Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SIGTTO
at 35 &
GIIGNL
at 43
SIGTTO
contents listing
introductions
5 LNG Shipping at 50 is profiled as are the authors who
contributed the articles
7 SIGTTO’s Andrew Clifton lauds the pioneers and the
Society’s membership
9 Jean-Yves Robin of GIIGNL pays tribute to the foundations
put in place by industry
the pioneers
34 A select band of key innovators and motivators got the LNG
industry established
38 Shipbuilders in Korea, Japan and China owe much to
67 SIGTTO and GIIGNL meet at the interface Europe’s pioneering yards
40 The early successful containment systems have proved
impossible to dislodge
43 The durability of the cargo-handling equipment on early
ships reflects their sound design
117 Some 250 key events from 50 years of LNG shipping and
terminal activity
The authors author of Fully Refrigerated LPG Carriers and strategic aspects of new exploration
Mike Corkhill has been editing LNG as well as a regular contributor to LNG and production targets and another
World Shipping for 10 years and writing World Shipping. responsible for the company’s economic
about oil, gas and chemical tanker Andrew Clifton is the current intelligence activities. Presently seconded
shipping for the best part of four general manager of SIGTTO, having from GDF Suez, Jean-Yves is working
decades. Following qualification as a been appointed in November 2012. His fulltime for GIIGNL.
naval architect and an inaugural few pre-Society career includes 19 years at Bill Wayne became general manager of
years as a Lloyd’s Register structural sea, mainly on liquefied gas carriers, a SIGTTO in May 2007 on retirement from
surveyor, his first writing job was the first class honours degree, three years at Shell. His five-and-one-half-year tenure,
compilation of a book, LNG Carriers: the UK’s Marine Accident Investigation which ended in November 2012 when he
The Ships and Their Market, for Fairplay Branch and 30 months in the SIGTTO handed over the reins to Andrew Clifton,
in 1975. Secretariat as a technical adviser. Prior coincided with a time of great change
Fifty years ago Syd Harris was a to his present role, he spent six years in during which the Society’s membership
young naval architect designing LPG Indonesia as LNG shipping operations experienced unparalleled growth. His
carrier tank and hull structures at UK manager for the Tangguh LNG project. involvement with SIGTTO actually goes
shipbuilder Hawthorn Leslie. His career Prior to his appointment as general back much further, to the early days of
has focused solely on LPG and LNG delegate to GIIGNL in 2010 Jean-Yves the Society when he represented Shell
ships, including early LNGC pioneering Robin worked for Gaz de France and GDF on the General Purposes Committee and
plan approval with ABS. He formed his Suez in a range of jobs. These included participated in many of the early working
own consultancy firm in 1978 and is the heading one team analysing economic groups devoted to technical issues.
Mike Corkhill (MC) Syd Harris (SH) Andrew Clifton (AC) Jean-Yves Robin (J-YR) Bill Wayne (BW)
FIRSTS
first commercial liquefied natural
gas (LNG) cargo. Now, Shell is
at the forefront of the next first for
the LNG industry: floating LNG
(FLNG), which will allow gas to
be liquefied at sea.
LEARN MORE
ABOUT THE
PIONEERING
PRELUDE FLNG AT:
www.shell.com/flng
introduction|LNG Shipping at 50
Hail to the
pioneers and
Andrew Clifton
their foresight!
General Manager, SIGTTO
An introduction from the Society of performance, however, remains our industry’s license to operate
and we all have a ‘collective responsibility’ as an industry to
International Gas Tanker and Terminal maintain it despite the steadily increasing levels of activity.
Operators (SIGTTO) When mentioning the safety record, we also need to give
credit to the pioneers for their contributions to the early days
of LNG shipping and to the development of the International
I
t is a great pleasure and honour for the Society of Gas Carrier (IGC) Code, with its healthy safety margins and
International Gas Tanker and Terminal Operators (SIGTTO) robust design, equipment and construction provisions. I
to be jointly producing this commemorative publication believe that these contributions are directly responsible for
along with our good friends and colleagues at the Group of the excellent and unprecedented safety record that the LNG
Liquefied Natural Gas Importers (GIIGNL). industry has achieved over 50 years of commercial operation.
It really is quite remarkable that liquefied natural gas has SIGTTO was formed 35 years ago and the Society is as strong
been transported by sea for 50 years, but it is an unmistakable now as it has ever been. We remain the industry leader for the
fact that Methane Princess discharged the first ever commercial provision of best practice guidance and technical support across
shipment of LNG on 12 October 1964. the liquefied gas shipping and terminal sectors.
Today is a very exciting time to be involved with LNG
O
shipping and terminals and there has never been a period ur membership includes companies responsible
quite like it. Today’s growth is completely unprecedented, for around 97 per cent of the world’s LNG vessels
with more ships, terminals and SIGTTO members than ever and terminals and around one-half of the LPG
before. I often wonder if the pioneers of half a century ago market. Furthermore SIGTTO’s membership is a committed
ever thought about what the future held in store for LNG, membership, supplying staff to working groups and
indeed about whether an international trade in LNG would SIGTTO’s General Purposes Committee (GPC) in a timely
establish itself or not. and consistent manner.
It is unlikely that the pioneers would have dreamed about SIGTTO Panel Meetings are very popular and well attended
LNG carriers the size of today’s Q-max ships or vessels like and the Society now has Regional Forums across the world,
Prelude that will be able to produce large quantities of LNG engaging with the membership and ensuring that any concerns
while floating at a remote offshore location. are addressed for the benefit of the industry as a whole. Our
While the increased activity in our industry is to be recent publications have addressed topics such as the gas carrier
welcomed, it does bring with it further challenges which need transits of the Panama Canal, human factors and competencies
to be tackled. Not least of these is the provision of an adequate in the workplace. The Society is also further developing its
supply of properly trained and competent ship crews, shore library of publications with new documents and updated
support staff and trainers to meet the requirements of a rapidly versions of existing ones.
expanding global fleet. I find the history of liquefied gas shipping fascinating and
The LNG shipping sector’s safety record is something this publication has many very interesting articles about the
we are all very proud of and many reading this article will early days. I hope you enjoy reading this publication and retain
have contributed towards it over the years. This outstanding a copy as a keepsake for future reference. Here’s to the next 50!
If you are interested in how Grain LNG may be able to help your organisation please contact:
David Mitchell david.p.mitchell@nationalgrid.com or visit www.nationalgrid.com/grainlng
introduction|LNG Shipping at 50
An achievement
Jean-Yves Robin
worth celebrating
General Delegate, GIIGNL
An introduction from the International The pioneers developed and constructed the first LNG
supply chains and subsequent generations built on these
Group of Liquefied Natural Gas foundation stones with larger and more sophisticated
Importers (GIIGNL) liquefaction plants, regasification terminals and LNG carriers.
We also need to acknