valid for soils with less than 70% of silt plus very fine sand (Wischmeier and Smith, 1978). This is an
empirical formula expressing soil loss for a specific soil present in standard rectangular plots of 22.1m of length
(along the maximum sloping direction) and with 9% steepness, free of vegetation and leaved in a seed bad
condition.
2.1 *10−4 * (12 − OM ) * M 1.14 + 3.25 * ( s − 2) + 2.5( p − 3)

K=
100
where:
OM is the percentage of organic matter;
M is the particle-size parameter defined as:
M = (% FineSand + % Silt ) * (100 − %Clay )

where:
Fine Sand is considered the soil fraction between 0.1 and 0.05mm;
Silt, the fraction between 0.05 and 0.002mm;
Clay, the particles measuring less than 0.002mm (USDA classification cited in Renard et al., 1997).
‘s’ is the soil structure code. The structure codes‘s’, derived from Wischmeier and Smith nomogram, are:
- 1: very fine granular (<1mm) 3: medium coarse granular (2-5mm)
- 2: fine granular (1-2mm) 4: blocky, platy or massive (5-10mm).
‘p’ is the permeability soil class. Permeability classes are derived from soil texture (USDA 1983 cited in Renard
et al., 1997) and range from value 1 (rapid to very rapid drainage), given to sand, less susceptible to erosion for
its good infiltration, to value 6 (very slow drainage), given to silty-clay and clay soils, characterised by a high
water retention capability, but allowing overflow once soil is saturated. ‘p’ values were corrected for the
presence of rock fragments in the soil, shifting the permeability class of one if the rock fragments abundance was
grater than 40%. All the above mentioned data of texture, structure, granulometry and organic matter content
refers only to the first soil horizon observed in each relevé during the fieldwork, because it was stated to be the
most affected by erosive processes. The results coming from the application of K equation were corrected by the
abundance of stone cover on the soil, which plays an important role in erosion reduction (modified from Kassam,
1992).
Finally K values were multiplied by 0.1317 to convert them in S.I. units (t*ha*h/ha*Mj*mm), as suggested by
Renard et al. (1997).
LS FACTOR
The topographic factor is a very important parameter in water soil erosion, since the gravity force is playing a
decisive role in surface runoff. LS factor takes in account together the steepness (S), which increase the velocity
of runoff, and the length (L) of a slope, which contributes to enlarge the ground surface affected by runoff. LS
values express the soil loss of a study area in comparison with that registered by a standard field with 22.1m of
length and 9% gradient. Two equations were used to estimate the topographic parameter; one for slopes up to
20% gradient and one for steeper slopes (Arnoldus, 1977)
121
For slopes up to 20%:
(
LS = (L ) * 0.0138 + 0.00965S + 0.00138S 2
0.5
)
For slopes over 20%:
0.6 1.4
 L  S
LS =   * 
 22.2  9
where:
L is the slope length expressed in meters;
S is the slope gradient in percentage.
All L and S data were collected during the fieldwork. The steepness was measured with a clinometer, while the
length was recorded keeping in mind the following definition: “ slope length is the horizontal distance from the
origin of overland flow to the point where either the slope gradient decrease enough that deposition begins or
runoff becomes concentrated in a defined channel” (Wischmeier and Smith, 1978 from Renard et al., 1997).
C FACTOR
This is the cover management parameter and it ranges between 0 (ideal case when there is no soil loss) and 1,
corresponding to the greater amount of soil loss. This dimensionless factor measures the ratio of soil loss
between a specific area with given cover management conditions and an experimental plot under reference
conditions (clean tilled continuous fallow conditions (Renard et al., 1997)). Cover is usually referred to the
vegetation, which has a strong influence on protecting soil by water erosion. In fact it can reduce erosive rain
force being an obstacle for rain drops falling from the sky. Then, even soil erodibility can be diminished by
vegetation roots, which produce some chemical bonding matter able to compact soil particles, as well as they
absorb water for their photosynthetic activities reducing the amount of runoff water. As management-cover
situations can vary a lot from one place to another, a subfactor approach to estimate C values was proposed in
the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (Foster 2003, RUSLE user’s guide).
C = Cc * Gc * S r * Rh * Sb * Sc * Am
where:
Cc is the canopy subfactor;
Gc is the ground cover subfactor;
Sr is the soil roughness subfactor;
Rh is the ridge eight subfactor;
Sb is the soil biomass subfactor;
Sc is the soil consolidation subfactor;
Am is the soil moisture subfactor.
This computed method for C factor is very useful because it is land use independent, considering in each
management cover situation the characteristics affecting this parameter. This procedure was applied in the
relevés situated in areas covered by natural vegetation, considering only the two first subfators Cc and Gc since
available data were not enough to calculate all the coefficients. The resultant equation becomes:
C = Cc * Gc
Canopy subfactor is defined as vegetative cover present over the soil (not in direct contact with it), able to
intercept raindrops. This interception reduces the impact energy of water drops on the soil. In fact, impact energy
is proportional to water drop mass (estimated from drop diameter) and to drop water velocity (related to drop fall
height). Water drops falling from vegetation branches can be grater than raindrops reaching the canopy (because
of their accumulation on leaves), but the reduced fall height diminishes anyway their erosivity (a height less than
10m is considered good to reduce erosivity power, Foster 2003, RUSLE user’s guide). Water collected on the
vegetation cover can also reach the soil flowing along stems, contributing to delay the oncoming of water on the
ground available for runoff. These possible effects are comprised in the Cc subfactor, computed with the
following equation:
(−0.1*h f )
Cc = 1 − f c exp
where:
fc is the canopy cover fraction;
hf is the effective fall eight.
122
For the canopy cover fraction the total woody cover percentage recorded in the field (using the field guide for
percentage cover estimation (FAO, 2006)) was considered. The portion of the canopy above ground cover was
assumed to have no effect on water erosion, therefore fc was corrected in effective canopy cover (fce), using the
following formula (Foster 2003, RUSLE user’s guide):
f ce = f c * (1 − f g )
where:
fg is the soil fraction covered by ground cover, and in this study it corresponds to the grass percentage cover.
For hf it was decided to take an average number of 0.5m, since the majority of the natural vegetation was
composed by shrubs passing this height. In fact the effective height does not correspond to the maximum height
of the vegetation, but to the height from where water drops start to fall without obstacles toward the ground. The
ground cover variable (Gc) considers everything covering the soil touching it directly and protecting it by the
direct drops impact. The ground cover also obstructs water overflow above the ground. Gc subfactor was found
with an exponential equation (Foster 2003, RUSLE user’s guide):
Gc = exp(−b* f c )
where:
‘b’ is a coefficient varying with surface roughness. The lower value taken by this coefficient corresponds to a
soil modified by interril erosion (sheet erosion), while the higher value to a soil affected by rill erosion. In this
study mainly sheet erosion was detected, so it was used as ‘b’ value of 0.025, corresponding to a smooth surface,
permitting only interril erosion.
‘fc’ is the covered soil fraction. During the fieldwork a wide stone cover was noticed, then it was decided that
only this cover contribution should be considered because it is stronger than grass cover, even when the rainy
season starts, the grass cover is small and dry and its role against erosion was regarded as negligible compared to
rock fragment cover.
For surveys done on agricultural lands, (representing above half of all relevés), the computation of C factor
adopted refers to a different procedure, using Kassam methodology (Kassam, 1992). The first step was to choose
the main crops cultivated in the study area. As written in chapter 3.4, wheat, barley and teff are the most diffuse
cultivations in Enderta district. These crops have very similar characteristics such as the shape of the plant,
growing rates during the year, and growing length period. Thus, a growth cycle of 150 days was stated as
representative for all the main crops. This number was chosen on the bases of seeding and harvesting dates
(http://www.dppc.gov.et/Livelihoods/Tigray/Downloadable/Tigray%20Livelihood%20Zone%20Reports/EDM.p
dff). This growing period was divided in four stages following Kassam method: Establishment (E), Early
vegetative (EV), Late vegetative (LV) and Maturation (M), which correspond, respectively, to 10%, 25%, 25%
and 40% of the total growth cycle. For each stage, correspondent LAI (Leaf Area Index) values were calculated
as percentage of the maximum LAI achieved by the crop during its vegetative period. Crop cover was
consequently retrieved with the following formula:
C = 100 * (1 − exp(− KL ) )
where:
L is LAI value;
K is a constant based on the geometry of the crops and counts 0.7 for wheat and barley.
Finally C factor was found entering a table converting cover values to C RUSLE factor values for annual crops.
Among the four growing stages, only the first period was taken in account because it is the most dangerous
situation for erosion, since it is the time when rains start and the soil is still not covered by any plant. As after
harvesting all crop residues are usually collected and the soil remains free from every type of cover, this
contribution against erosion was ignored. For the two relevés situated in the forest plantation and in the grassland
area, an arbitrary C factor of 0.7 was used.
P FACTOR
Even this factor is dimentionless and expresses the ratio between soil loss from a terrain on which support
practices are adopted and the same kind of land worked with upslope and downslope tillage. This factor
considers any practice applied by humans to reduce erosion degree and soil loss amount deriving from water
erosion process. It includes a variety of agriculture management activities such as tillage and planting along
contour lines (contouring), fields alternated to sod strips along the contours (stripcropping), tree lines planted
along agricultural fields or terracing. This last practice consists in breaking the slope moving part of the soil to
build successive steps. Something similar was observed during the fieldwork, even if slopes were not really
broken removing soil, they were only fractioned by a series of stone bunds built along the contour lines (Photo
42).
123
Photo 42-Stone bunds against water erosion along a natural vegetation covered slope (Photo Ntoh Doris Bate)
This was considered as a useful strategy to reduce runoff and collect the soil moved by sheet erosion along the
slope. In a recent study by Nyssen et al. (2007), P factor for this practice was estimated equal to 0.32, thus the
same value was used for each relevé where these characteristic constructions were observed (in agricultural land
as in places covered by natural vegetation). In the same study, carried on agricultural fields, three main
advantages of stone bunds application against erosion were demonstrated: the accumulation rate of sediments
behind ‘stonelines’ is almost equivalent to the soil loss due to sheet and rill erosion, even if some amount is still
lost for tillage erosion; water infiltration is improved near (up and down) stone bunds, keeping moisture for at
least two months after the rainy season; crop yields are slightly improved. Another interesting practice that was
noticed in some places was the digging of some subsequent holes immediately above the stone bunds, in which
soil and water flowing from upslope are collected (Photo 43). Ù
Photo 43-Practice to collect water and sediments lost by erosion (Photo Sara Minelli)
124
Results
The final quantitative RUSLE value expressing the amount of soil loss in t/ha in a year (A value in the first
equation of this chapter), ranges from less than 1 to very high soil loss rates (226.5 t/ha). This data range is
comparable with literature (Sonnelved et al., 2001). For a better visual appreciation of these quantities, RUSLE
values were grouped in five classes following Bergsma classification (Bergsma, 1986): Very Low (0 to 5
t/ha*y), Low (5 to 12 t/ha*y), Medium (12 to 25 t/ha*y), High (25 to 60 t/ha*y) and Very High (more than 60
t/ha*y). The first two classes are considered in the range of soil loss tolerance values. High class has to be
controlled to gain a sustainable productivity, while the last class is very dangerous because it can be destructive
in few hears if no interventions are done and soil loss trend is maintained constant in the future. Figure 46 shows
RUSLE classification for the study area. Not relevant (NR) polygons correspond to villages, urban areas and
water bodies, not considered in the evaluation.
To better understand the results, it is important to analyse them in relation with soil, morphological and
topographical local characteristics, paying attention even to the land use. Very Low and Low classes occupy
mainly the central part of the study area which is mainly used for agriculture. The Very Low class corresponds to
river valleys or footslopes, where the decreasing slope gradient allows the accumulation of materials transported
by water or gravity. Here soils are deeper and better permeable than in other places of the study area and the
almost flat morphology enables even the conservation of soil sediments lost by erosion processes from
neighbouring hills. The Low class is more expanded than the previous one. The increasing soil loss amount is
mainly due to slightly grater inclinations in comparison with the previous landforms. Stone bunds practice
positively affects RUSLE values, (which are still in a tolerable range), even if C factor in agricultural fields is the
maximum (equal to 1), because of the choice to consider as reference the worst possible situation encountered
during the year (see chapter above, “C factor”). In the Escarpment the reasons for low soil loss values are related
mainly to the protective role of natural vegetation cover and even to lower R values. In fact, the general
distribution of mean annual rainfalls over the Enderta district shows an increasing gradient south-east to north-
west. The Medium class is widespread over the study area, occupying some scarp strips along Antalo geological
Formation and the central part of the Escarpment. In this case, the combination of the different factors computing
soil loss rates gives an intermediate situation.
The High class is mainly concentrated in the Escarpment and along Antalo scarp layers. In both places slope-
length factor is increased considerably and the absence of stonelines along the contours allows a significant loss
of soil, which is not sufficiently stopped by scrubs cover. The most dangerous situation is found in
correspondence to strongest slopes, absence of soil conservation practices and still short vegetation cover to face
the strong water erosion. In conclusion, it can be said that quantitative RUSLE values are gotten from the
combination of many parameters interacting with each others in a complex way. It seems that factors affecting in
a stronger way the final score are the one taking into account the topography (SL factor), and the P factor,
followed by the Cover parameter. In this case study, in fact, K values do not present a very high variability (from
0.007 to 0.07). Even the erosivity index do not present irrelevant variation (from 227 to 482 MJ* mm\ha*yr),
that can probably be explained with little scale topographical variations, which play a determinant role in storm
distribution above the study area.
125
Figure 46-Erosion map showing RUSLE soil loss amount estimated over the study area.
126
A comparison between qualitative Van Zuidam erosion risk estimation and quantitative soil loss RUSLE
evaluation was done. 75% of the relevés were affected by a lower soil loss amount in comparison to the erosion
risk estimated with Van Zuidam method. Even though there is not a stated correspondence between the two
classification systems, this comparison allows having a general appreciation of the situation, highlighting the
cases in which Van Zuidam previsions are very far from real occurrence of the phenomenon. For example, two
relevés show a very high RUSLE value, but they are not entering in the Van Zuidam higher erosive risk class. It
means that in these places care should be taken to avoid severe consequences caused by a faster than predictable
degenerated erosion process. A good correlation was found between Van Zuidam values and logarithm of
RUSLE scores, as shown in Figure 47.
The polynomial correlation equation is displayed in the above figure with correspondent R2 of 0.59. In about half
of the relevés the predicted RUSLE value by regression equation overestimate the reality. The average predictive
error of this regression is about 20%, coming from the calculation of Root Mean Square Error.
Figure 47-Correlation between Van Zuidam erosion risk and RUSLE soil loss quantities (expressed in
logarithmic scale)
127
128
5. LAND MANAGEMENT AND LAND USE

PLANNING
5.1 Multitemporal analysis
Timely and accurate change detection on the features of the earth's surface is extremely important for
understanding relationships and interactions between human and natural phenomena in order to promote better
decision making. The use of remote sensing technology has been proven useful in providing accurate and timely
information, for instance, before the occurrence of a disaster or other unforeseen circumstances. The study of the
temporal changes of spatial patterns is important to understand the underlying factors and the functional effects
(Asif, 2005). According to Teng (2006), change detection is the process of identifying differences in the state of
an object or phenomenon by observing it at different times and it involves the application of multi-temporal
datasets to quantitatively analyse the temporal effects of the phenomenon.
Due to the advantages of repetitive data acquisition, its synoptic view, and digital format suitable for computer
processing, remotely sensed data have become the major data sources for different change detection applications
during the past decades. This chapter focuses on the multi-temporal analysis of the Enderta District, with special
attention on changes on the vegetation and urban that occurred over a time period of fourteen years. Different
datasets and procedures were used in analysing the changes as presented below.
5.1.1 Vegetation change analysis

The first step in analysing the change detection was the selection of appropriate satellite images in order to
optimise the accuracy. The main criteria used in the selection process were time of acquisition of the images and
the sensor types. Since the analysis focused on both vegetation change and urban expansion, different criteria
were used in the selection of the images. Accordingly, the satellite images selected to perform the change
detection analysis for vegetation cover were Landsat 5/TM acquired on January 5, 1986 and the Landsat
7/ETM+ acquired on February 2, 2000. In addition to the similar sensors, these images were selected mainly due
to similar date of acquisition. Although they have a temporal difference of fourteen years, both images were
taken in the dry season according to the seasonal calendar of the study area. This prevents the dynamic change of
vegetation cover that could occur due to seasonal variations.
The image processing procedures used in the multi-temporal analysis have schematically been represented below
step by step (Figure 48).
LANDSAT 7 ETM+ 2000 LANDSAT 5 TM 1986
Relative
Atmospheric correction
NDVI NDVI
LANDSAT 7 ETM+ 2000 LANDSAT 5 TM 1986
NDVI LANDSAT 5
TM 1986
RESCALED
VEGETATION INDEX DIFFERENCING

(NDVI LANDSAT 7 ETM+ 2000) – (NDVI LANDSAT
5 TM 1986)
DENCITY SLICING
Figure 48-Framework of the processing
129
Song et al. (2001), state that the effect of the atmosphere can prevent the proper interpretation of images if it is
not taken into account. Whether such correction is needed depends on the information desired and the analytical
methods used to extract the information. For many applications involving image classification and change
detection, atmospheric correction is unnecessary. Image classification with a maximum likelihood classifier
using a single date image is a typical example in which atmospheric correction is not needed. On the other hand,
atmospheric correction is necessary before classification and change detection in many other situations. For
example, the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) which is often used to monitor vegetation
dynamics needs atmospheric correction before change detection. NDVI makes use radiance values or apparent
reflectance values of the red and the near-infrared spectral bands. These reflectance values are influenced by
atmospheric aerosols. This makes the atmospheric correction necessary in order to calculate accurate NDVI
values free of aerosols (Song et al; 2001).
Basically, there are two types of atmospheric correction methods: the absolute and the relative method. In the
former method, a digital number is converted to surface reflectance value. In the latter method, an image is
corrected relatively to another one representing the same scene, but acquired in a different time. This means
relative atmospheric correction does not require estimation of any atmospheric optical properties, because it is
based on the fact that in the two images some objects are changing with time, while others remain equal,
becoming reference points for the correction. This atmospheric correction method corrects not only the relative
difference in atmospheric conditions but also all other perturbative factors such as sensor response and noise
(Song et al.; 2001).
Accordingly in our case, relative atmospheric correction of the ETM+ image was made to reduce the
atmospheric effects and to equalise the DN values of both images. In this case the Landsat TM image was taken
as a reference, while the second image (ETM+), was rescaled on the base of the first one. The correction was
made by applying an empirical linear spectral normalisation based on the identification, in both images, of a dark
set and a bright set in each spectral band. The average digital number of a set of dark pixels and the average
digital number of a set of bright pixels were used to replace respectively the actual minimum and maximum
values in the scene (Yuan and Elvidge, 1996).
A vegetation index differencing technique was used for change detection analysis. According to Lu et al. (2004),
the vegetation index differencing has the advantage of emphasising differences in the spectral response of
different features and reducing impacts of topographic effects and illumination. In order to perform the
differencing, the NDVI image of the atmospherically corrected ETM+ and the NDVI of the TM were
interactively stretched to have the same NDVI values. Then the TM (i.e. the older image) was subtracted from
the ETM+ to obtain the difference or rescaled image. Finally, density slicing was applied on the different images
by carefully fixing the thresholds and the result was as follows (Figure 49).
To analyse the change on vegetation cover over a period of fourteen years, the analysis was conducted over a
total area of 49,375 hectare which is primarily allocated for vegetation growth. This area is located in the eastern
part of the District and is currently enclosed for the enhancement of natural vegetation. This part of the study
area was selected for vegetation change analysis mainly due to homogeneous land use. This means, this part is
mainly covered with natural vegetation particularly scrubs which is relatively better for vegetation change
analysis than the mixed land uses. So, all the percentages have been calculated on the base of this total area
(Table 44).
DEGREE OF INCREASE TOTAL AREA INCREASED (ha) ANNUAL INCREASE (%)

Strong increase (dense) 1,469 0.22
Moderate increase 15,427 2.23
Total increase 16,896 2.44
Table 44-Results of vegetation change analysis
When we look at the trend of the vegetation change, the rate of moderate increase is relatively greater than the
strong (dense) increase and the total average annual increase in vegetation cover over fourteen years is 2.44%.
This shows that there is a positive change in the vegetation cover of this area over the past fourteen years. Since
1991, the Regional Government of Tigray has promoted area enclosures to encourage natural vegetation
regeneration (Nyssen et al., 2007). So the area enclosure could perhaps be the main driving force for the
enhancement of the natural vegetation. However, according to our observation, this area is currently under a
great pressure of wood collection. Many people are collecting and transporting wood by donkeys to urban areas
for sale. Therefore, the regional or local administration should take appropriate and timely action in order to curb
or reduce the pressure on this area.
130
Figure 49-Vegetation change
5.1.2 Urban change

For the analysis of urban expansion, in addition to the above two Landsat images, a Quickbird image taken in
October 1, 2006 (it means six years later than the Landsat ETM+ image) was used. These three images were
used as references to calculate the expansion of the towns as explained below.
The multi-temporal analysis for urban expansion focused only on the two main towns in the study area, namely
Mekele and Kwiha (Figure 50). The former is the capital city of the Tigray Region and the latter is the
administrative town of the study area, Enderta District. The result for both towns is analysed below separately.
Due to the lack of multi-temporal field data on the area of these towns, the analysis for the urban expansion was
based on remote sensing data. Accordingly, based on the area of the towns in these three images, different
methods were applied and combined to forecast the area of both towns i.e. in 2015. Firstly, the area was
forecasted assuming an increase of fixed amount of hectares each year. Secondly, the forecasted area was
calculated assuming an annual growth rate of fixed percentage. Finally, the results of the two methods were
combined and the average of these two methods was used to forecast the area of the towns in 2015.
131
Figure 50-Expansion rate of Mekele and Kwiha towns (1986-2015)

According to the analysis, both towns are growing with an increasing rate. If the Government does not take some
measures to modify the current housing system, the area of the Mekele town will be more than two folds in
2015. The same procedure of analysis was adopted for Kwiha and the results are explained below (Table 45).
MEKELE KWIHA
Years Total area (ha) Total Area increase (ha) Total area (ha) Total Area increase (ha)
1986 443 - 58 -
2000 1,391 948 210 152
2006 2,485 1,094 390 180
2015 5,029 2,544 823 433
Table 45-Past and forecasted area of Mekele town
As both towns are surrounded by agricultural lands, many agricultural fields will be encroached as the result of
urban expansion.
132
Generally, in the Tigray Region redistribution of agricultural land for small farmers was suspended since 1991 to
prevent further fragmentation of plots. The primary reason for the suspension is shortage of agricultural lands.
According to Gebreegziabher (2007), generally, the average farm holding size in the region is 0.97 hectares.
However, in the study area, due to the rapid expansion of these towns, agricultural lands are being diminished. It
is important to pay great attention for these two conflicting issues, urban expansion on one hand and diminishing
agricultural lands on the other hand. Both issues are crucially important from the economic point of view. So
there is a need from the Regional Government to make some reform to alter the current housing system of towns
in order to reduce the rapid encroachment of agricultural lands.
5.2 Suitability analysis for locating sanitary landfill site
Municipal solid waste generation is among the most significant sources of threat to the global environmental
health (Javaheri et al., 2006). The rapid growth of towns in developing countries, coupled with poor waste
management, aggravates this problem. Poor management of solid waste in urban areas greatly affects the poor
people, women and children who are more vulnerable to health hazards. According to the World Bank research
on the effects of solid waste in the world 22 human diseases are related to improper solid waste management
(Birke, 1999). Poorly managed solid waste also results to poor productivity with low income and poor quality of
life which in turn deteriorates the environment. Similarly, cities and towns in Ethiopia have the same problem.
Environmental studies undertaken by the Ethiopian Government in 1988 showed that out of the 11 project towns
in Ethiopia (Addis Ababa, Akaki, Assela, Ambo, Arsi Negele, Goba, Mizan Teferri, Robe, Wolisso, Ziway and
Shashemene) only Addis Ababa had a centralised waste disposal system.
Survey conducted in 15 randomly selected large towns (Dessie, Bahir Dar, Debre Zeit, Gondar, Mekele and
Nazareth) and medium urban areas (Woldiya, Axum, Adigrat, Robe, Gimbi, Adwa, Arbaminch, Wolayita Sodo,
Debremarkos) shows that from the sampled urban areas, 86.6 per cent used open dump while the rest used holes
to dispose waste ( Birke, 1999).
As mentioned above even in Addis Ababa there is only one open landfill commonly known as koshe for the
entire of city of Addis Ababa at a place called Reppi, western part of the city. The present landfill has been
rendering services since 1964, about four decades ago (Sewit, 2005). The open dump landfill had not been
properly designed as a result of which the accumulated waste would have impact on the surrounding human and
physical environment. Moreover, Addis Ababa has now grown which has made koshe to fall within the limits of
the City. Municipal trucks collect solid waste from different parts of the city and dump it in kosher. But, the
trucks are very limited in number and most of them are not functional due to lack of proper maintenance. Also,
given the size of the City, the numbers of public waste containers is inadequate. Increase in population, which
has proportionately increased the amount of waste, and unavailability of adequate access roads have made
difficult to collect waste in the poor and densely populated Kebeles (Sewit, 2005). Lack of public awareness on
proper waste management has further aggravated the undesirable situation. Consequently, the waste that
accumulates in corners of streets and public places has become a matter of concern for public health and the
environment. Therefore, there is a need for a sustainable waste management system that will better meet both the
environmental and sanitation standards in order to make life health for the inhabitants.
The Government of Ethiopia, however, had tried to solve the problem of solid waste management in the cities
and towns through the enactment of the policy human settlements, urban environment and environmental health
(article 3.7 sub- article h), which put emphasis on waste collection and its safe disposal (EPE, 1997). This policy
is supported by a regulation which was issued by proclamation No 513/2007 on solid waste management. The
objective of this proclamation is to enhance at all levels the capacities to prevent the possible adverse impacts
while creating both economical and social beneficial asset of solid waste. As stated in article 11 sub article 1, the
head of each household is expected to ensure that recyclable solid wastes are segregated from non- recyclable
waste that need finance for their disposal, and that these waste are taken to designated collection sites. Even
though some efforts are made by most municipalities in the country, a proper disposal facility is still needed to
implement the issued policy and regulation.
One of the most appropriate disposal facilities is the creation of sanitary landfill sites in the country. Sanitary
landfill is the most cost-effective system of solid waste disposal for most urban areas in developing countries.
Composting of solid waste costs 2-3 times more than sanitary landfill, and incineration costs 5-10 times more. A
sanitary landfill is a contained and engineered bioreactor and attenuation structure, designed to encourage
anaerobic biodegradation and consolidation of compacted refuse materials within confining layers of compacted
soil. In a proper sanitary landfill site, there are no nuisance impacts of constant burning, smoke, flies, windblown
litter, and unsightly rubbish heaps (Sandra, 2004).
With the current increased growth rate in the urban population of Ethiopia, it is estimated that the population of
most urban areas, especially small urban centers, is doubling every 15-25 years. Solid waste generation is
believed to increase with economic development and population growth, therefore, the amount of waste
generated in urban areas is expected to double within a similar time range (Birke, 1999). This situation is
however similar to that of Mekele town located in the study area.
133
Based on the multi-temporal analysis done from 1986 to 2005 on the study area, Mekele and Kwiha towns
indicate higher rates of urban expansion over the past two decades. Urban expansion is strongly related to the
population increase. Therefore, the population of these towns are expected to increase through time. The
population of Mekele in 1994 was 3,136,267 inhabitants and in 2006, the population increased to 4,329,000
(CSA 2005). It is obvious that the population increase is directly proportional to the increase in waste generation.
This paper tries to identify sanitary landfill site(s) in the study area using Geographic Information Systems
(GIS). Space technologies have been successfully utilised worldwide in natural resources and disaster
management. With the availability of high-resolution remote sensing data, monitoring of natural resources at
local scales has become possible to resource managers as a way to create timely and reliable assessments. Waste
generation in the world has reached a higher level across all sectors of the community with subsequent health,
environmental and economic impacts that require management. GIS is one of the important tools that help
environmental managers to better understand environmental issues and to take better decisions. This GIS tool is
used to allocate suitable landfill sites in the study area.
Selecting appropriate site for sanitary landfill is a major need within the path towards sustainable development;
but the design and operation of sanitary landfill should reflect the 3 Rs of waste management which are: reduce,
reuse, and recycle. If the waste can not be managed by the 3 Rs, then it has to be disposed.
5.2.1 Location of landfill in the study area

To locate the sanitary landfill in the study area (Enderta), the following materials and methods were used. The
materials used for this study include: satellite images LANDSAT 7/ETM+, the SRTM digital elevation model,
the lithological map, the Land Unit map, the Land use map, the Land capability map and different literature
documents. A set of geological, geomorphological and socio-economic criteria were taken into consideration for
the analysis (Table 46).
From both a geomorphological and geological points of view, a landfill can not be built on lineaments which are
subjected to be active in the future; the waste disposal site’s lithology should have a low permeability; the site
should be free from erosion risk (Van Zuidam methodology); waste disposal site should not exceed a slope of
10%. From the hydrological point of view, the sanitary landfill site should be located at least 500m from a
drainage course and water bodies. Due to the lack of data, parameters like the water table, which is of great
importance to locate a landfill, was not taken into consideration. The permeability of the soil was derived from
its texture according to Renald et al. (1977). From the socio-economic point of view, the landfill should be
located 3000m from the main towns, 1000m from the villages, 3000m from the Airport, 1000m from the main
roads, 100m from the secondary roads and 50m from other roads.
CRITERIA PARAMETERS DATA SOURCE

Permeability of main lithology Bibliography
Lithological map Satellite data
Geological-geomorphological Lineaments Satellite data
Slope DEM SRTM
Van Zuidam Erosion risk Derivated by fieldwork data
Drainage DEM SRTM
Hydrological
Water bodies Satellite data
Geotechnical Soil Permeability Derived by fieldwork data
Main Towns Satellite data
Villages Satellite data
Airport Satellite data
Main Roads Satellite data
Socio-economical
Secondary Roads Satellite data
Other Roads Satellite data
Land Use map Derivated by Fieldwork data
Land Capability map Derivated by Fieldwork data
Table 46-Criteria and parameters used to locate sanitary landfills
The GIS landfill model can be divided into two main steps:
- exclusion of areas unsuitable for landfill;
- weighting of the entire study area.
Excluded areas are areas unsuitable for landfill because of the risk to the environment and human health, or
excessive costs. The exclusion procedure essentially removes the parts considered unsuitable by the model. This
was done by using the geo-processing technique such as buffer to create the excluded areas. The distances or
134
measurement for each buffer was gotten from literature review (Figure 51). The buffers masks the areas (land
parcels) unsuitable for a landfill.
Distance > Multicriteria decision

Lineaments 500m analysis (MCDA)
Drainage 500m Lithological map
Water bodies 500m Main lithology
Main Towns 3000m Permeability
Villages 1000m Soil Permeability
Airport 3000m Van Zuidam Erosion Risk
Main Roads 1000m map
Secondary Roads 100m Land Capability map
Other Roads 50m Land Use map
Slope<10% Land Unit map
Excluded areas Preliminary suitability map
Final Suitability map for waste disposal
Figure 51-GIS landfill model

The entire study area was examined by the multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA), which deals with a number
of difficulties that decision-makers encounter in handing large amounts of complex information (Malczewski,
1997). The MCDA took into account the permeability of the lithology, the erosion risk of the study area, the
permeability of the soil, the land use and the land capability of the study area. A user- friendly software interface
(Excel-Access-ArcGIS 9) was developed for this stage. The result was a Preliminary Suitability Map for the
location of landfill sites. A suitability rating from 0-3 (increasing order of suitability for a landfill) was allocated
to different Land Units on the bases of this interpolation. If any of the parameter had a score of 0, then, that Land
Unit was considered excluded for a landfill. In a conservable perspective, agriculture in actual and potential
cultivated lands was considered as the preferential land use. In fact, lands already devoted for agriculture were
considered unsuitable for landfill, while for the others actual land uses a further consideration was done: where
Land Capability class was low (it means good land for cultivation) a “least” suitability rate for landfill was
given, while, where Land Capability class suggested other land uses, a “moderate” suitable rate for landfill was
assigned. The relationship between the land use, land capability and suitability for a landfill is summarized in
Figure 52. Buffering the preliminary map with the already selected excluded areas, the final suitability map for
waste disposal was obtained (Figure 53).
Land Capability Suitability

Classes Rate
V,VI,VII,VIII Moderate
Non-Agricultural
Land I,II,III,IV Least
Landuse
V,VI,VII,VIII Excluded
Agricultural
Land
I,II,III,IV Excluded
Figure 52-Relationship between landuse, land capability and suitability for a landfill
135
According to the rating of the above criteria in the study area, no highly suitable site for a landfill exists. 22Km2
of the entire surface area was considered moderately suitable, 82Km2 least suitable and 1366Km2 excluded. This
rating was done with the absence of one of the major parameter, the water table, due to lack of data. However,
before a landfill can be allocated, this kind of project would need to pass through Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) procedures. Anyway from the observation of our used parameters, the most suitable locations
(“moderately suitable” areas) for a landfill could be seen on the landfill suitability map. The chosen area was
selected because it is the most accessible site with an approximate area of 2Km2, which can have a higher
carrying capacity compared to the other sites (Figure 53).
Figure 53-Suitable landfill location in the study area
136
5.3 Scenario for erosion control with prospect of the regrowth of vegetation
The amount of soil lost by water erosion over the study area was evaluated in chapter 4.3.2 following RUSLE
methodology. Looking at the different parameters influencing this estimation (see formula in section 4.3.2,
Methodology) it was decided to hypothesize some changes in one variable and see the consequences in RUSLE
values. The Erosivity factor was supposed to be stable on a relatively short time interval, as it is based on
climatic variables (monthly and annual precipitations). The Erodibility factor is based on soil properties, which
are deriving from the combination of a lot of aspects: nature of the substratum (geology, lithology of the parent
material), influence of the vegetation covering it and micro organisms living inside it, geomorphology, human
influence, climate and finally the time. Then, it is very difficult to think about a possible evolution of all these
factors together. The topographical characteristics can be modified by man only applying some measures like
terracing or the building of stone bunds cutting the slopes. These human interventions were already taken in
account in the calculation of the P factor (practises against erosion). It remains only the Cover factor, that can be
easily changed by leaving the vegetation grow in a natural way, without exploitation for grazing or firewood
collection. It was therefore decided to consider a possible future variation of natural vegetation cover in those
places where natural vegetation already exists (from fieldwork relevés). From multi-temporal analysis, described
in chapter 5.1.1, a period of fourteen years was regarded to see the past evolution of the vegetation in the
Escarpment area. It was found out that on average, there was annual increase of vegetation cover by 2.44%
between 1986 and 2000. Hypothesizing such a growth rate for the future, in about 20 years the vegetation would
increase of 50% of the present situation. Assuming this change in C factor, a new RUSLE map was prepared
(Figure 54). Soil loss in some Land Units is changing, relative to the prevailing conditions. Most of the changes
are supposed to be in the Escarpment, the area mostly occupied by vegetation. Infact, Very High and Medium
classes leave the place to High and Low classes in all the eastern part of the study area. Even in Mekele
“Plateau” some changes were predicted, concentrated in the Antalo Formation outcrop area (the west and the
north of Enderta): Land Unit 26 changed from Medium to Low class of RUSLE, while Land Unit 35 changed
from High to Medium class. It is also interesting to say that not all these changes occur at the same time. Infact,
doing a step by step analysis of the evolution considering 10% of vegetation growth for each step, the different
Land Units change gradually. Probably, this dissimilar behaviour is due to the previous conditions in the areas
involved in the evolution. The first two Land Units to change are occupied by sparse vegetation or by a mixed
situation of natural vegetation and agriculture. The successive units to change are actually covered by open
scrubs, while the last Land Units to change are occupied by a denser vegetation cover. In fact, the same
percentage of evolution applied on a soil with none or a low protection from water erosion has grater effects than
if it is applied on a soil already partially covered by a significant vegetation cover. The encouraging fact is that
the Very High class (the most dangerous situation from an erosion point of view), presently in the Escarpment,
in only four years could stabilize to the High class after the successive years. The others Very High class
polygons scattered in the rest of the study area do not show any change because they are mostly used for
agricultural activities. Probably, devoting some areas in these lands to the regeneration growth of vegetation
could be a sustainable solution to diminish erosional effects even in this part.
137
Figure 54-RUSLE map in the hypothesis of 50% vegetation growth
138
5.4 Scenario for commercial forestry, soil conservation forestry and naturalistic forestry
Three major kinds of land use in forestry can be distinguished on the basis of the primary purposes of the
managed forest that are commerce, soil conservation, and natural conservation (FAO, 1984).
On the basis of the results on Forest Suitability, Land Capability and Erosion Risk evaluations, an attempt to
plan a sustainable use of forest resources in Enderta District was carried out.
The first step was to assign a weight from 0 to 1 to the six woody species considered in the forest suitability
evaluation, according to their importance for each of the three forest types (Table 47).
Species Commercial Soil conservation Naturalistic

forestry forestry forestry
Eucalyptus camaldulensis 1 1 --
Eucalyptus globulus 0.9 0.9 --
Boswellia papyriphera 0.8 0.6 0.8
Acacia etbaica 0.7 0.5 0.8
Olea africana 0.6 0.7 0.9
Juniperus procera 0.5 0.6 1
Table 47-The weights assigned to the considered species, for each forest utilisation type
At the same time, all the FAO suitability classes (pure and mixed) adopted in the present study were sorted and
converted in numeric values ranging from 0 (N2) to 1 (S1) (Table 48).
S1 S1S2 S1/S3 S1/N1 S1/N2 S2 S2S3 S2/N1 S2/N2 S3 S3/S1 S3N1 S3/N2 N1/S1 N1/S2
1 0.95 0.9 0.85 0.8 0.75 0.7 0.65 0.6 0.55 0.5 0.45 0.4 0.35 0.3
N2/S1 N2/S2 N2/S3 N1 N1N2 N2
0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0
Table 48-The FAO suitability classes and the correspondent numeric values assigned
For each species and for each Land Unit, a final score was obtained multiplying the suitability scores by the
species weight for the considered forest type. The species with the highest final score was then selected for the
scenario.
In this analysis, the Land Units where agriculture can be practised in a sustainable way (land capability classes 1-
3) and obviously the urban areas and water bodies are excluded from any forest management planning. The
remaining actual or potential forested surface of Enderta District is 711.82 Km2. Besides, regarding soil
conservation forestry, only the Land Units showing a strong erosion risk (classes 3 to 5) were taken into account.
The results are shown in Table 49 and in the following maps (Figure 55and Figure 56).
The most flexible species is Acacia etbaica: although its main use is for commercial purposes, it can be
employed for all the three forest types, particularly in the Land Units 16, 27 and 29 of the Mekele “Plateau”. The
commercial, soil conservation and naturalistic Acacia etbaica forests cover respectively, around 25, 2 and 4 % of
the total forest area.
Juniperus procera and Olea africana came out as the most important species for naturalistic forestry, in
accordance with the descriptions of the potential natural vegetation of the Ethiopian Highlands given by many
authors (see paragraph 3.4.2). In this scenario, they cover above 90 % of the total forest area. The olive in the
Ethiopian Rift Escarpment and Juniperus in the Mekele “Plateau” could also be employed for soil conservation
forestry, usually in the less suitable Land Units for Eucalyptus camaldulensis. The higher weight given to the
olive than Juniperus with regard to soil conservation can be justified considering the characteristics of the
canopy cover, which is wider, more dense and closer to the ground. In commercial forestry the two species are
nowhere interesting and their place is taken by Acacia, Boswellia and Eucalyptus camaldulensis.
The latter species could be largely employed, in almost 50 % of the total forest area, either for commercial or
soil conservation purposes in many and different Land Units both in the Mekele “Plateau” and in the Ethiopian
Rift Escarpment.
Boswellia papyriphera could be employed only for commercial purposes and mainly in the Ethiopian Rift
Escarpment, while Eucalyptus globulus does never come out an intersting species for the forest utilization types
considered and does never appear in these scenarios.
139
Soil
Land Olea Juniperus Eucalyptus Eucalyptus Boswellia Acacia Commercial Naturalistic
conservation
Unit africana procera globulus camaldulensis papyriphera etbaica forestry forestry
forestry
Olea
1 S1 S2 N2 N2 S2 S1 Acacia etbaica Olea africana
africana
Boswellia Juniperus
2 S1 S1 N2 S3 S1 S1 Olea africana
papyriphera procera
Eucalyptus Eucalyptus Juniperus
3 S1/S3 S1S2 N2 S1/N2 S1S2 S1
camaldulensis camaldulensis procera
4 S1 S1 N2 S1S2 S1 S1
5 S3 S2 N2 N2 S2 S1 NR NR NR
6 S1 S1S2 S1/N2 S1S2 S1/S3 S1 NR NR NR
7 N2 N2 N2 N2 N2 N2 NR NR NR
Boswellia Juniperus
8 S1 S1 N2 S3N1 S1 S1 Olea africana
papyriphera procera
Eucalyptus Eucalyptus Olea
9 S1/S3 S3 N2 S1/N2 S3N1 S1S2
camaldulensis camaldulensis africana
10 S1 S1S2 N2/S1 S1S2 S1/N1 S1
11 S1 S1 S1/S3 S1S2 S1 S1
Boswellia Juniperus
12 S1 S1 N2/S3 N2/S2 S1 S1 Olea africana
papyriphera procera
13 N2 N2 N2 N2/S1 N2 N2
14 N2 N2 S1 S1 N2 N2
15 N2 N2 N2 S1 N2 N2 NR NR NR
Acacia
16 N1 S2 N2 N2 S2 S1 Acacia etbaica Acacia etbaica
etbaica
Juniperus Juniperus
17 N1N2 S1S2 N2 N2/S3 S2 S1 Acacia etbaica
procera procera
Juniperus Juniperus
18 N1N2 S1S2 N2 S3/N2 S2 S1 Acacia etbaica
procera procera
19 S1 S1 N2 S3 S1 S1 NR NR NR
21 S1 S1/N1 N2 N1/S1 S2S3 S1 NR NR NR
22 S1/N2 S1/N1 N1N2 N2/S3 N2/S1 S1/N2 NR NR NR
23 S1 S1 S1 S1 N1/S1 S1 NR NR NR
Eucalyptus Juniperus
24 S1/N2 S1/N2 S1/N2 S1 S1/N2 S1/N2 NR
camaldulensis procera
Boswellia Juniperus
25 S1/N2 S1/N2 N2 S3/N2 S1/N2 S1/N2 Olea africana
papyriphera procera
26 N2/S3 N2/S1 S3/N2 S1S2 N2/S1 N2/S1
Acacia
27 N1 N1 N2 N2 S3 S1 Acacia etbaica Acacia etbaica
etbaica
Acacia
29 N1N2 N1N2 N2 N2 N2/S3 N2/S1 Acacia etbaica Acacia etbaica
etbaica
30 S1/N2 S1/N2 S1/N2 S3/N2 S1/N2 S1/N2 NR NR NR
Juniperus Juniperus
31 S3 S2 N2 N2 S3 S2 Acacia etbaica
procera procera
32 N1N2 N2 N2 N2 N2 N2 NR NR NR
33 S1 S1 N2 S2S3 S1 S1 NR NR NR
34 S1 S1 S1 N1 S1 S1 NR NR NR
35 S1/N1 S1S2 N2 S1/N2 S2S3 S1
Eucalyptus Acacia
36 S2 S3 N2 S3 S2 S1 Acacia etbaica
camaldulensis etbaica
37 S1/N1 S1/N1 N2 S1 S1S2 S1 NR NR NR
38 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR
Table 49-Results of land suitability for forestry and scenario for three forest utilization types
140
Figure 55-Scenario for soil conservation forestry and commercial forestry
141
Figure 56-Scenario for naturalistic forestry
142
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books, Reports and Papers
Addis Z. (2008)-Special Issue (AZSI), 67 th year, No 260.
Arkin Y., Berth M., Dow D.B., Levitte D., Temesgen Haile and Tsegaye Hailu (1971)-Geological map of
Mekele sheet area ND 37-11. Tigre Province. Ministry of Mines, Geological Survey of Ethiopia, Addis Abeba.
Arnoldus H.M.J. (1977)-Prediction soil losses due to sheet and rill erosion. Land and water development division
in Guidelines for watershed management, FAO, Rome, 99-124.
Asif A. (2005)-Multi-temporal Analysis of Land Cover Changes in Nagasaki City associated with natural
disasters using, Satellite Remote Sensing: Journal of Natural Disaster Science, Volume 27, Number 1, 2005, 9-
15.
Barbier E. (1987)-The concept of Sustainable Development, Environmental Conservation.
Bekele-Tesemma A, Birnie A and Tengnas B. (1993)-Useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia. Regional Soil
Conservation Unit (RSCU), Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA). Pp. 474
Bergsma E. (1986)-Aspects of mapping units in the rain erosion hazard catchment survey. Siderius W. ed.
Wageningen (Netherlands), No.40. In: International Workshop on Land Evaluation for Land-Use Planning and
Conservation in Sloping Area. Enschede (Netherlands). 17-21, 84-104
Berhanu G. et al., (2006)-Commercialization of Ethiopian agriculture: extension service from input supplier to
knowledge broker and facilitator. Improving productivity and market success of Ethiopian farmers working
paper No.1 p. 15-20.
Berhanu Gebremedhin, John Pender, Simeon Ehui and Mitiku Haile (2002)-Policies for sustainable land
management in the highlands of tigray, northern Ethiopia. Eptd workshop summary paper no. 14, pp. 196.
Beyth M., 1972-Paleozoic-Mesozoic Sedimentary Basin of Mekele Outlier, Northern Ethiopia. Amer. Ass.
Petrol. Geol. Bull. 56 (12), 2426-2439.
Birhane E., Teketay D., Barklund P. (2006)-Actual and potential contribution of exclosures to enhance
biodiversity of woody species in the drylands of Eastern Tigray. Journal of the drylands 1(2): 134-147.
Birhanu G. (2002)-Collective action for grazing land management in mixed crop–livestock systems in the
highlands of northern Ethiopia. International Livestock Research Institute, p. 4-6.
Birke Y. (1999) Solid waste management in Ethiopia 25th WEDC Conference Addis Ababa Ethiopia,
1999.pp326-330.
Bonger F., Alemajehu W., Sterck Frank J., Tesfaye B. and Tekotayù D. (2006)-Ecological restauration and
chuch forest in Northen Ethiopia. Journal of the drylands 1(1): 35-44.
Bosellini A., Russo A., Fantozzi P.L., Getaneh A. and Tadesse S., 1997-The Mesozoic succession of the Mekele
outlier (Tigre province, Ethiopia). Memorie di Scienze Geologiche 49, 95-116
Breetzke G. D. (2004)-A critique of soil erosion modeling at a catchment scale using GIS. Submitted in
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (UNIGIS) Faculteit der Aard-en
Levenswetenschappen Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Netherlands
Brutsch M.O. (1997)-The Beles or Cactus Pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) in Tigray, Ethiopia; Department of
Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture University of Fort Hare Alice 5700, Eastern Cape, South Africa.
Chernet T. and Eshete G. (1982)-Hidrogeology of the Mekele Area (ND37-11). Ministry of Mines and Energy
Ethiopian institute of geological Surveys, Addis Abeba.
Coltorti M., Dramis F. and Ollier C.D., 2007-Planation surfaces in Northern Ethiopia. Geomorphology 89, 287-
296.
Coltorti M., Dramis F. Fubello G. and Mohammed U. (2008)-The travertine dammed sedimentary sequence of
Mai Maikden. Field Trip Guide book. Environmental Analysis and Geomorphological Mapping for a Sustainable
Development”. Addis Ababa-Dessie-Mekele-Axum (Ethiopia), February 27th-March 6th, 2008, 2-7.
Costantini E. (2006)-Metodi di valutazione dei suoli e delle terre. Ministero delle Politiche Agricole, Alimentari
e Forestali. Ed. Cantagalli. pp.922
143
Darbyshire I, Lamb H., and Umer M. (2003) Forest Clearence and Regrowth in Northern Ethiopia During the
Last 3000 Years, The Holocence 13 (4):537-546.
Descheemaeker K., Nyssen J., Rossi J., Poesen J., Haile M, Raes D., Muys B., Moeyersons J. and Deckers S.
(2006)-Sediment deposition and pedogenesis in exclosures in the Tigray highlands, Ethiopia. Geoderma 132 (3-
4), pages 291-314
Di Gregorio A. and Jensen L.J.M (2005)-Land Cover Classification System. Classification concepts and user
manual. FAO Rome, pp. 190
Di Gregorio A. and Jensen L.J.M. (2000)-Land cover Classification System (LCCS), FAO, Rome, pp179.
DMIL (Development and Management of Irrigated Lands, 2005)-Development and Management of Irrigated
lands in Tigray Ethiopia, pp. 284.
Dramis F., Coltorti M.and Pieruccini P. (2008)-Geological and geomorphological framework of the Tigray
Highlans. Field Trip Guide book. Environmental Analysis and Geomorphological Mapping for a Sustainable
Development”. Addis Ababa-Dessie-Mekele-Axum (Ethiopia), February 27th-March 6th, 2008, 10-21.
Edwards S. (2007)-The Impact of Compost Use on Crop Yields in Tigray, Ethiopia, Vol.2, No 5, pp.19.
EIA (Environmental Protection Authority, 2004)-Environmental impact assessment guideline for fertilizer,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp.30.
Eiten G. (1968)-Vegetation forms. Boletim do Instituto de Botanica, n. 4, Secretaria da agricultura, Sao Paulo,
Brasil, . pp. 88.
EMA (Ethiopian Mapping Authority, 1997)-Topographic maps edition 1, based on: field survey data by EMA
(1996), Air photograph by Swedsurvey.
EPE (Environmental Policy of Ethiopial, 1997)-Environmental Policy of Ethiopia, April, pp.29.
EPE (Environmental Policy of Ethiopial, 1997)-Environmental Policy of Ethiopia, April, pp.2Javaheri,
Nasrabadi T, Japarian M.H., Rowshan G.R, Khoshnam H.(2006)-Site Selection of Municipal Solid Waste ,
Landfills, Using analytical, hierarchy process method in a geographical information technology environment in
Giroft9
Esser K. and Vagen T.G. (2002)-Soil Conservation in Tigray Ethiopia, Mitiku Haile, February 2002
Fantoli A. (1965)-Contributo Alla Meteorologia dell’Ethiopia, Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Roma, pp. 135.
FAO (1976)-A framework for Land Evaluation. Soil Bulletin n° 32. FAO, Rome, pp. 92.
FAO (1983)-Guidelines: land evaluation for rainfed agriculture. Soil Bulletin n° 52. FAO, pp.273, Rome.
FAO (1984)-Land evaluation for forestry, 48 FAO forestry paper, FAO Rome.
FAO (2006)-Guidelines for soil description.. FAO Rome, pp. 110
FAO (2006)-World reference base for soil resources, a framework for international classification, correlation and
communication, Rome, pp. 145
FAO-UNESCO (1974)-Soil Map of the World 1:5,000,000. Volume I. Legend. UNESCO, Paris.
FDRE (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2005), FEPA, UNDP/CCF2, AACAEPA and ORNSEPA
(2005)-Assessment report on the Status of Akaki Rivers water pollution, 12-22.
FEPA (Federal Environmental Protection Authority, 2004)-Environmental Impact Assessment Guideline for
Pesticide, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp 44.
FEPA (Federal Environmental Protection Authority, 2006)-Ethiopia National implementation plan for the
Stockhom Convention, pp122.
Foster G.R. (2003)-User’s Guide, Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation, Version 2 RUSLE2, USDA-
Agricultural Research Service Washington, D.C. pp. 77.
Gebreegziabher Z. (2007)-Household fuel consumption and resource use in rural-urban Ethiopia, PhD Thesis,
Wageningen University, pp. 200
Giordani C. and Zanchi C. (1995)-Elementi di conservazione del suolo, Bologna, pp. 260.
Girmay T. (2006)-Agriculture, Resource management and Institutions: A socio Economic Analysis of house
holds in Tigray, Ehiopia. p.12-15
144
Hamilton A.C. (1977)-An upper Pleistocenen pollen diagram from highland Ethiopia., International Quaternary
Congress, pp.. 193.
Hijmans R.J., Cameron S.E., Parra H.L., Jones P.G. and Jarvis A. (2005)-Very high resolution interpolated
climate surfaces for global land areas. International Journal of Climatology 25, 1965-1978.
HTSL (Hunting Technical Services Limited, 1975)-Tigrai Rural Development study. Annex1: Land and
vegetation resources, pp. 419.
IAO (2008)-Field Handbook, A short manual for a good fieldwork, pp. 70
Jabbar M.A. and Pender J. (2000)-The role of trees for sustainable management of less favoured lands: the case
of eucalyptus in Ethiopia. In: Jabbar M.A., Pender J. and Ehui S.K. (eds) (2000)-Policies for sustainable land
management in the highlands of Ethiopia: summary of papers and proceedings of a seminar held at ILRI, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia, 22–23 May 2000. Socio-economics and Policy Research Working Paper 30. ILRI (International
Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya. Pp. 68
Kassam A.H., Van Velthuizen H.T, Mitchell AJ.B., Fischer G.W and. Shah M.M (1992)-Agro-ecological land
resources assessment for agricultural development planning: A case study of Kenya resources data base and land
productivity, Technical Annex 2 soil erosion and productivity, Rome, pp. 59.
Kent M., Blaine S., Gregory E. (2003)-Field Pea Production, NDSU Extension Service, North Dakota State
University, Fargo, pp26
Kjell Esser, Tor-Gunnar Vågen (2002)-Soil conservation in Tigray, Ethiopia. Noragric Report No. 5, 21 pages.
Klingebiel A.A. and Montgomery P.H. (1961)-Land Capability Classification. Agriculture Handbook 210. Soil
Conservation Service U.S. Department of Agriculture
Landon J.R. (1991)-Booker Tropical Soil Manual. Longman Scientific and Technical. 474 pp.
Lu D., Mausel P., Brondízio E., Moran E.(2004)-Change detection techniques., International Journal of Remote
Sensing, Volume 25,Number 12, June 2004 , pp. 2365-2401(37)
Malczewski J, (1995) Propagation of errors in multicriterial location analysis: a case study, in: Fandel G, Gal T
(edes) Multi-tiple criteria decision making. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 155-155.
Marini A and Melis M.T. (2002)-The Geology along the Macallè, Adrigat, Axum road. IGA International
Symposium on Climate changes, active tectonics and related geomorphic effects in high mountain belts and
Plateaux
McDonald R.C., Isbell R. F., Speight J.G., Walker J. and Hopkins M.S. (1990)-Australian soil and land survey.
C.S.I.R.O. publishing, pp. 190.
Mehari A. (2005)-Growth and suitability of some tree species selected for planting in adverse environments in
Eritrea and Ethiopia. Doctoral thesis. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. Uppsala. Pp. 31
Mekuria W. (2007)-Vegetation restoration in area closures: the case of Douga Tembein, Central Tigray,
Ethiopia. Conference on International Agricultural Research for Development, Tropentag.
Melis M.T. (1995)-Uso di tecniche di telerilevamento per la realizzazione di cartografie tematiche in un settore
del Tigray-Etiopia Settentrionale. Tesi di dottorato VII Ciclo, pp.200.
MoFED (Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, 2005)-A plan for accelerated and sustainaned.
Morton J. (1987)-Orange. p. 134–142. http-//www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/orange.htm
MoWR (Ministry of Water Resources, 2002)-Procedural Guidelines for Study of Small & Medium Scale
Irrigation Projects in Ethiopia, part B, Soil Survey and Land Evaluation. Addis Ababa
Muys B. (2003)-Forest Rehabilitation through Natural Regeneration in Tigray, Ethiopia: From Fragments to
Forests. Extension poster EP-2003/1
Nakasone H.Y. and Paull R.E. (1998)-Tropical Fruits; Crop Production Science in Horticulture, College of
Agriculture and Human Resource Development University of Hawaii at Monoa Honolulu, HI, USA,pp.445.
NCS (National Conservation Strategy, 1996)-The Resources Base, its Utilization and Planning for Sustainability
in Addis Ababa, pp.117
Nedessa B., Ali J., Nyborg I. (2005)-Exploring Ecological and Socio-Economic Issues for the Improvement of
Area Enclosure Management A Case Study from Ethiopia. DCG Report No. 38
145
Nyssen J., Descheemaeker K., Haregeweyn N., Haile M., Deckers J. and Poesen J. (2007)-Lessons learnt from
10 years research on soil erosion and soil and water conservation in Tigray, VLIR-Mekele University Zala-Daget
Project, pp. 52.
Nyssen J., Gebremichael D., Vancampenhout K, Poesen J., Deckers J., Yihdego G., Govers G., Kiros H. Haile
M., Moeyerons J., Naudts J. and Haregeweyn N. (2007)-On-site evaluation of stone bunds to controls soil
erosion on cropland in Northern Ethiopia, http://www.bodenkunde2.uni-
freiburg.de/eurosoil/abstracts/id380_Nyssen_full.pdf, pp. 7.
Nyssen J., Munro N., Haile M., Poesen J, Descheemaeker K., Haregeweyn H., Moeyersons J, Govers G. and
Deckers J. (2007)- Understanding the environmental changes in Tigray: a photographic record over 30 years.
VLIR-Mekele University Zala-Daget Project, pp. 82.
Nyssen, J., Munro, R.N., Mitiku Haile, Poesen, J., Descheemaeker, K., Nigussie Haregeweyn, Moeyersons, J.,
Govers, G. and Deckers, J. (2006)-Understanding the environmental changes in Tigray: a photographic record
over 30 years, Tigray, pp. 82.
Ongaro L. (2007)-Land Unit Mapping for Land Evaluation (revised). IAO methodology 2008. Handout of the
Master’s degree “Geomatics nad Natural Resources Evaluation, IAO, pp.30
Ongaro L. and Viti M.L. (2001)-Woody biomass estimation of Acacia etbaica using plant dimensions. In: 17th
Training Course on Remote Sensing and Natural Resources Evaluation. IAO, Florence
Peoples (1995)-United States Department of Agriculture- Agricultural Research Service; A publication on the
Efficient Use of fertilizer Nitrogen by crops.
Pichi Sermolli R. (1957)-Una carta geobotanica dell’Africa Orientale. Webbia, 13:15-132.
Pichi Sermolli R. (1957)-Una carta geobotanica dell’Africa Orientale. Webbia, 13:15-132.
Renard, K.G., Foster G.R., Weesies G.A., McCool D.K. and Yoder D.C. (1997)-Predicting Soil Erosion by
Water: A Guide to Conservation Planning with the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE). U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook, No. 703, pp.404.
Rijkers T., Ogbazghi W., Wessel M. and Bongers F. (2006)-The effect of tapping for frankincense on sexual
reproduction in Boswellia papyrifera. Journal of Applied Ecology 43, 1188–1195
Rivas-Martinez S. (2004)-Classification Bioclimatica de la Tierra
Robert C. and Stiles W. C. (1983)-Apricots for New York State; New York’s Food and Life Sciences Bulletin
No 100, 1983.
Roose E. (1996)-Land husbandry: Components and strategy. FAO Soils Bulletin N° 70, Rome, 380 pp.
Rovesti G., Segalla G., La Fratta P., Di Schiena M. G. (1997)-Use of Tarchonanthus camphoratus for repelling
insects and alleviating edema, congestion and irritation of the skin. United States Free Patent n.5607674
(http://www.freepatentsonline.com/5607674)
Russo A., Fantozzi P.L., Solomon T., Getaneh A., Neri C., Russo F., Asfwossen A., Peccerillo A. and P. Valera-
1996. Geological map of the Mekele outlier (western sheet). Italian Cooperation-Addis Ababa University, Addis
Ababa.
Samson J.A. (1980) -Tropical Fruits; Tropical Agricultural Series pp.250.
Sandra C, (2004).-Sanitary landfill design and sitting criteria: Published by World Bank1,pp 1-6
Segele Z. T. and Lamb P.J. (2005)-Characterization and variability of Kiremt rainy season over Ethiopia.
Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics 89, 153-180.
Sewit A. (2005) Solid Waste Management in Addis Ababa (Final thesis). pp 86
Smith, H.J. (1999)-Application of Empirical Soil Loss Models in southern Africa: a review. S. Afr. Tydskr. Plant
Grond, 16(3), 158-164.
Song C., Woodcock C.E., Seto K.C., Lenney M. P., Macomber S.A. (2001)-Classification and Change Detection
Using Landsat TM Data: When and How to Correct Atmospheric Effects?, Remote Sensing of Environment,
Vol. 75, No. 2. (February 2001), pp. 230-244.
Sonneveld B.G.J.S., Keyzer M.A. and Albersen P.J. (2001)-A Non-parametric Analysis of Qualitative and
Quantitative Data for Erosion Modeling: A Case Study for Ethiopia. In: D.E. Stott, R.H. Mohtar and G.C.
Steinhardt (eds). 2001. Sustaining the Global Farm. Selected papers from the 10th International Soil.
146
Stebbins R.L (1993) -Growing Prunes; Oregon State University Extension Service.
Sys I., Van Ranst E., and Debaveye J. (1991)-Land evaluation, part II. Methods in land evaluation, General
administration for development cooperation, Brussels, pp. 247.
Sys I., Van Ranst E., and Debaveye J. (1991)-Land evaluation, part II. Methods in land evaluation, General
administration for development cooperation, Brussels, pp. 247.
Teng S. P. (2006)-Hypothesis-Test-Based Landover Change Detection Using Multitemporal Satellite Images,
Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modelling Dept. of Bioenvironmental Systems Engineering,
National Taiwan University
TFAT (Tigray Forestry Action Program, 1996)-Main Report, Regional Government of Tigrai, BoANR, Mekele.
Thomas (1984)-Soil and erosion features of the central Plateau of Tigrai, Ethiopia.
Tigray Rural Development Study annex 1
Tilahun K. (2006)-Analysis of rainfall climate and evapo-transpiration in arid and semi-arid regions of Ethiopia
using data over the last half a century. Journal of Arid Environments 64, 474-487.
Van Zuidam R. A. (1986)-Aerial photo-interpretation in terrain analysis and geomorphologic mapping. Smits
publishers, The Netherlands, pp. 442.
Virgo K.J and Munro R.N. (1978)-Soil and erosion features of the central Plateau of Tigrai, Ethiopia, Geoderma
20, 131-157. Elsevier scientific publishing company, Amsterdam.
Wishmeier W.H. and Smith D.D. (1978)-Predicting rainfall erosion losses: a guide to conservation planning.,
USDA-ARS Agriculture Handbook N°537, Washington DC, pp. 58.
WWDSE (Water works design and supervision enterprise, 2007)-Evaluation of Aynalem Well Field and
Selection of Prospective Well Fields around Mekele Town for Water Supply Source volume I: geology and
hydrology of Mekele area, 1-30.
Yibabe Tilahum (2002)-Soil Conservation in Tigray, Ethiopia, Greenland, Noragric, No.5.
Yohannes A. (2004)-Problems of the Solution: Intervention into Small-Scale Irrigation for Drought Proofing in
the Mekele Plateau of Northern Ethiopia, Geographical Journal, Vol. 170, p. 266-271.
Yuan, D. and C. D. Elvidge (1996)-Comparison of relative radiometric normalization techniques., ISPRS Journal
of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 51(3), pp. 117-126.
Zenebe G. (2007)-Household Fuel Consumption and Resource Use in Rural-Urban Ethiopia: PhD thesis in
Wageninghen University, pp.220
Zonneveld, I.S. (1972)-Land evaluation and landscape science. ITC textbook of photo interpretation, v.VII, ITC,
Enschede
Internet Links
http://dppc.gov.et
http://glcfapp.umiacs.umd.edu-NASA’s Global Orthorectified Landsat Data Set
http://muse.jhu.edu
http://ochaonline.un.org
http://srhafoundation.com
http://www.csa.gov.et/
http://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/natural
http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y4307e/y4307e00.htm#Contents
http://www.fao.org/Landandwater/ag/w/cropwater/pea.stm
http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index.stm
http://www.ilri.org/InfoServ/Webpub/Fulldocs/WorkP25/Setting.
http://www.wamis.org
http://www.worldclim.org/
http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/srtm
http://www.worldagroforestry.org/Sites/TreeDBS/Treedatabases.asp
147
148
ANNEXS
Annex 1-Land Unit description
This section describes each Land Unit according to the Land systems and the landforms. Each Land Unit is
described up by the following parameters, which are further elaborated on:
- Land system and Landform;
- Land Unit characteristics;
- Area;
- Relevés;
- Geology;
- Morphology;
- Land cover/land use;
- Soils.
149
ETHIOPIAN RIFT ESCARPMENT

MODERATELY DISSECTED SLOPING SURFACE
Land Unit 1
Total area: 2039ha
Relevé: 115
Land Unit 2
Total area: 3378ha
0
/
/
2
0
4
2
6
4
8
6
Km
8
Relevé: 114, 412 Km
2 1
These two Land Units are situated in the northern part of the Ethiopian Rift Escarpment. They are characterized
by a low density drainage system and generally moderate slopes covered by scrubs, which are denser in LU1
than in LU2. This difference is due to the human influence, since the most accessible and lesser sloping parts are
more exploited for grazing and wood collection. The main species found on this landform, are Tharconanthus
camphoratus and Acacia etbaica, which are the dominant species in the whole escarpment area. The soil is a
Calcisol, deriving from the underlying Jurassic limestones and shales. To control the sheet erosion, widely
diffuse, the area is generally devoted to degradation control, leaving the vegetation to a natural growth.
150
STRONGLY DISSECTED SLOPING SURFACE WITH SUMMIT SUB FLAT AREA

Land Unit 3
Total area: 1103ha
Relevé: 209, 212
Land Unit 4
0
/
2 4 6 8
Km
Total area: 4002ha

Relevé: 209, 210,
211, 212
Land Unit 5
Total area: 3181ha
Relevé: 211, 213,
214
Land Unit 6
Area: 702ha
Relevé: 210
These Land Units are located in the central part of the Ethiopian Rift Escarpment, and show a high density
drainage network. The dominant lithology is represented by limestone and shales, which are visible as horizontal
layers. The soil is composed by an association of Calcisols and Cambisols in LU3, where the limited human
influence lets the vegetation cover to be dense. Going to LU4 and LU5 the vegetation density is decreasing from
closed to open scrub. While in the first some Arenosols in association with Calcisols and Cambisols are present,
in LU5 only Calcisols were found. LU6 is located along river valleys at the foot of the previously described
Land Units, and it’s characterized by the presence of Kastanozems.
151
STRONGLY DISSECTED SLOPING SURFACE

Land Unit 7
Total area: 1035ha
Relevé: 206, 207
Land Unit 8
0
/
2 4 6 8
Km
Total area: 9094ha

Relevé: 118, 213,
214
Land Unit 9
Total area: 2882ha
Relevé: 303, 412
Land Unit 10
Total area:
10519ha
Relevé: 118, 216,
303
10
This landform is widely spread through most part of the Ethiopian Rift Escarpment, from the central to its
southern part. The dense drainage network is composed by streams connecting the “Plateau” to the Afar region
(to the East), which excavated deep valleys bordered by steep slopes. The dominant Land Units are LU8 and
LU10, association of Cambisols and Calcisols, while in LU10 even Arenosols are present. LU8 is mostly
covered by shrubs with diversified vegetation. LU10 is more complex, having alternation of sparse to open
natural vegetation and few rainfed annual crops. LU7 is covered by dense natural vegetation on Leptosols with
Calcisols, with some rare grassland, while LU9 is scattered all over the other three Land Units, and it is covered
by sparse scrub on Calcisols.
152
DISSECTED SLOPING SURFACE

Land Unit 11
Total area: 2332ha
Relevé: 120
Land Unit 12
0
/
2 4 6 8
Km
Total area: 3475ha

Relevé: 120, 215
11
12
These Land Units are located in the south-eastern portion of the Ethiopian Rift Escarpment. The characteristics
of these two Land Units are similar as they have both Calsisols developed from the dominant lithology
(limestone and shale) and the same land cover and land use. The morphology is moderately sloping slope with
colluvial deposits, covered by open to sparse scrub. Although there is some grazing, these Units are kept under
degradation control to avoid the effects of severe sheet erosion.
153
MEKELE “PLATEAU”
STEEP SCARP ON DOLERITE
Land Unit 13
/
Total area: 3022ha
Relevé: 304, 401
0 2 4 6 8
Land Unit 14 Km
Total area: 2589ha
Relevé: 119
13
14
These two Land Units are scattered in the central part of the study area, mostly south-east of Mekele town and in
transitional areas between the “Plateau” and western and southern scarps of the Antalo formation. They are both
scarps of large dolerite sills and dykes, outcropping in different locations of the study area. Because of the high
steepness there is strong sheet erosion, partially limited by surface stones and boulders and occasional rock
outcrops, and by artificial Eucalyptus plantations in LU14. In this Unit Phaeozems soils were found, while in
LU13, where only Leptosols and Regosols are present, only open scrub cover is developing. In both the Land
Units, to reduce water erosion, farmers build stonelines along countours.
154
UNDULATING CREST ON DOLERITE

Land Unit 15
Total area: 4344ha
Relevé: 101, 406
0
/
2 4 6 8
Km
15
This Land Unit is scattered in all directions of the Mekele “Plateau”. The main lithology is represented by
dolerite, which comes out as stones and boulders on the ground surface, or as weathered fragments showing the
characteristic onion shape exfoliation due to big temperature differences between day and night. LU15 is
devoted to crops cultivation and to degradation control, leaving natural vegetation growing without human and
animals influence. Moderate sheet erosion, due to the slope gradient and to the open vegetation cover, is evident.
Luvisols and Cambisols are the dominant soil types.
155
SLOPING SCARP ON AGULA FORMATION

Land Unit 16
Total area: 367ha
Relevé: 122, 309,
315, 402 0
/
2 4 6 8
Km
Land Unit 17
Total area: 7817ha
Relevé: 122, 208,
309, 310, 315,
402, 404 407
Land Unit 18
Total area: 638ha
Relevé: 122, 315,
402
Land Unit 19
Total area: 669ha
Relevé: 208, 310,
404, 407
16
17
18
19
These Land Units appear distributed over all the Mekele “Plateau”. The dominant lithology is constituted by
shale with interbedded black limestone, composing the Agula Formation, which is the upper part of the Jurassic
sedimentary deposition. The prevalent morphology consists in moderate steep slopes formed by the transition of
differently resistant lithogical layers. The dominant Land Unit is LU17, characterized by a mixed land use
(agriculture and degradation control), and an association of a wide variety of soil types. LU16 is mainly covered
by natural vegetation (Acacia etbaica, Euclea schimperi), while LU19 is mostly used for crop cultivation. LU18
is devoted to artificial Eucalyptus plantation. In all these Land Units there is evidence of moderate sheet erosion,
which is limited by the growth of natural vegetation, the presence of superficial coarse rock fragments, and the
use of stone bunds built along the contour lines. Kastanozems, Phaeozems and Calcisols are recurrent in LU16,
LU17 and LU18, while in LU19 only Calcisols and Cambisols were observed.
156
UNDULATING RISES ON AGULA FORMATION

Land Unit 20
Total area: 696ha
Relevé: 205, 305,
408 0
/
2 4 6 8
Km
Land Unit 21
Total area: 3207ha
Relevé: 105, 106,
302, 407
Land Unit 22
Total area:
28635ha
Relevé: 111, 113,
204, 208, 306,
310, 404, 409
20
21
22
These Land Units are in a land form of undulating rises located scattered in the Mekele “Plateau”. Land Unit 22
occupies the most part of the landform and it is also the largest Land Unit of the study area. Since there is a
difference in the slope gradient, the Land Units are devoted to different types of land use: LU 20 to degradation
control, LU 21 to agriculture and degradation control, and LU 22 to agriculture. In all these Land Units the
natural cover is mainly composed by Acacia etbaica and Euclea schimperi, which is the only evergreen plant
observed. As the slope in Land Unit 22 is gentle, there is no severe erosion and it is suitable to harvest crops like
teff, wheat and barley. However, in Land Units 21 and 22 there is an evidence of sheet erosion which causes a
deposition of soils sediments in the foot slopes. The main lithology is shale with interbedded “black” limestone,
which contributes to the formation of Calsisols found in association with other soil types, such as Luvisols and
Leptosols.
157
GENTLY UNDULATING PLAIN ON AGULA FORMATION

Land Unit 23
Total
17637ha
313, 405, 413

area:
Relevé: 112, 301, 0

/
2 4 6 8
Km
23
This Land Unit is one of the most extended in Mekele “Plateau”. It’s composed by colluvial deposits transported
by gravity and running water coming from the steeper neighbouring Land Units, by which often gullies are
formed. Land unit 23 is characterized by level flat to very gently slope morphology, with thick soil suitable for
crop cultivation. The main crops cultivated in this area are teff, wheat, barley and some beans. This is the area
where most of Vertisols are found, which demand a proper agricultural management to obtain good yields.
158
LEVEL PLAIN ON AGULA FORMATION

Land Unit 24
Total area: 1872ha
Relevé: 312, 314
0
/
2 4 6 8
Km
24
This Land Unit is

located near water bodies and streams, and is characterized by high levels of soil moisture, which almost
preclude an agricultural use. In fact, this land is used for ranching, and covered by different graminoid species.
Since the slope gradient tends to level flat, there is accumulation of sediments transported by water forming
alluvial deposits. Fluvisols, with evident stratification of different size sediments, and Luvisols are found in
association in this Land Unit. The accumulation of water facilitates the development of the latter type of soil,
transporting clay from superficial layers to the deepest ones.
159
MODERATE STEEP SCARP ON ANTALO FORMATION

Land Unit 25
Total area: 979ha
Relevé: 107, 410
0
/
2 4 6 8
Km
25
This Land Unit represents the sloping part of the upper layer in Antalo Formation (Jte), composed by marl
interbedded with white limestone. Many of its beddings are clearly visible as outcrops in the steeper slopes. The
surface is often covered by abundant rock fragments, even coming from the upper layers of Agula shale and
dolerite formations. The vegetation is mainly composed by scrubs of Acacia etbaica and Maytenus senegalensis
at different levels of coverage (sparse to open). The accumulation of organic matter originated by decomposition
of the natural vegetation layer allows the genesis of Kastanozems and Phaeozems.
160
STRONG SLOPE ON ANTALO FORMATION

Land Unit 26
Total area: 2282ha
Relevé: 102, 316,
403, 410, 411 0
/
2 4 6 8
Km
Land Unit 27
Total area: 523ha
Relevé: 202, 203
Land Unit 28
Total area: 3562ha
Relevé: 102, 109,
311, 403
26
27
28
The main lithology for these Land Units is Antalo formation of marl interbedded with white and “black”
limestone. They are located mainly in the western and south-western scarps to Mai Gabai and Giba rivers, and
north-east from Mekele town. Where slope gradient is lower (LU 26) the land is mostly used for agriculture;
moreover there are some soil types like Kastanozems, Phaeozems and Vertisols, which have moderate to high
fertility by the presence of organic matter. LU 27 and LU 28, with slightly steeper slopes, are used even for
degradation control, with the development of a sparse to close natural vegetation cover. In LU 27 only Luvisols
were found, while in LU 28 Kastanozems and Leptosols were observed.
161
UNDULATING RISES ON ANTALO FORMATION

Land Unit 29
Total area: 599ha
Relevé: 109, 203,
410 0
/
2 4 6 8
Km
29
It is a Land Unit situated north of Mekele town. Geologically it stays on Jte layer of Antalo Formation and it
shows an undulating morphology. The vegetation is mainly sparse and comprehends Acacia etbaica, and Euclea
schimperi species. Three soil types, Luvisols, Leptosols and Phaezeoms, are found in association.
162
FOOTSLOPE ON ANTALO FORMATION

Land Unit 30
Total area: 1649ha
Relevé: 110, 116
0
/
2 4 6 8
Km
30
This Land Unit is present in the northern part of the study area as in the south-west part, in correspondence with
the footslope of Jte Antalo layer. For its gently slopes and the presence of Vertisols this land is mainly devoted to
agriculture. In areas where Vertisols were found, evidence of gully erosion was observed, probably due to
swilling and shrinking properties of these soils. In some places even Leptosols were found, which, for their
shallowness, are more suitable for leguminous cultivation.
163
VERY STEEP SCARP ON ANTALO FORMATION

Land Unit 31
Total area: 4269ha
Relevé: 103
0
/
2 4 6 8
Km
31
This Land Unit is found on the Jtd layer of Antalo Formation, deposited under the previously described
geological layer (Jte). It is mainly formed by fine crystalline limestone with some marl, from which Calcisols
can well develop. The steepness allows the exposure of limestone outcrop layers. Degradation control land use is
practiced here, enabling the development of an open vegetation cover.
164
TERRACED SLOPES ON ANTALO FORMATION

Land Unit 32
Total area: 2129ha
Relevé: 108, 202
Land Unit 33
0
/
2 4 6 8
Km
Total area: 1109ha

Relevé: 121, 108,
411
32
33
These two Land Units are characterised by natural terraces of limestone beddings covered by deposited colluvial
material. They are often positioned above the steep scarps of LU31, on the same geological substratum. LU 32
and LU 33 appear more concentrated in the northern part of the study area, where they are mixing and their soil
occupation presents a continuous alternation between rainfed annual crops and natural vegetation cover. Along
Giba and Mai Gabai rivers scarps these Land Units seem better distributed. Vertisols recur in both the Land
Units, in association with Luvisols in LU 32 and with Calcisols in LU 33.
165
FOOTSLOPE ON ANTALO FORMATION

Land Unit 34
Total area: 613ha
Relevé: 117
0
/
2 4 6 8
Km
34
Land Unit 34 is represented by few spots in the south-west part of the study area and north of Mekele town. It is
constituted mainly by colluvial deposits with the same geological composition of previous described landforms,
coming from the more inclined slopes surrounding it. The colluvial material permits a good drainage in this area,
allowing the formation of Luvisols, on which farmers cultivate wheat, barley and teff.
166
MODERATE STEEP SLOPE ON ANTALO FORMATION

Land Unit 35
Total area: 3857ha
Relevé: 201, 301,
308, 414 0
/
2 4 6 8
Km
Land Unit 36
Total area: 1802ha
Relevé: 109, 217
35
36
These Land Units are located in the West and North part of Enderta. LU 35 lyes on Jtc layer of Antalo
Formation, constituted by marl with black and sandy limestone, while LU 36 represents the lower layer of the
same formation (Jtb), always composed by alternance of limestone and marl. Their morphology is mainly
characterized by moderate steep slopes, which allow, in some cases, the formation of shallow soils like Leptosols
(LU 36). In both the Land Units Luvisols are present, in association with different soils: Calcisols in LU 35 and
Leptosols in LU 36. In LU 36, nearer to the river valley, natural scrubs are growing, with predominance of
Mathenus senegalensis, while in LU 35, even agriculture is practised.
167
GIBA RIVER TRIBUTARIES

LEVEL FLAT
Land Unit 37
Total area: 1612ha
Relevé: 104, 307,
314 0
/
2 4 6 8
Km
37
This Land Unit is found along the big river valleys of Giba river (in the north-west), of Felegmayat river and of
its two tributaries (in the north and north-east) and of May Gabai river (in the south). It corresponds to an alluvial
deposit, with almost flat surfaces used for irrigated and rainfed annual crops. For the presence of water, Luvisols
can develop easy, in association with Fluvisols, formed by the accumulation of material transported by the river.
168
Annex 2-Soil profile classification

Soil Classification: HAPLIC ARENOSOL
Reference Profile: 406
Description
A 0-25 cm
Clear wavy boundary, dry moisture status, moderate rapid internal drainage, color 10YR 5/6, abundant
subrounded coarse gravels, loamy sand texture, granular coarse weak structure, soft consistency, no calcareous
content, common very fine and few medium roots, no cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no nodules, no
voids.
Bc >90 cm
Abrupt wavy boundary, dry moisture status, moderate rapid internal drainage, color 10YR 6/8, common
subrounded medium gravels, loamy sand texture, granular very coarse moderate structure, soft consistency, no
calcareous content, few very fine roots, no cutans, many coarse and diffuse mottles color 7.5YR 5/8, no
efflorescences, no nodules, no voids.
HORIZON A Bc
Lower Boundary 25 >90
Coarse 42 57
Sand % Medium 17 10.3
Fine 12.8 8.9
Coarse 17.7 15.7
Silt % Fine 9.4 7.6
Clay % 1.1 0.5
Texture USDA LS LS
C% 0.63 0.56
N% 0.07 0.04
P (ppm) <1 <1
CaCO3 - -
pH 7.7 7.6
EB Ca++ 12.79 14.91
(cmol/kg) Mg++ 3.12 3.66
Na+ 0.17 0.30
K+ 0.07 0.04
CEC (cmol/kg) 16.2 18.9
EC (ds/m) 0.14 0.11
Photo 44-Haplic Arenosol
169
Soil Classification: HYPOLUVIC ARENOSOL

Description
Ap 0-15 cm
Clear wavy boundary, moist status, very rapid internal drainage, color 10YR 4/3, no rock fragments, sandy loam
texture, very fine granular weak structure, loose consistency, high calcareous content, few fine and very fine
roots, no cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no nodules, no voids.
Bk1 15-85 cm
Abrupt wavy boundary, dry moisture status, moderate rapid internal drainage, color 10YR 3/4, very few
subrounded coarse gravels, sandy loam texture, single grain medium weak structure, hard consistency, high
calcareous content, very fine very few roots, common pressure faces on pedfaces, many efflorescences into
pores, no nodules.
Bk2 >100 cm
Dry moisture status, color 10YR 4/4, no rock fragments, sandy loam texture, granular very fine and weak
structure, soft consistency, high calcareous content, very fine very few roots, common slickensides, non
intersecting, on vertical pedfaces, few efflorescences, fine and few nodules of carbonates.
HORIZON Ap Bk1 Bk2

Lower Boundary 15 85 >100
Coarse 38.4 37.3 23.5
Sand % Medium 18.6 12.5 29.3
Fine 13.4 11.4 13.5
Coarse 19.1 20.0 21.6
Silt % Fine 8.4 11.4 8.7
Clay % 2.1 7.5 3.3
Texture USDA SL SL SL
C% 0.86 0.59 -
N% 0.11 0.08 -
P (ppm) 2 3 -
CaCO3 4 6 5
pH 8.1 8.3 8.2
EB Ca++ - - -
(cmol/kg) Mg++ 1.04 1.11 -
Na+ 0.00 0.20 -
K+ 0.69 0.45 -
CEC (cmol/kg) 26.5 27.2 -
EC (ds/m) 0.17 0.16 0.23
Photo 45-Hypoluvic Arenosol
170
Soil Classification: CALCIC KASTANOZEM

Description
Ap 0-20 cm
Clear wavy boundary, dry moisture status, color 2.5Y 6/0, very few medium sub rounded rock fragments, silty
loam texture, fine granular weak structure, loose consistency, rapid internal drainage, high calcareous, few fine
roots, no cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no nodules, no voids and no biological features.
A 20-30 cm
Clear wavy boundary, slightly moist status, color 10YR 5/6, very few medium sub rounded rock fragments, clay
loam texture, fine granular weak structure, very friable consistency, rapid internal drainage, high calcareous
content, very few fine roots, no cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no nodules, no voids and no biological
features.
Bk1 30-60 cm
Clear wavy boundary, slightly moist in status, color 10YR 4/6, common medium sub rounded rock fragments,
loamy texture, medium granular weak structure, firm consistency, rapid internal drainage, high calcareous
content, very few fine and medium roots, few clay cutans on pedfaces, no mottles, many efflorescences on
pedfaces, very few fine nodules of carbonate, no voids and no biological features.
Bk2 >80 cm
Moist moisture status, color YR 4/4, no rock fragments, SiCL texture, medium granular weak structure, very
firm consistency, rapid internal drainage, high calcareous content, very few very fine roots, common clay cutans
on pedfaces, no mottles, no efflorescences, very few fine nodules of carbonate, no voids and no biological
features.
HORIZON Ap A Bk1 Bk2
Lower Boundary 20 30 60 >80

Coarse 12.8 13 22.7 10
Sand % Medium 2.7 2.6 16.8 1.7
Fine 5.8 5.5 4.8 3.9
Coarse 24.1 22.4 5.9 22.4
Silt % Fine 27.9 28.1 29 24.9
Clay % 26.7 28.4 20.7 37.2
Texture USDA SiL CL L SiCL
C% 1.90 1.84 1.23 -
N% 0.12 0.06 0.05 -
P (ppm) <1 3 <1 -
CaCO3 41 38 50 24
pH 8 8.1 8.3 8.2
EB Ca++ - - - -
(cmol/kg) Mg++ 1.16 2 1.68 -
Na+ 0.07 0.15 0.68 -
K+ 0.24 0.61 0.68 -
CEC (cmol/kg) 17.4 15 17.9 -
EC (ds/m) 0.18 0.15 0.18 0.13
Photo 46-Calcic Kastanozem
171
Soil Classification: LUVIC KASTANOZEM

Description
Ap 0-5 cm
Clear wavy boundary, dry moisture status, color 10YR 6/3, abundant angular coarse gravels, silty loam texture,
medium granular weak structure, slightly hard consistency, very rapid internal drainage, very high calcareous
content, few very fine roots, no cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no nodules, no voids and no biological
features.
A 5-22 cm
Gradual wavy boundary, slightly moist status, color 10YR 3/1, few sub rounded medium gravels, silty clay loam
texture, sub angular medium strong structure, friable consistency, moderate rapid internal drainage, high
calcareous content, few fine roots, few clay cutans on pedfaces, no mottles, no efflorescences, no nodules, no
voids and no biological features.
Bt1 22-40 cm
Gradual wavy boundary, slightly moist in status, color 10YR 3/2, few and angular coarse gravels, silty clay
loam texture, subangular medium moderate structure, friable consistency, moderate rapid internal drainage, very
high calcareous content, few very fine roots, few clay cutans on vertical pedfaces, no mottles, no efflorescences,
few other insects activity.
Bt2 40-70 cm
Clear wavy boundary, dry moisture status, color 10YR 5/2, common subangular coarse gravels, moderate rapid
internal drainage, silty loam texture, medium subangular weak structure, soft consistency, very high calcareous
content, very fine and very few roots, no cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no nodules, no voids and no
biological features.
Cr >90 cm
HORIZON Ap A Bt1 Bt2 Cr

Lower Boundary 5 22 40 70 >90
Coarse 14.9 6.9 3.3 20.9 -
Sand % Medium 3.4 2 1.6 3.8 -
Fine 3.7 2.8 2.6 3.8 -
Coarse 19.3 21.4 21.8 23 -
Silt % Fine 37.7 33.5 38.1 29.9 -
Clay % 21.1 33.4 32.5 18.7 -
Texture USDA SiL SiCL SiCL SiL -
C% 1.80 2.22 1.77 - -
N% 0.15 0.10 0.10 - -
P (ppm) 1 <1 <1 - -
CaCO3 19 6 6 35 -
pH 8.1 8.1 8.1 8.2 -
EB Ca++ - - - - -
(cmol/kg) Mg++ - - - - -
Na+ 0.05 0.05 0.03 - -
K+ 0.77 0.31 0.18 - -
CEC (cmol/kg) 39.1 36.3 33.4 - -
EC (ds/m) 0.21 0.18 0.22 0.24 -
Photo 47-Luvic Kastanozem
172
Soil Classification: CALCIC FLUVISOL

Description
A 0-80 cm
Clear wavy boundary, dry moisture status, moderate rapid internal drainage, color 10YR 5/2, no rock fragments,
loam texture, subangular coarse strong structure, hard consistency, high calcareous content, very few fine and
few medium roots, no cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no nodules, no voids, few earthworms channels.
C1 80-95 cm
Gradual smooth boundary, dry moisture status, moderate rapid internal drainage, color 10YR 5/2, no rock
fragments, loamy sand texture, massive structure, soft consistency, high calcareous content, very fine roots and
very few in abundance, no cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no nodules, no voids,.
C2 >120 cm
Dry moisture status, moderate rapid internal drainage, color 10YR 5/3, no rock fragments, clay loam texture,
subangular coarse and strong structure, hard consistency, high calcareous content, very few coarse roots, , no
cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no nodules, no voids.
HORIZON A C1 C2
Coarse 23.7 21 18.8
Sand % Medium 11.5 19.6 17.6
Fine 8.8 12.6 12.9
Coarse 17.6 14.5 19.3
Silt % Fine 18.2 14.4 13.4
Clay % 20.2 18 18.1
Texture USDA L SL L
C% 1. - -
N% 0.04 - -
P (ppm) 1 - -
CaCO3 15 21 22
pH 8 8 8.1
EB Ca++ - - -
(cmol/kg) Mg++ 3.26 - -
Na+ 0.20 - -
K+ 0.62 - -
CEC (cmol/kg) 23.5 - -
EC (ds/m) 0.20 0.19 0.17
Photo 48-Calcic Fluvisol
173
Soil Classification: HAPLIC FLUVISOL

Description
A 0-15 cm
Clear wavy boundary, dry moisture status, color 7.5YR 4/1, many rounded fine gravels, loam texture, medium
subangular blocky and moderate structure, slightly hard consistency, high calcareous content, few fine roots,
very few clay cutans on pedfaces, no mottles, no efflorescences, no nodules, no voids, no biological activity.
Bt1 15-90 cm
Gradual wavy boundary, dry moisture status, color 7.5YR 3/1, no rock fragments, clay texture, coarse angular
blocky strong structure, very hard consistency, high calcareous content, few very fine roots, cutans, no mottles,
few efflorescences in to voids, no nodules.
Bt2 >140 cm
Dry moisture status, color 7.5YR 2.5/1, no rock fragments, clay texture, angular blocky strong structure, very
hard consistency, high calcareous content, very few very fine roots, few cutans on pedfaces, no mottles, few
efflorescences in to voids, no nodules.
HORIZON A Bt1 Bt2

Coarse 21.3
Sand % Medium 7.6
Fine 6.3
Coarse 21.8
Silt % Fine 18.5
Clay % 24.6
Texture USDA L
C% 1.26
N% 0.10
P (ppm) 2
CaCO3 14
pH 8
EB Ca++ -
(cmol/kg) Mg++ -
Na+ 0.16
K+ 0.87
CEC (cmol/kg) 38.9
EC (ds/m) 0.23
Photo 49-Haplic Fluvisol
174
Soil Classification: CALCIC VERTISOL

Description
Ap 0-25 cm
Gradual wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 7.5YR 2.5/1, very few medium gravel subrounded rock
fragments, silty clay texture, medium angular blocky moderate structure, hard consistency, high calcareous
content, fine roots with very few abundance, no cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no voids and few
Bt 25-120 cm
Gradual irregular boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 2/1, very few subrounded stones, silty clay
texture, moderate very coarse angular blocky structure, very hard consistency, high calcareous content, no roots,
many slickensides partially intersecting on pedfaces, no mottles, no efflorescences, no nodules, no voids and no
Btc >200 cm
Dry moisture status, colour 2.5YR 4/1, very few angular stones, silty clay texture, strong very coarse angular
blocky structure, very hard consistency, high calcareous content, no roots, abundant slickensides predominantly
intersecting on pedfaces, no efflorescences, very fine common nodules of carbonates, no voids and no biological
features.
HORIZON Ap Bt Btc
Coarse 6.4 2.4 5
Sand % Medium 2.3 1 0.7
Fine 3.7 2.1 0.8
Coarse 19.5 11.7 13.4
Silt % Fine 32 31.3 27.5
Clay % 36.2 51.6 52.7
Texture USDA SiCL SiC SiC
C% 2.03 1.85 -
N% 0.08 0.07 -
P (ppm) 2 1 -
CaCO3 17 9 27
pH 8.1 7.8 8
EB Ca++ - - -
(cmol/kg) Mg++ 4.20 7.79 -
Na+ 0.39 4.63 -
K+ 1.12 0.89 -
CEC (cmol/kg) 39.6 46.2 -
EC (ds/m) 0.20 1.28 1.53
Photo 50-Calcic Vertisol
175
Soil Classification: MOLLIC VERTISOL

Description
Ap 0-10 cm
Clear wavy boundary, moist status, colour 10YR 2/1, very few subrounded fine gravels, silty clay loam texture,
fine granular strong structure, very friable consistency, high calcareous content, very few medium and common
very fine roots, few clay cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no nodules, no voids and no biological features.
Bt >100 cm
Dry moisture status, colour 10YR 4/1, very rapid internal drainage, few subrounded fine gravels, silty clay
texture, fine granular weak structure, hard consistency, high calcareous content, common very fine roots,
abundant clay cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no nodules, no voids and few other insects activity.
HORIZON Ap Bt
Coarse 4 2.1
Sand % Medium 1.4 0.9
Fine 3 2.3
Coarse 19.1 16.6
Silt % Fine 34.2 30.1
Clay % 38.2 47.9
Texture USDA SiCL SiC
C% 1.74 1.75
N% 0.13 0.10
P (ppm) 2 <1
CaCO3 2 3
pH 8.2 8.0
EB Ca++ - -
(cmol/kg) Mg++ - -
Na+ 0.44 1.70
K+ 0.91 0.51
CEC (cmol/kg) 48.6 57.4
EC (ds/m) 0.28 0.44
Photo 51-Mollic Vertisol
176
Soil Classification: HAPLIC VERTISOL

Description
Ap 0-15m
Gradual smooth boundary, dry moisture status, colour 5Y 4/1, no rock fragments, silty clay loam texture, coarse
angular blocky strong structure, very hard consistency, moderately calcareous content, fine roots with few
abundance, very few clay cutans on pedfaces, no mottles, no efflorescences, no voids, no biological features.
Bt1 15 -70 cm
Clear wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 5Y 4/1, no rock fragments, silty clay texture, coarse angular
blocky strong structure, very hard consistency, moderately calcareous content, few very fine roots, many
slickensides partially intersecting on pedfaces, no mottles, no efflorescences, no nodules, no voids and no
Bt2 >150 cm
Moist status, colour 5Y 3/1, no rock fragments, silty clay texture, fine subangular strong structure, firm
consistency, moderately calcareous content, no roots, few clay cutans on pedfaces, no efflorescences, no
nodules, no voids and no biological features.
HORIZON Ap Bt1 Bt2

Coarse 1.8 1.6 1.8
Sand % Medium 1.3 1.0 1.1
Fine 3.1 2.8 2.4
Coarse 21.3 20.0 20.3
Silt % Fine 32.7 24.1 25.2
Clay % 39.7 50.5 49.2
C% 1.54 1.54 -
N% 0.10 0.10 -
P (ppm) 1 <1 -
CaCO3 7 7 6
pH 8.3 7.8 8
EB Ca++ 37.5 46.8 -
(cmol/kg) Mg++ - - -
Na+ 1.07 3.13 -
K+ 0.94 0.70 -
CEC (cmol/kg) 39.5 50.6 -
EC (ds/m) 0.24 0.71 0.65
Photo 52-Haplic Vertisol
177
Soil Classification: ENDOLEPTIC VERTISOL

Description
A 0-40 cm
Abrupt irregular boundary, dry moist status, colour 7.5YR 3/2, common angular stones, clay loam texture, fine
subangular blocky strong structure, very hard consistency, no calcareous content, fine roots with few abundance,
many slickensides not intersecting on pedfaces, no mottles, no efflorescences, no voids, no biological features.
R > 40
HORIZON A R
Coarse 16.9 -
Sand % Medium 2.4 -
Fine 3 -
Coarse 17.1 -
Silt % Fine 27.8 -
Clay % 32.9 -
Texture USDA CL -
C% 0.94 -
N% 0.05 -
P (ppm) <1 -
CaCO3 - -
pH 8.0
EB Ca++ 43.2 -
(cmol/kg) Mg++ 3.21 -
Na+ 0.20 -
K+ 0.30 -
CEC (cmol/kg) 46.9 -
EC (ds/m) 0.17 -
Photo 53-Endoleptic Vertisol
178
Soil Classification: LUVIC CALCISOL

Description
A 0-20 cm
Gradual wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 7.5Y 5/4, very rapid internal drainage, few angular medium
gravels, clay loam texture, coarse granular moderate structure, hard consistency, very high calcareous content,
very fine roots with few abundance, no cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no voids, few artifacts by
Bk > 120
Dry moisture status, colour 10YR 5/4, very rapid internal drainage, few angular medium gravels, clay loam
texture, medium granular with moderate structure, hard consistency, very high calcareous content, very fine
roots with very few abundance, few efflorescences inside pores, no voids, no biological features.
HORIZON A Bk
Coarse 15.7 17
Fine 3.7 4.0
Coarse 11.7 12.7
Silt % Fine 37.8 30.0
Clay % 28.7 34.0
Texture USDA CL CL
C% 0.98 0.75
N% 0.11 0.09
P (ppm) 2 <1
CaCO3 30 35
pH 8.1 8.1
EB Ca++ 28.7 31.6
(cmol/kg) Mg++ - -
Na+ 0.14 0.18
K+ 0.61 0.59
CEC (cmol/kg) 29.4 32.4
EC (ds/m) 0.22 0.26
Photo 54-Luvic Calcisol
179
Soil Classification: VERTIC CALCISOL

Description
Ap 0-30 cm
Clear wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 2.5Y 5/2, very rapid internal drainage, common angular stones,
silty clay loam texture, medium angular and subangular blocky moderate structure, very hard consistency, very
high calcareous content, fine roots with few abundance, very few clay cutans on pedfaces, no mottles, no
efflorescences, no voids, few other insects activity.
Bk 30 -55 cm
Gradual wavy boundary, slightly moist status, colour 2.5Y 6/4, very rapid internal drainage, few angular stones,
silty clay texture, fine granular weak structure, very friable consistency, very high calcareous content, very few
very fine roots, no cutans, few very fine clear mottles, no efflorescences, few very fine nodules of carbonates, no
Ck > 75 cm
Slightly moist status, colour 2.5Y 5/2, moderately rapid internal drainage, few angular stones, silty loam texture,
fine granular weak structure, loose consistency, very high calcareous content, no roots, no cutans, common very
fine clear mottles, few very fine nodules of carbonates, no voids and no biological features.
HORIZON A Bk Ck
Coarse 11.6 15.9 9.2
Fine 2.4 3.0 2.4
Coarse 21.3 21.2 16.3
Silt % Fine 29.2 39.7 51.5
Clay % 33.9 17.5 18.7
Texture USDA SiCL SiL SiL
C% 2.43 1.37 -
N% 0.06 0.4 -
P (ppm) 1 <1 -
CaCO3 24 68 66
pH 8.1 8.1 8.1
EB Ca++ 26.7 8.4 -
(cmol/kg) Mg++ 2.22 0.69 -
Na+ 0.12 0.02 -
K+ 0.39 0.14 -
CEC (cmol/kg) 29.4 9.2 -
EC (ds/m) 0.19 0.16 0.17
Photo 55-Vertic Calcisol
180
Soil Classification: HAPLIC CALCISOL

Description
A 0-10 cm
Clear wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 4/4, moderately rapid internal drainage, very few
subangular medium gravels, silty clay loam texture, medium granular weak structure, soft consistency, high
calcareous content, very few fine roots, no cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no voids, no biological activity.
Bt 10 -35 cm
Abrupt wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 5/4, moderately rapid internal drainage, few
subangular coarse gravels, silty clay loam texture, medium granular weak structure, slightly hard consistency,
high calcareous content, very few medium roots, very few clay cutans on pedfaces, no mottles, no
efflorescences, no nodules, no voids and no biological features.
Bck > 70 cm
Dry moisture status, colour 10Y 6/6, moderately rapid internal drainage, abundant angular coarse gravels, silty
loam texture, fine granular weak structure, slightly hard consistency, high calcareous content, very few very fine
roots, no cutans, no mottles, common efflorescences on prefaces, common medium nodules of carbonates, no
HORIZON A Bt Bck
Coarse 7.5 8.0 6.7
Fine 3.8 3.8 3.7
Coarse 15.7 18.6 16.5
Silt % Fine 39.0 38.9 48.0
Clay % 31.6 28.1 23.2
Texture USDA SiCL SiCL SiL
C% 2.19 2.29 0.81
N% 0.13 0.70 0.32
P (ppm) 2 <1 3
CaCO3 40 40 60
pH 8.1 8.2 8.3
EB Ca++ 16.9 21.0 12.3
(cmol/kg) Mg++ 1.49 1.42 0.94
Na+ 0.08 0.14 0.19
K+ 0.37 0.83 0.26
CEC (cmol/kg) 18.8 23.4 13.7
EC (ds/m) 0.22 0.22 0.21
Photo 56-Haplic Calcisol
181
Soil Classification: LIXIC CALCISOL

Description
A 0-25 cm
Abrupt wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 3/1, very rapid internal drainage, many subrounded
coarse gravels, loamy texture, medium granular weak structure, soft consistency, high calcareous content, many
fine and very few medium roots, very few clay and humus cutans on pedfaces, no mottles, no efflorescences, no
voids, no biological activity.
Bk 25 -45 cm
Abrupt wavy boundary, slightly moist status, colour 10YR 6/4, moderately rapid internal drainage, common
subrounded medium gravels, silty clay loam texture, medium granular weak structure, friable consistency, high
calcareous content, common fine and few medium roots, few clay and humus cutans on pedfaces, no mottles, no
efflorescences, fine and very few nodules of carbonates, no voids and no biological features.
C > 80 cm
Slightly moist status, colour 10Y 4/1, moderately rapid internal drainage, abundant subrounded stones, silty clay
loam texture, medium granular weak structure, firm consistency, high calcareous content, very few medium
HORIZON A Bk C
>8
Lower Boundary 25 45 0
10.
Coarse 30.5 13.3 3
Fine 2.8 2.9 3.0
16.
Coarse 15.2 18.5 2
40.
Silt % Fine 27.4 34.3 2
28.
Clay % 21.5 28.9 4
SiC Si
Texture USDA L L CL
C% 1.76 1.26 -
N% 0.16 0.14 -
P (ppm) 2 <1 -
CaCO3 42 47 52
pH 7.7 8.0 8.0
EB Ca++ 23.5 13.9 -
(cmol/kg) Mg++ 1.76 1.26 -
Na+ 0.06 0.02 -
K+ 0.33 0.35 -
CEC (cmol/kg) 25.6 15.5 -
0.1
EC (ds/m) 0.24 0.18 7
Photo 57-Lixic Calcisol
182
Soil Classification: HYPERCALCIC CALCISOL

Description
A 0-20 cm
Gradual wavy boundary, slightly moist status, colour 10YR 4/3, moderatly rapid internal drainage, dominant
angular coarse gravels, loamy texture, medium granular moderate structure, very friable consistency, very highly
calcareous content, very fine roots with few abundance, no cutans, no mottles, common efflorescences in to
pores, no voids, few activity of other insects.
Bk 80-100 cm
Abrupt smooth boundary, slightly moist status, colour 2.5Y 8/3, moderatly rapid internal drainage, few angular
medium gravels, silty loam texture, medium granular moderate structure, friable consistency, very highly
calcareous content, very few very fine roots, no cutans, common very fine clear mottles (colour 10YR 6/8),
many efflorescences inside pores, no voids, no biological features.
R > 100
HORIZON A Bk
Coarse 27.8 12.3
Fine 5.5 4.8
Coarse 17.6 18.9
Silt % Fine 29.2 53.9
Clay % 15.6 7.3
Texture USDA L SiL
C% 2.83 1.02
N% 0.25 0.04
P (ppm) 1 2
CaCO3 43 66
pH 7.8 8.2
EB Ca++ 23.3 28.0
(cmol/kg) Mg++ - -
Na+ 0.01 0.07
K+ 0.24 0.03
CEC (cmol/kg) 23.5 28.1
EC (ds/m) 0.26 0.20
Photo 58-Hypercalcic Calcisol
183
Soil Classification: HYPOCALCIC CALCISOL

Description
A 0-35 cm
Gradual smooth boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 4/3, moderately rapid internal drainage, very few
subrounded fine gravels, sandy loam texture, very fine granular weak structure, soft consistency, moderately
calcareous content, fine and few roots, no cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no voids, no biological activity.
Bk 35 -85 cm
Clear wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 6/4, very rapid internal drainage, few subrounded coarse
gravels, sandy loam texture, very fine granular weak structure, loose consistency, moderately calcareous content,
few very fine roots, no cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, very few fine nodules of carbonates, no voids and
no biological features.
C > 115 cm
Dry moisture status, colour 5Y 8/2, very rapid internal drainage, abundant subrounded medium gravels, sandy
loam texture, medium subangular blocky moderate structure, soft consistency, high calcareous content, few very
fine roots, no cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, abundant medium nodules of carbonates, no voids and no
HORIZON A1 A2 Bk
Coarse 32.9 36.3 34.0
Sand % Medium 15.9 15.5 15.4
Fine 12.3 13.1 11.2
Coarse 17.4 22.1 22.2
Silt % Fine 15.1 11.7 14.6
Clay % 6.5 1.3 2.6
Texture USDA SL SL SL
C% 1.42 - -
N% 0.10 - -
P (ppm) 3 - -
CaCO3 9 5 18
pH 7.3 8.2 8.4
EB Ca++ 16.0 - -
(cmol/kg) Mg++ 1.81 - -
Na+ 0.09 - -
K+ 0.47 - -
CEC (cmol/kg) 18.4 - -
EC (ds/m) 0.19 0.18 0.17
Photo 59-Hypocalcic Calcisol
184
Soil Classification: VERTIC CAMBISOL

Description
A 0-20 cm
Gradual wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 4/2, moderately rapid internal drainage, few angular
medium gravels, silty clay loam texture, medium subangular blocky moderate structure, slightly hard
consistency, very high calcareous content, medium roots, few clay cutans on pedfaces, no mottles, very fine and
very few nodules of carbonates, no efflorescences, no voids, few activity of other insects.
Bk 80-100 cm
Clear wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 5/5, moderately rapid internal drainage, many angular
stones, clay loam texture, fine subangular blocky moderate structure, very hard consistency, very high calcareous
content, very fine roots, few clay cutans on coarse fragments, many fine nodules of carbonates, no mottles, no
efflorescences, no voids, no biological features.
CR > 100 cm
HORIZON A Bt
Lower Boundary 55 74
Coarse 8.0 16.7
Fine 3.9 3.4
Coarse 20.0 17.4
Silt % Fine 28.8 24.4
Clay % 36.3 34.7
Texture USDA SiCL CL
C% 1.26 -
N% 0.09 -
P (ppm) <1 -
CaCO3 10 22
pH 8.3 7.8
EB Ca++ 34.9 -
(cmol/kg) Mg++ - -
Na+ 0.70 -
K+ 0.56 -
CEC (cmol/kg) 36.2 -
EC (ds/m) 0.25 0.48
Photo 60-Vertic Cambisol
185
Soil Classification: EPILEPTIC CAMBISOL

Description
A 0-25 cm
Clear wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 5/4, many subrounded coarse gravels, loamy texture,
medium granular weak structure, soft consistency, high calcareous content, few fine roots, no cutans, no mottles,
no nodules, no efflorescences, no voids, no biological activity.
Bw 25-65 cm
Abrupt wavy boundary, slightly moist status, colour 5Y 8/4, abundant angular coarse gravels, silty loam texture,
medium granular weak structure, very friable consistency, high calcareous content, very few fine roots, no
cutans, no nodules, no mottles, no efflorescences, no voids, no biological features.
R > 65 cm
HORIZON A Bw
Coarse 31.4 10.9
Fine 4.4 4.1
Coarse 15.2 14.8
Silt % Fine 26.5 50.7
Clay % 17.0 15.5
Texture USDA L SiL
C% 2.18 1.62
N% 0.20 0.15
P (ppm) 1 <1
CaCO3 51 66
pH 7.6 7.6
EB Ca++ 16.8 6.2
(cmol/kg) Mg++ 2.0 0.70
Na+ 0.22 0.24
K+ 0.31 0.37
CEC (cmol/kg) 19.3 7.5
EC (ds/m) 0.51 0.40
Photo 61-Epileptic Cambisol
186
Soil Classification: HAPLIC CAMBISOL

Description
A 0-15 cm
Gradual wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 7.5YR 6/2, very rapid internal drainage, common
subrounded stones, silty loam texture, medium subangular blocky weak structure, hard consistency, high
calcareous content, common fine and few medium roots, no cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no voids, no
biological activity.
B 15-40 cm
Clear irregular boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 6/3, very rapid internal drainage, common
subrounded stones, silty loam texture, fine subangular blocky weak structure, slightly hard consistency, high
calcareous content, very few fine and few medium roots, no cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no nodules, no
C1 40-90 cm
Gradual wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 2.5Y 6/3, very rapid internal drainage, abundant angular
fine gravels, silty loam texture, high calcareous content, very few very fine roots, no cutans, no mottles, no
C2 >115 cm
Dry moisture status, very rapid internal drainage, high calcareous content.
HORIZON A B C1 C2
Coarse 19.9 9.9 23.6 -
Sand % Medium 3.6 0.9 2.3 -
Fine 4.5 1.5 4.8 -
Coarse 20.6 12.6 31.1 -
Silt % Fine 35.5 53.9 22.1 -
Clay % 16.0 21.2 16.0 -
Texture USDA SiL SiL SiL -
C% 2.75 1.07 - -
N% 0.20 0.06 - -
P (ppm) 17 5 - -
CaCO3 29 34 13 -
pH 7.9 8.0 8.2 -
EB Ca++ 23.8 13.8 - -
(cmol/kg) Mg++ 1.80 0.97 - -
Na+ 0.09 0.08 - -
K+ 1.20 0.59 - -
CEC (cmol/kg) 26.9 15.4 - -
EC (ds/m) 0.22 0.15 0.13 -
Photo 62-Haplic Cambisol
187
Soil Classification: VERTIC LEPTOSOL

Description
A1 0-10 cm
Clear wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 3/6, moderately rapid internal drainage, very few
angular stones, clay loam texture, medium subangular blocky moderate structure, soft consistency, slightly
calcareous content, few fine and common roots, few clay and humus cutans on pedfaces, no mottles, no nodules,
no efflorescence, no voids, no biological activity.
A2 10-20 cm
Abrupt wavy boundary, dry moist status, colour 5YR 3/2, moderately internal drainage, few angular stones, silty
clay loam texture, medium angular blocky strong structure, hard consistency, slightly calcareous content, very
fine and very few roots, very few clay and humus cutans on pedfaces, no nodules, no mottles, no efflorescences,
no voids, no biological features.
R > 20 cm
HORIZON A1 A2
Coarse 9.3 6.9
Fine 6.0 4.6
Coarse 21.5 21.4
Silt % Fine 28.5 27.8
Clay % 28.9 34.9
Texture USDA CL SiCL
C% 2.60 2.23
N% 0.16 0.16
P (ppm) 1 <1
CaCO3 2 -
pH 8.0 8.0
EB Ca++ 39.4 41.0
(cmol/kg) Mg++ 2.27 2.05
Na+ 0.08 0.27
K+ 0.53 0.53
CEC (cmol/kg) 42.3 43.9
EC (ds/m) 0.22 0.22
Photo 63-Vertic Leptosol
188
Soil Classification: MOLLIC LEPTOSOL

Description
A 0-25 cm
Abrupt wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 2.5Y 4/3, moderately internal drainage, few subrounded
medium gravels, sandy loam texture, very fine granular weak structure, loose consistency, moderately calcareous
content, few very fine and very few medium roots, no cutans, no mottles, no nodules, no efflorescences, no
R > 25 cm
HORIZON A
Lower Boundary 25
Coarse 44.7
Sand % Medium 8.6
Fine 5.9
Coarse 16.0
Silt % Fine 15.6
Clay % 9.1
Texture USDA SL
C% 6.72
N% 0.59
P (ppm) 4
CaCO3 5
pH 7.6
EB Ca++ 31.9
(cmol/kg) Mg++ 7.31
Na+ 0.97
K+ 1.93
CEC (cmol/kg) 42.1
EC (ds/m) 0.25
Photo 64-Mollic Leptosol
189
Soil Classification: HAPLIC LEPTOSOL

Description
A1 0-10 cm
Clear smooth boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 5/2, abundant angular stones, silty loam texture, very
fine angular blocky weak structure, loose consistency, moderately calcareous content, very fine and very few
roots, no cutans, no mottles, no nodules, no efflorescences, no voids, few termite or ant channels and nests.
A2 10-30 cm
Clear wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 6/3, few angular stones, silty loam texture, very fine
angular blocky weak structure, soft consistency, moderately calcareous content, very fine and very few roots, no
cutans, no nodules, no mottles, no efflorescences, no voids, no biological features.
R > 30 cm
HORIZON Ap A
Coarse 9.3 9.3
Fine 7.9 7.8
Coarse 28.2 27.9
Silt % Fine 34.6 32.7
Clay % 15.8 17.8
Texture USDA SiL SiL
C% 2.89 2.72
N% 0.22 0.22
P (ppm) 2 3
CaCO3 3 -
pH 7.8 7.9
EB Ca++ 34.9 37.7
(cmol/kg) Mg++ 2.04 2.08
Na+ 0.11 0.17
K+ 1.13 0.99
CEC (cmol/kg) 38.2 40.9
EC (ds/m) 0.26 0.20
Photo 65-Haplic Leptosol
190
Soil Classification: LITHIC LEPTOSOL

Description
A 0-25 cm
Clear wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 6/6, slow internal drainage, no rock fragments, sandy
loam texture, medium single grain weak structure, loose consistency, no calcareous content, few fine and very
few medium roots, no cutans, no mottles, no nodules, no efflorescences, no voids, common termite or ant
channels and nests .
R > 10 cm
HORIZON A
Lower Boundary 10
Coarse 45.8
Sand % Medium 12.0
Fine 10.1
Coarse 25.0
Silt % Fine 5.5
Clay % 1.5
Texture USDA SL
C% 0.73
N% 0.20
P (ppm) 3
CaCO3 -
pH 7.9
EB Ca++ 16.6
(cmol/kg) Mg++ 3.59
Na+ 0.12
K+ 0.11
CEC (cmol/kg) 20.4
EC (ds/m) 0.17
Photo 66-Lithic Leptosol
191
Soil Classification: CALCIC LUVISOL

Description
Ap 0-25 cm
Gradual wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 4/3, very rapid internal drainage, few angular stones,
sandy loam texture, very fine subangular blocky weak structure, slightly hard consistency, few fine and common
medium roots, no cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no voids, no biological activity.
B 25-50 cm
Gradual wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 3/2, very rapid internal drainage, very few angular
coarse gravels, loamy texture, medium subangular blocky weak structure, slightly hard consistency, very few
fine and few medium roots, no cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no nodules, no voids and no biological
features.
Bkm 50-95 cm
Clear smooth boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 5/2, very rapid internal drainage, few angular coarse
gravels, sandy loam texture, medium angular blocky weak structure, slightly hard consistency, very few very
fine roots, no cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no nodules, no voids and no biological features.
Bk >110 cm
Slightly moist status, colour 10YR 4/3, very rapid internal drainage, very few subrounded coarse gravels, loamy
texture, medium angular blocky moderate structure, friable consistency, very fine and very few roots, no cutans,
no mottles, no efflorescences, no nodules, no voids and no biological features.
HORIZON Ap B Bkm Bk
Coarse 31.9 27.7 31.3 19.0
Sand % Medium 14.6 12.7 13.9 9.0
Fine 10.9 8.9 11.1 11.1
Coarse 15.7 17.2 17.7 21.9
Silt % Fine 15.5 14.0 13.5 19.1
Clay % 11.5 19.4 12.4 20.0
Texture USDA SL L SL L
C% 0.73 0.73 - -
N% 0.03 0.05 - -
P (ppm) 2 3 - -
CaCO3 6 8 9 13
pH 8.0 8.0 8.2 8.2
EB Ca++ 18.6 22.8 - -
(cmol/kg) Mg++ 1.77 1.76 - -
Na+ 0.10 0.08 - -
K+ 0.48 0.25 - -
CEC (cmol/kg) 20.9 24.9 - -
EC (ds/m) 0.28 0.17 0.12 0.13
Photo 67-Calcic Luvisol
192
Soil Classification: VERTIC LUVISOL

Description
A 0-10 cm
Gradual wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 2.5Y 5/4, moderately rapid internal drainage, abundant
subrounded stones, silty clay loam texture, prismatic coarse strong structure, very hard consistency, very high
calcareous content, very few very fine and common medium roots, no cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no
Bk 10-60 cm
Clear wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 3/1, moderately rapid internal drainage, many
subrounded coarse gravels, silty clay texture, coarse subangular blocky strong structure, firm consistency, very
high calcareous content, common very fine roots, many clay cutans on horizontal pedfaces, no mottles, no
C > 60-130 cm
Clear smooth boundary, moist status, colour 10YR 2/1, moderately rapid internal drainage, few subrounded
coarse gravels, silty clay texture, coarse angular blocky strong structure, friable consistency, high calcareous
content, very few very fine roots, common clay cutans on horizontal pedfaces, no mottles, no efflorescences, no
nodules of carbonates, no voids and no biological features.
R > 130 cm
HORIZON Ap Bt1 Bt2

Coarse 3.9 3.3 2.7
Fine 3.5 3.0 2.2
Coarse 17.3 20.3 20.3
Silt % Fine 38.3 23.4 20.2
Clay % 35.2 48.5 50.4
C% 1.93 1.53 -
N% 0.14 0.12 -
P (ppm) 3 <1 -
CaCO3 17 9 9
pH 8.1 8.3 8.4
EB Ca++ 35.7 36.4 -
(cmol/kg) Mg++ - - -
Na+ 0.05 0.04 -
K+ 1.25 0.42 -
CEC (cmol/kg) 37.0 36.9 -
EC (ds/m) 0.23 0.20 0.21
Photo 68-Vertic Luvisol
193
Soil Classification: EPILEPTIC LUVISOL

Description
Ap 0-10 cm
Clear wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 2.5YR 5/3, very few angular medium gravels, silty clay loam
texture, very coarse granular strong structure, slightly hard consistency, high calcareous content, very few very
fine roots, few clay and humus cutans on pedfaces, no mottles, no efflorescences, no voids, no biological
activity.
A 10-25 cm
Abrupt wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 2.5YR 4/3, no rock fragments, silty clay loam texture,
medium subangular blocky strong structure, slightly hard consistency, high calcareous content, very fine and
very few roots, common clay and humus cutans on pedfaces, no mottles, no efflorescences, no nodules, no voids
and no biological features.
C 25-40 cm
Abrupt wavy boundary, slightly moist status, colour 2.5YR 6/6, very few subrounded fine gravels, silty clay
loam texture, medium granular strong structure, friable consistency, high calcareous content, very few very fine
R > 40 cm
HORIZON Ap A C
Coarse 9.3 4.5 2.8
Fine 2.8 2.1 2.4
Coarse 15.2 17.2 16.1
Silt % Fine 35.5 37.2 48.9
Clay % 33.7 37.8 30.2
Texture USDA SiCL SiCL SiCL
C% 2.38 2.01 1.81
N% 0.13 0.12 0.08
P (ppm) 3 1 <1
CaCO3 24 19 48
pH 8.0 8.1 8.1
EB Ca++ 16.9 18.7 21.6
(cmol/kg) Mg++ 5.83 3.45 3.74
Na+ 1.12 0.16 0.19
K+ 0.76 0.62 0.41
CEC (cmol/kg) 24.6 22.9 25.9
EC (ds/m) 0.18 0.17 0.15
Photo 69-Epileptic Luvisol
194
Soil Classification: CUTANIC LUVISOL

Description
A 0-20 cm
Gradual smooth boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 3/2, no rock fragments, silty loam texture, coarse
angular blocky strong structure, hard consistency, no calcareous content, common fine and very few medium
roots, no cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no voids, no biological activity.
Bt1 20-65 cm
Gradual smooth boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 3/1, no rock fragments, silty clay loam texture,
coarse angular blocky strong structure, very hard consistency, no calcareous content, very fine and very few
Bt2 > 90cm

Gradual smooth boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 4/1, no rock fragments, clay loam texture, coarse
angular blocky strong structure, very hard consistency, no calcareous content, no roots, many clay cutans on
horizontal perdfaces, no mottles, no efflorescences, no nodules, no voids and no biological features.
HORIZON A Bt1 Bt2

Coarse 7.4 3.0 3.3
Fine 6.4 7.8 14.3
Coarse 27.1 27.7 28.5
Silt % Fine 35.7 27.6 18.5
Clay % 20.3 29.5 27.8
Texture USDA SiL SiCL CL
C% 2.39 1.23 -
N% 0.18 0.10 -
P (ppm) 3 1 -
CaCO3 - - -
pH 7.3 7.2 7.2
EB Ca++ 25.7 21.5 -
(cmol/kg) Mg++ 6.01 6.88 -
Na+ 0.09 0.29 -
K+ 0.32 0.17 -
CEC (cmol/kg) 32.2 28.8 -
EC (ds/m) 0.22 0.16 0.13
Photo 70-Cutanic Luvisol
195
Soil Classification: EPILEPTIC PHAEOZEM

Description
A 0-45 cm
Abrupt irregular boundary, dry moisture status, colour 7.5YR 3/2, very rapid internal drainage, few subrounded
coarse gravels, silty loam texture, medium granular moderate structure, slightly hard consistency, no calcareous
content, few medium and common very fine roots, no cutans, no mottles, no nodules, no efflorescences, no
voids, many barrows.
HORIZON A
Lower Boundary 45
Coarse 18.1
Sand % Medium 5.8
Fine 4.9
Coarse 20.6
Silt % Fine 30.7
Clay % 20.7
Texture USDA SiL
C% 2.46
N% 0.16
P (ppm) 1
CaCO3 -
pH 7.8
EB Ca++ 30.6
(cmol/kg) Mg++ 3.21
Na+ 0.21
K+ 0.61
CEC (cmol/kg) 40.6
EC (ds/m) 0.24
Photo 71-Epileptic Phaeozem
196
Soil Classification: HAPLIC PHAEOZEM

Description
A 0-20 cm
Clear smooth boundary, moist status, colour 10YR 3/4, no rock fragments, sandy loam texture, fine subangular
blocky weak structure, loose consistency, no calcareous content, common fine and very few medium roots, no
cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences, no voids, no biological activity.
B1 20-55 cm
Clear wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 4/3, very few subrounded stones, loamy texture, fine
subangular blocky weak structure, soft consistency, no calcareous content, common fine roots, no cutans, no
mottles, no efflorescences, no nodules, no voids and no biological features.
B2 > 90cm
Dry moisture status, colour 10YR 4/2, few subrounded large boulders, loamy texture, fine angular blocky
moderate structure, slightly hard consistency, no calcareous content, few fine roots, no cutans, no mottles, no
HORIZON A B1 B2
Coarse 35.9 24.7 20.4
Sand % Medium 16.1 14.0 8.6
Fine 10.8 11.2 7.9
Coarse 27.5 22.4 23.5
Silt % Fine 16.7 20.0 24.5
Clay % 3.0 7.8 15.1
Texture USDA SL L L
C% 1.44 1.52 -
N% 0.13 0.14 -
P (ppm) 1 1 -
CaCO3 - - -
pH 7.6 7.9 8.0
EB Ca++ 26.2 29.7 -
(cmol/kg) Mg++ 4.11 5.57 -
Na+ 0.11 0.13 -
K+ 0.29 0.21 -
CEC (cmol/kg) 30.7 35.6 -
EC (ds/m) 0.20 0.17 0.18
Photo 72-Haplic Phaeozem
197
Soil Classification: HAPLIC REGOSOL

Description
A 0-12 cm
Clear wavy boundary, dry moisture status, colour 10YR 4/3, moderately rapid internal drainage, common
subrounded medium gravels, loamy texture, medium granular weak structure, soft consistency, high calcareous
content, fine and few roots, no cutans, no mottles, no nodules, no efflorescences, no voids, no biological features.
C >50 cm
Dry moisture status, colour 2.5Y 7/2, moderately rapid internal drainage, dominant flat medium gravels, silty
loam texture, medium granular weak structure, slightly hard consistency, very high calcareous content, very few
fine roots, no cutans, no nodules, no mottles, no efflorescences, no voids, no biological features.
HORIZON A C
Coarse 31.0 12.2
Fine 5.7 3.6
Coarse 20.0 22.2
Silt % Fine 23.2 50.0
Clay % 13.7 8.7
Texture USDA L SiL
C% 2.04 1.68
N% 0.16 0.16
P (ppm) 2 3
CaCO3 29 55
pH 7.9 8.0
EB Ca++ 15.4 19.5
(cmol/kg) Mg++ - -
Na+ - 0.07
K+ 0.67 0.19
CEC (cmol/kg) 16.1 19.8
EC (ds/m) 0.24 0.24
Photo 73-Haplic Regosol
198
Soil Classification: COLLUVIC REGOSOL

Description
Ap 0-20 cm
Diffuse wavy boundary, dry status, colour 2.5Y 6/4, no rock fragments, clay loam texture, coarse subangular
blocky moderate structure, soft consistency, very high calcareous content, common fine roots, no cutans, no
mottles, no efflorescences, no voids, no biological activity.
Bw 20-70 cm
Diffuse wavy boundary, dry status, colour 2.5Y 5/4, very few flat fine gravels, loamy texture, fine granular weak
structure, slightly hard consistency, very high calcareous content, very few and very fine roots, many
slickensides on pedfaces, no mottles, many efflorescences in to voids, no nodules, no voids and no biological
features.
C > 100 cm
Slightly dry moisture status, colour 2.5Y 5/3, no rock fragments, clay loam texture, massive weak structure, hard
consistency, very high calcareous content, very fine and very few roots, no cutans, no mottles, no efflorescences,
no nodules, no voids and no biological features.
HORIZON Ap Bw C
Coarse 17.5 38.0 28.3
Fine 4.1 1.9 2.7
Coarse 20.7 15.5 18.9
Silt % Fine 23.1 22.3 16.8
Clay % 27.7 18.4 29.1
Texture USDA CL L CL
C% 1.50 0.75 -
N% 0.12 0.04 -
P (ppm) 3 1 -
CaCO3 26 24 17
pH 8.1 8.4 8.3
EB Ca++ 30.1 15.2 -
(cmol/kg) Mg++ 0.84 1.37 -
Na+ 0.25 0.15 -
K+ 0.25 0.35 -
CEC (cmol/kg) 31.4 17.1 -
EC (ds/m) 0.21 0.17 0.24
Photo 74-Colluvic Regosol
199
200
Annex 3-Florist list

Below is a list of some of the floristic species that were encountered in the study area. Since the fieldwork was
carried out during the dry season, only most of the drought tolerant species (such as woody species) were
flourishing.
SCIENTIFIC NAME LOCAL NAME

Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell kebkeb
Acacia etbaica Schweinf. seraw
Tarchonanthus camphoratus L. ebok
Aloe adigratana Reynolds erreh, ret, rate
Euclea schimperi ( A.DC. ) Dandy kilyau
Juniperus procera Hochst. ex Endl. tid
Cassia singueana Delile ambo amba
Carissa edulis Vahl. agaam
Acacia abyssinica Hochst. ex Benth. ssp. abyssinica alendya
Leucas oligocephala Hook.f. suwa karni
Rhus glutinosa Hochst. ex A.Rich. atami
Euphorbia abyssinica J.F.Gmel. kulkual
Opuntia ficus indica Mill. beles, kolqual, cactus
Olea africana Mill. weira
Heteromorpha trifoliata Eckl. & Zeyh. murki zebe
Grewia tenax (Forssk.) Fiori atsats
Ehretia cymosa Thonn. krawe
Cyphostemma nivea (Hochst.) Desc. harag
Commiphora africana (A.Rich.) Engl. anqwa
Balanites aegyptica (L.) Delile indrur
Albizia gummifera C.A.Sm. sasa
Acacia seyal Delile quyeh-chea
Acacia nilotica Delile chea
Acacia brevispica Harms kontetef
Acacia albida Delile grar
Abutilon sp. buwak
201
202
Annex 4-Field forms

This annex shows samples of forms that were used during the fieldwork. Six different forms and their contents
are displayed from Figure 57 to Figure 62 and they carry information on:
- Relevé: relevé identification (relevé number, date, surveyors, location and geographic reference), mapping
Land Unit description (land facets, relationships among land facets and sketch).
- Land facet: elevation range, slope class, morphology type, rock outcrop, coarse fragment (area and size)
humane influence, land use, vegetation type, geomorphology features, erosion process and facet description.
- Site description: topology and parent material and its description, geologic features, erosion description,
hydrological characteristics, soil profiles draft and some notes.
- Soil profile: detailed description of each soil horizon, some notes and preliminary soil name.
- Vegetation form: cover percentage and floristic list with detailed information for species having a cover of
more than one percent.
- Rural survey and interviews on farming system, animals, crops, and others notes.
203
Figure 57-Relevé form
204
Figure 58-Land facet form
205
Figure 59-Site description form
206
Figure 60-Site soil profile form
207
Figure 61-Vegetation form
208
Figure 62-Rural survey form
209
210
Annex 5-Panoramic view

This annex contains the interpretation of some photos in order to obtain a synoptic view of Land Units in the
land systems.
Photo 75-Land System: Ethiopian Rift Escarpemnt

Land Units: 1-Moderately dissected sloping surface with closed scrub on limestone and shale; 2-Moderately
dissected sloping surface with open scrub on limestone and shale.
211
Photo 76-Land System: Ethiopian Rift Escarpment

Land Units: 4-Strongly dissected sloping surface with summit sub flat area, closed to open scrub on limestone
and shale; 5-Strongly dissected sloping surface with summit sub flat area, open scrub on limestone and shale; 6-
Strongly dissected sloping surface with summit sub flat area, rainfed annual cops on limestone and shale.
Photo 77-Land System: Ethiopian Rift Escarpment

Land Units: 8-Strongly dissected sloping surface with open scrub on limestone and shale; 10-Strongly dissected
sloping surface with sparse to open scrub and rainfed annual crops on limestone and shale
212
Photo 78-Land System: Mekele “Plateau”

Land Units: 13-Steep scarp with open scrub on dolerite; 27-Strong slope with closed scrub and rainfed annual
crops on marl interbedded with white and black limestone; 28-Strong slope with rainfed annual crops and sparse
scrub on marl interbedded with white and black limestone.

Land Units: 16-Sloping scarp with open to closed scrub on shale with interbedded “black” limestone; 17-
Sloping scarp with open to closed scrub and rainfed annual crops on shale with interbedded “black” limestone;
19-Sloping scarp with rainfed annual crops on shale with interbedded “black” limestone.
213

Land Units: 31-Very steep scarp with open scrub on fine crystalline limestone with some marl; 32-Terraced
slopes with open scrub and rainfed annual crops on fine crystalline limestone with some marl; 33-Terraced
slopes with rainfed annual crops on fine crystalline limestone with some marl.
Photo 81-Land System: Mekele “Plateau” and Giba river tributaries

Land Units: 32-Terraced slopes with open scrub and rainfed annual crops on fine crystalline with some marl;
26-Strong slope with rainfed annual crops on marl interbedded with white and “black” limestone; 37-Agriculture
on level plain with alluvial deposit material.
214
Annex 6-Transects
The whole study area was divided into 37 Land Units based on lithlogy, land form, and land cover. On the basis
of their land forms, these Land Units were reclassified again into three land systems. These land systems
constitute the Mekele “Plateau”, the Ethiopian Rift Escarpment and the Giba River Tributaries. Thus these
transects were made in order to have the possible synoptic view of the study area by crossing all the land
systems. It was performed based on the relationship among the land systems, Land Units, land forms, lithology,
soils and land cover.
In order to create a synthesis of the study area, these transects were prepared in three parts. The first and the
second transects extend from SW to the NE, and the third from WNW to ESE. Both the first and the second
transects have the same orientation of direction, but they have different geographical locations. Transect one
(T1) is located in the south western whereas the second one is in the northern part of the study area.
As shown in Figure 63 below, transects T1 and T3 cross two adjacent land systems. Transect T1 passes through
the land systems of Giba river tributaries and Mekele Plateau. Similarly T3 crosses the Ethiopian Rift
Escarpment and the Mekele “Plateau”. Transect T2 on the other hand passes through a single land system, the
Mekele Plateau.
Geological legend:
Jtg: Limestone and shale
Jg: Shale with interbedded “black” limestone
Jte: Marl interbedded with white and “black” limestone
Jtd: Fine crystalline limestone with some marl
Jtc: Marl with black and sandy limestone
Jtb: Limestone and marl
Co: Colluvial deposits
Al: Alluvial deposits
Landform abbreviation
UnCr: Undulating crest
UnRi: Undulating rises
VSsc: Very Steep scarp
Ssc: Steep scarp
MSs: Moderate Steep slope
LePl: Level plain
Land cover abbreviations
Os/Rf a.cr: Open scrub and rainfed annual crops
Rainfed annual cr. & sparse S: Rainfed annual crops and sparse scrub
Soil type abbreviation
Ass: Association
Luv: Luvisols
Fluvi: Fluvisols
Cal: Calcisols
Kasta: Kastanozems
Rego: Regosols
Aren: Arenosols
Phae: Phaeozems
Verti: Vertsols
215
35
37 36 31
20 20 V 22
3735
T2
37 13 V 24 31 V21
21 35 31 30 22
28 15 23 32 21
13
26
18 13 22 1721 33 33 V 32 21 23
30 29 22 14 22372337
32 27 2828 21 32 33 32 32 30
V 26 28 26 25 V 25 20
35 28 16 17V 29 V 23
31 26 23
3326 28
22
22 21
14 V 24 24 32 33 172114 15 13 15 2
36 3228 V 23 34 28 1
23 23 14 V 30 17
24 17 22
17 15 V 24 V 22 34 V
23 2229 17 23 19 2
23 17 V V 22 23 2
32 26 22 23 26 23 V19 22 22
24 252825 23 V W 23 17 2217 23
V
28 2720 V 17 1713 20 2917 28 2329 24 14 V
23 17 13 V 22
32 22 V 1714 23
35 14 V 17 14 V 23 2523 29 V 13
16 22 Ur 15 22
15V23 22 18 V 2323 29 28 W 23 13 23
14 13 V 14 V 24 V 21
V 23 14 21 24 W
Ur Ur 17 7
36 31
14 22 19 Ui V 18 16 1918 17 22 17
22
7 T3
35 26
21 2423 22 22 13
19 23 23
23 22 7
34 33 32 V 24 22 9
31 34 V 9 9 7
3031 V23 8 98 7
25 28 3026 32 13
V 24 24 W 1623 15 14 W 9 7 7
34 28 13 V V 17 18 V 23 17 8
24 14 24 V 141714 18 5 9
32 17 15 22
14 19 9 8 7 9 9
251515 14 2737 31 V 22
V14 17 14 V 23 23
9
4 3 6 7
17 26 V 17 2214 14 14 15
15 28 25 28 26 13 23 5 7
30 2213 17V W 1722 3
8
9
28 23 7
17 14 30 28 32 17
27 23 15 23 W V 4 V
14 14
T1
14 13 17 13 V 24 15 24 17 65 6 8 7
26 15 14 V 23 23 7
32 34 23 6
17 14 221916 19 5
26 37 V 30 15 23 19 3 9
31 23 V 14
22 V 13 19V V 23 5 6 5
28 24 17 5 8
30 32 14 16 15 V W 23 3
17 23 7 5 5 9
22 2315 1916 V 6 10 12
22 17 13 24 17 V 9 8 11
17 17 V 9
14 22
2113 23 8 10 9 12 12 11 9
10 11 11 12
22 23 17 8 9 11
15 V 8
V 14 17 3
1915 16 V9 4 8 8
16 8 5
V 9 8
22 16 21 5 8
V 5
Transects 10
9 10 10
8 8 9 9
8
21 9 910 9
23 8 12 12 11
Ethiopian Rift Escarpment 8
8 12 11
23 1211 12
1112 12 11
Mekele "Plateau" 9 12 12
11
12
5 11
Giba River tributaries
Urban areas 0 3 6 9 12
/
Km
Water bodies
Figure 63-Land systems, Land Units and transects’ location
216
Giba
LAND SYSTEM Mekele “Plateau” River Mekele “Plateau”
Trib.
LANDFORM UnCr Strong slope UnCr Str. slope LePl VSsc Foot Slope MSslope Terraced Slopes UnRises Strong Slope Ssc UnRises Gently Undulating Plain
Open
Rainfed
scrub O scrub and Irrigated Os/
Rainfed annual annual Open scrub and
and rainfed and rainfed Open Rainfed annual Open to sparse Rf Rainfed annual Artifici Rainfed annual
LAND COVER crops, and sparse crops and rainfed annual Rainfed annual crops Rainfed annual crops
rainfed annual annual scrub crops scrub ann. crops al forest crops
scrub sparse crops
annual crops crops crop
scrubs
crop
LAND UNIT 15 28 15 28 37 31 34 36 35 33 21 26 14 22 23
LEGEND GEOLOGICAL CROSS-SECTION
meters
2400 0 1 Km Chelekot Faults
Col
Al 2200
Tim
Jg
2000
Jte
Jtd
Jtc
Jtb
SW NE
RELEVÉ NUMBER 406 311 406 109 104 103 117 217 308 121 105 316 119 404 413
Leptosols
Luvi. Luvisols Association Ass. Association of Association Association Association Lepto.,
Leptosols .with with Calcisol Luvi with Phaeoz
SOIL CLASSIFICATION with with of Luvi and Luvisol Cal. Calcisols and Kasta, Rego., Kasta.,Arenosols, Luvi.,Cal., Vertisol with Calcisol and Luvisol
Kastanozems Kastanoze s. leptosol ems
Camb. Cambisols Fluvi Luv Vertisols Luvi., Calcisols Phaeozems and Vertisol Cambisols
ms
A Ap A A A A Ap A A Ap Ap Ap A A Ap
B A BC R C1 B B1 Bt B Bk2 B B1 B Bt
Soil profile
C/R C/R B2 Bt
Bk/C/R
R C2 C C-R Ck C/R B2 R C/R
R R B3
Figure 64-Transect 1: Mekele “Plateau” and Giba River Tributaries systems
217
LAND SYSTEM Mekele “Plateau”
Steep
LANDFORM Gently undulating plain Undulating rises Terraced slopes Strong slope Terraced slopes MoStSl Very steep scarp
Scarp
Open
LAND COVER Rainfed annual crops Open scrub Rac Rac/Sc Rac Open Scrub and Rainfed annual crops Open scrub
scrub
LAND UNIT 23 22 13 31 26 28 26 32 35 31
Mekele Fault
Col 2400
0 1 Km Mekelle Fault
Tim
Jg
2200
Jte
Jtd
Jtc
2000
Jtb
SW NE
RELEVÉ NUMBER 413 404 304 103 316 109 316 108 308 103
Ass.
Associa Assoc
Kast Associati
tion iation
.,Ar on
Association Lepto., Luvi.,Cal., Leptoso Kast, Leptosols with
SOIL CLASSIFICATION Vertisol with Calcisol and Luvisol Calcisol en., Association Calcisols and Vertisols Calcisols Calcisol
Cambisols ls and , Aren, Kastanozems
Pha and
Regosol Phae,
e,Ve Luvisols
s Vert
rt
A
Ap A A A A A A A
B t1
Soil profile Bt Bt R Bk R R B Bk
Bt2
C/R Bk/C/ C-R Bk/C/R
Figure 65-Transect 2: Makele “Plateau” system
218
LAND SYSTEM Mekele “Plateau” Ethiopian Rift Escarpment
LANDFORM Undulating rises Level plain Undulating rises Sloping scarp Strongly dissected sloping surface
LAND COVER Sparse and closed Rainfed annual crops Grassland Rainfed annual crops Open to closed scrub and Closed scrub Open scrub
scrub rainfed annual crops
LAND UNIT 29 22 24 22 17 7 8
0 1 Km
2600
Al
Jtg
2400
Jg
Jte
2200
2000
WNW ESE
RELEVÉ NUMBER 213 404 312 404 402 206 213
Association Luvi., Association Leptosols., Luvisols.,Calcisols.and Association Kasta., Cal., Leptosols with
SOIL CLASSIFICATION Association Lepto., Luvi.,Cal., Cambisols Association Luvisols and Fluvisols Association of Calcisols and Cambisols
Lepto, Phaeozems Cambisols Phaeo., Rego and Cambisols Calcisols
A A A A A A A12
Bt Bt R
C Bt1 Bk C1
Soil profile C/R C/R
Bt2 Ck
219
220
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-Concept of land 1
Figure 2-Project framework 2
Figure 3-Location of the study area 3
Figure 4-Sketch map of the study area 5
Figure 5-Flow chart for data processing (mod. from Ongaro, 2007) 8
Figure 6- GIS structure and relational database 10
Figure 7-Land Unit Map (1:375,000.). The red square corresponds to the extract at final scale shown in Figure 8 13
Figure 8-Land Unit Map extract at final scale 1:100,000 overlapped onto Landsat 7 432 RGB colour composite 15
Figure 9-Bagnouls and Gaussen diagram for the station of Mekele 18
Figure 10-Rainfall and evapotranspiration in Mekele (FAO AQUASAT data) 19
Figure 11-Thermotypes and ombrotypes showed in different maps 20
Figure 12-Thermotypes and ombrotypes combined together 21
Figure 13-General view of Mekele Outlier (mod. from Bosellini et al., 1997) 22
Figure 14-False Colour Composite with band ratios: RGB (3/4, 5/1, 3/1) 24
Figure 15-Dolerite (green) in the South-East part of the study area 25
Figure 16-Antalo Formation strata in the northern part of the study area 25
Figure 17-Directional filter 60° applied on band 7. North part of the study area: Antalo Formation 26
Figure 18-Directional filter 330° on band 7. South-West part of the study area in the proximity of Chelekwot fault 26
Figure 19-Geological map 28
Figure 20-Land systems and landforms map 35
Figure 21-Land use map 44
Figure 22-Land cover map 45
Figure 23-Land use classification 46
Figure 24-Soil Map 58
Figure 25-Soil map according to FAO-UNESCO (1988) 64
Figure 26-Increased in fertiliser importation from 2001 to 2006 (Addis Z., 2008) 73
Figure 27-Biological amplification of DDT (mod. from FEPA, 2004) 74
Figure 28- Land capability classes and increasing limitations 88
Figure 29-Land capability classes and subclasses maps 91
Figure 30-Crops surface distribution in relation to suitability classes 94
Figure 31-Land suitability map of Teff and Maize 95
Figure 32-Land suitability map of Barley and Wheat 96
Figure 33-Land suitability map of Bean and Pea 97
Figure 34-Land suitability map of Sorghum 98
Figure 35-Land suitability classes for Banana and Papaya 101
Figure 36-Land suitability classes for Orange and Guava 102
Figure 37-Land suitability classes for Mango and Ananas 103
Figure 38-Land suitability classes for Apricot and Plum 105
Figure 39 Land suitability classes for Cactus 106
Figure 40-Land suitability map for irrigation 108
Figure 41-Comparison land suitability for drip and surface irrigation 110
Figure 42-Land suitability for Juniperus procera and Olea africana 112
Figure 43-Land suitability for Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Eucalyptus globules 114
Figure 44-Land suitability for Acacia etbaica and Boswellia papyriphera 115
Figure 45-Van Zuidam erosion risk map 119
Figure 46-Erosion map showing RUSLE soil loss amount estimated over the study area. 126
Figure 47-Correlation between Van Zuidam erosion risk and RUSLE soil loss quantities (expressed in logarithmic
scale) 127
Figure 48-Framework of the processing 129
Figure 49-Vegetation change 131
Figure 50-Expansion rate of Mekele and Kwiha towns (1986-2015) 132
Figure 51-GIS landfill model 135
Figure 52-Relationship between landuse, land capability and suitability for a landfill 135
Figure 53-Suitable landfill location in the study area 136
Figure 54-RUSLE map in the hypothesis of 50% vegetation growth 138
Figure 55-Scenario for soil conservation forestry and commercial forestry 141
Figure 56-Scenario for naturalistic forestry 142
Figure 57-Relevé form 204
Figure 58-Land facet form 205
221
Figure 59-Site description form 206

Figure 60-Site soil profile form 207
Figure 61-Vegetation form 208
Figure 62-Rural survey form 209
Figure 63-Land systems, Land Units and transects’ location 216
Figure 64-Transect 1: Mekele “Plateau” and Giba River Tributaries systems 217
Figure 65-Transect 2: Makele “Plateau” system 218
222
L I S T O F TA B L E S
Table 1-Collected satellite images 9
Table 2-GIS type of data 9
Table 3-Final Land Unit legend 15
Table 4-Relation between the different subdivisions 27
Table 5-Land cover legend and corresponding LCCS classes 56
Table 6-Classification thresholds 57
Table 7-Type of Arenosols 57
Table 8-Type of Calcisols 59
Table 9-Type of Cambisols 60
Table 10-Type of Fluvisols 60
Table 11-Type of Kastanozems 60
Table 12-Type of Leptosols 61
Table 13-Type of Luvisols 61
Table 14-Type of Phaozems 62
Table 15-Type of Regosols 62
Table 16-Type of Vertisols 62
Table 17-Description of mapping codes 63
Table 18-Code and prefix of soils 63
Table 19-Descriptive legend of the map units 65
Table 20-Averages of the laboratory data for the chemical and physical characteristics analysed. 66
Table 21-Acceptable rates for the interpretation of EC values in soil mapping and land evaluation (adapted from FAO:
values divided by 5). 67
Table 22-Acceptable ratings that have been used for the interpretation of CEC 68
Table 23-Acceptable ratings that have been used for the interpretation of Exchangeable Ca (meq/100g soil/ cmol/kg) 68
Table 24-Acceptable ratings that have been used for the determination of Exchangeable Mg 68
Table 25-Acceptable rating that have been used for the interpretation of Exchangeable K (meq/100g soil) 69
Table 26-Acceptable ratings that have been used for the interpretation of Exchangeable Na and ESP (meq/100g soil) 69
Table 27-Acceptable ratings that have been used for the interpretation of Organic Carbon (OC) and Organic matter
(OM) in Percentage (%) 70
Table 28-Acceptable rating that has been used for the interpretation of Total Nitrogen (N) in percentage 70
Table 29-Acceptable rating that has been used for the interpretation of Available Phosphorous (P) in ppm 70
Table 30-Source current petrochemical industry, 1998 Japan 74
Table 31-Capability classes description 87
Table 32- Land capability subclasses 88
Table 33-Land capability parameters and thresholds 89
Table 34-Land index values and the corresponding suitability classes 93
Table 35-Summary of the suitability classes for Banana 99
Table 36-Summary of the land suitability classes for Papaya 99
Table 37-Summary of the land suitability classes for Guava 100
Table 38-Summary of the land suitability for Cactus 106
Table 39- Suitability indices for the different suitability classes (Sys et al., 1991, modified) 107
Table 40-Land suitability classes for surface irrigation 109
Table 41-Land suitability classes for drip irrigation 110
Table 42-Van Zuidam classes 117
Table 43-Van Zuidam classes in the study area 117
Table 44-Results of vegetation change analysis 130
Table 45-Past and forecasted area of Mekele town 132
Table 46-Criteria and parameters used to locate sanitary landfills 134
Table 47-The weights assigned to the considered species, for each forest utilisation type 139
Table 48-The FAO suitability classes and the correspondent numeric values assigned 139
Table 49-Results of land suitability for forestry and scenario for three forest utilization types 140
223
224
LIST OF PHOTOS
Photo 1-Travertine inside Jtd geological unit (photo Sara Minelli).................................................................................. 29
Photo 2-Black lithographic limestone (photo Sara Minelli) ............................................................................................. 29
Photo 3-Black limestone in Jg unit (photo Sara Minelli).................................................................................................. 30
Photo 4-Interbedded marl and limestone (photo Issouf Ouedraogo) ................................................................................ 31
Photo 5-Gypsum (photo Issouf Ouedraogo) ..................................................................................................................... 31
Photo 6-Dolerite boulders (photo Issouf Ouedraogo)....................................................................................................... 32
Photo 7-Limestone layers tilted by dolerite intrusion (photo Issouf Ouedraogo) ............................................................. 32
Photo 8-Colluvial deposits (Photo Valeria Alessandro) ................................................................................................... 33
Photo 9-Moderately dissected Ethiopian Rift Escarpment (photo Ntoh Doris Bate)........................................................ 34
Photo 10-Strongly dissected sloping surface with summit sub flat areas (photo Francesco Conti).................................. 36
Photo 11-Strongly dissected scarps bordering gently undulating surfaces (photo Francesco Conti) ............................... 36
Photo 12-Dolerite steep scarp (photo Valeria Alessandro)............................................................................................... 37
Photo 13-Dolerite onion-skin exfoliation (photo Issouf Ouedraogo) ............................................................................... 38
Photo 14-Undulating rises (right side) becoming gently undulating plain (left side) (photo Luca Ongaro)..................... 39
Photo 15-Level plain valley demarcated by undulating rises (photo Matteo De Stefano)................................................ 39
Photo 16-Strong slope on Antalo limestone with dolerite stone lines (photo Matteo De Stefano)................................... 40
Photo 17- Antalo Formation very steep scarp (photo Valeria Alessandro) ...................................................................... 41
Photo 18-Antalo Formation terraced slopes (photo Valeria Alessandro) ......................................................................... 42
Photo 19-May Gabai valley surrounded by limestone relieves and hills (photo Birhane Gebrehiwot Tesfamariam) ...... 43
Photo 20-Field ploughing (photo Matar Ndao)................................................................................................................. 46
Photo 21-Cattle grazing on ranching land (photo Moges Aregay Gebremariam) ............................................................ 48
Photo 22-A church forest (photo Birhane Gebreiwot Tesfamariam) ................................................................................ 50
Photo 23-Closed scrub in the Ethiopian Rift Escarpment, with Tarchonanthus camphoratus (foreground) and Acacia
etbaica (photo Francesco Conti) ............................................................................................................................... 52
Photo 24-Open scrub with Acacia etbaica (foreground, dried leaves) and Euclea schimperi (evergreen) (photo Valeria
Alessandro)............................................................................................................................................................... 52
Photo 25-Euclea schimperi (A.DC.) Dandy (photo Erica Matta) ..................................................................................... 53
Photo 26-Aloe adigratana Reynolds (photo Junxia Zhang) .............................................................................................. 53
Photo 27-Eucalyptus plantation, nearby Hawusbba village (photo Erica Matta) ............................................................. 54
Photo 28-Salinisation in agricultural fields, south of Mekele, relevé 104 (photo Erica Matta)........................................ 76
Photo 29-Tree cutting for fuel, escarpment (photo Ntoh Doris Bate)............................................................................... 77
Photo 30-Commercial fuel transportation, escarpment (photo Ntoh Doris Bate) ............................................................. 77
Photo 31-Grazing in enclosures, escarpment (photo Ntoh Doris Bate) ............................................................................ 78
Photo 32-A typical house in Enderta (photo Francesco Conti)......................................................................................... 78
Photo 33-Erosion of top soils leaving stones, relevé 109 (photo Erica Matta) ................................................................. 79
Photo 34-Large agricultural field with no interbedded plants (photo Sara Minelli) ......................................................... 80
Photo 35-May Gabai river, relevé 104 (photo Aynalem Abebe Gizachew) ..................................................................... 81
Photo 36-4 Km north towards Kwiha near relevé 205 (photo Aynalem Abebe Gizachew) ............................................. 81
Photo 37-The Ashgoda river, along the main road, with abnormal color (photo Aynalem Abebe Gizachew)................. 82
Photo 38-The Ashgoda river with eutrophication problems (photo Aynalem Abebe Gizachew)..................................... 82
Photo 39-Agriculture fields at the side of the river (photo Aynalem Abebe Gizachew) .................................................. 83
Photo 40-Plastic bags on agricultural fields (photo Aynalem Abebe Gizachew) ............................................................. 84
Photo 41-Plastic sheets on agricultural fields (photo Aynalem Abebe Gizachew)........................................................... 84
Photo 42-Stone bunds against water erosion along a natural vegetation covered slope (Photo Ntoh Doris Bate) ......... 124
Photo 43-Practice to collect water and sediments lost by erosion (Photo Sara Minelli)................................................. 124
Photo 44-Haplic Arenosol .............................................................................................................................................. 169
Photo 45-Hypoluvic Arenosol ........................................................................................................................................ 170
Photo 46-Calcic Kastanozem.......................................................................................................................................... 171
Photo 47-Luvic Kastanozem........................................................................................................................................... 172
Photo 48-Calcic Fluvisol ................................................................................................................................................ 173
Photo 49-Haplic Fluvisol................................................................................................................................................ 174
Photo 50-Calcic Vertisol................................................................................................................................................. 175
Photo 51-Mollic Vertisol ................................................................................................................................................ 176
Photo 52-Haplic Vertisol ................................................................................................................................................ 177
Photo 53-Endoleptic Vertisol ......................................................................................................................................... 178
Photo 54-Luvic Calcisol ................................................................................................................................................. 179
Photo 55-Vertic Calcisol................................................................................................................................................. 180
Photo 56-Haplic Calcisol................................................................................................................................................ 181
Photo 57-Lixic Calcisol .................................................................................................................................................. 182
225
Photo 58-Hypercalcic Calcisol ....................................................................................................................................... 183

Photo 59-Hypocalcic Calcisol ........................................................................................................................................ 184
Photo 60-Vertic Cambisol .............................................................................................................................................. 185
Photo 61-Epileptic Cambisol .......................................................................................................................................... 186
Photo 62-Haplic Cambisol.............................................................................................................................................. 187
Photo 63-Vertic Leptosol................................................................................................................................................ 188
Photo 64-Mollic Leptosol ............................................................................................................................................... 189
Photo 65-Haplic Leptosol ............................................................................................................................................... 190
Photo 66-Lithic Leptosol ................................................................................................................................................ 191
Photo 67-Calcic Luvisol ................................................................................................................................................. 192
Photo 68-Vertic Luvisol ................................................................................................................................................. 193
Photo 69-Epileptic Luvisol ............................................................................................................................................. 194
Photo 70-Cutanic Luvisol ............................................................................................................................................... 195
Photo 71-Epileptic Phaeozem......................................................................................................................................... 196
Photo 72-Haplic Phaeozem............................................................................................................................................. 197
Photo 73-Haplic Regosol................................................................................................................................................ 198
Photo 74-Colluvic Regosol............................................................................................................................................. 199
Photo 75-Land System: Ethiopian Rift Escarpemnt ....................................................................................................... 211
Photo 76-Land System: Ethiopian Rift Escarpment ....................................................................................................... 212
Photo 77-Land System: Ethiopian Rift Escarpment ....................................................................................................... 212
Photo 78-Land System: Mekele “Plateau”..................................................................................................................... 213
Photo 81-Land System: Mekele “Plateau” and Giba river tributaries............................................................................ 214
226
LIST OF AUTHORS
Name Surname Background Country
Leonardo CARTEI Natural sciences Italy
Francesco CONTI Tropical and subtropical agriculture Italy
Matteo DE STEFANO Natural sciences Italy
Girum Keshewabelay DESTA Agriculture Ethiopia
Moges Aregay GEBREMARIAM Agriculture Ethiopia
Aynalem Abebe GIZACHEW Agriculture Ethiopia
Erica MATTA Environmental sciences Italy
Maliki MOUNKAILA Geography Niger
Matar NDAO Agriculture Senegal
Doris Bate NTOH Botany Cameroon
Issouf OUEDRAOGO Geology Burkina faso
Birhane Gebrehiwot TESFAMARIAM Agriculture Ethiopia
Junxia ZHANG Agriculture China
227
228
W E B S I T E H O M E PA G E
229

28 Ethiopia

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

28 Ethiopia

Uploaded by

Copyright:

MINISTERO DEGLI AFFARI ESTERI

ISTITUTO AGRONOMICO PER L’OLTREMARE

UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI FIRENZE

IAO 28th EDITION

Ministero degli Affari Esteri

Università degli Studi di Firenze

Cover photo: Typical village of Enderta district (photo Francesco Conti)

Director and Dr. Luca ONGARO

President of the Prof. Giuliano RODOLFI

Tutors Dr. Valeria ALESSANDRO

Consultant Prof. Andrea GIORDANO

IAO Director General

Florence, 27 June 2008

Figure 1-Concept of land

Figure 2-Project framework

Ethiopia Tigray Region Enderta District

Figure 3-Location of the study area

Elevation (m) Hydrologycal network

1250 - 1400 River

Figure 4-Sketch map of the study area

SENSOR PATH AND ROW DATE

2.2.2 Geographic Information Systems

THEMATIC DATA DATA TYPE

Fieldwork Data Preliminary Land Unit Map

OUTPUTS Final Land Unit Map

Derived thematic maps

Environmental risk analysis Future scenarios

Figure 6- GIS structure and relational database

2.3.1 The preliminary Land Unit Map

2.3.2 Fieldwork survey

2.3.3 The final Land Unit Map

Ethiopian Rift Escarpment

Table 3-Final Land Unit legend

3.1.1 General overview

3.1.2 Meteorological data

Figure 9-Bagnouls and Gaussen diagram for the station of Mekele

Figure 10-Rainfall and evapotranspiration in Mekele (FAO AQUASAT data)

Figure 11-Thermotypes and ombrotypes showed in different maps

Figure 12-Thermotypes and ombrotypes combined together

3.2.1 Regional geology

3.2.2 Geology of the study area

Figure 15-Dolerite (green) in the South-East part of the study area

Figure 19-Geological map

Photo 1-Travertine inside Jtd geological unit (photo Sara Minelli)

Photo 2-Black lithographic limestone (photo Sara Minelli)

Photo 3-Black limestone in Jg unit (photo Sara Minelli)

Photo 4-Interbedded marl and limestone (photo Issouf Ouedraogo)

Photo 5-Gypsum (photo Issouf Ouedraogo)

Photo 6-Dolerite boulders (photo Issouf Ouedraogo)

Photo 7-Limestone layers tilted by dolerite intrusion (photo Issouf Ouedraogo)

Photo 8-Colluvial deposits (Photo Valeria Alessandro)

3.3.1 Ethiopian Rift Escarpment

Figure 20-Land systems and landforms map

DISSECTED SLOPING SURFACE

3.3.2 Mekele “Plateau”

Photo 12-Dolerite steep scarp (photo Valeria Alessandro)

Photo 13-Dolerite onion-skin exfoliation (photo Issouf Ouedraogo)

Fine crystalline limestone with some marl (Jtd)

Limestone and marl (Jtb)

Photo 18-Antalo Formation terraced slopes (photo Valeria Alessandro)

3.3.2 Giba River Tributaries

Figure 21-Land use map

Figure 22-Land cover map

Figure 23-Land use classification

Photo 20-Field ploughing (photo Matar Ndao)

Photo 21-Cattle grazing on ranching land (photo Moges Aregay Gebremariam)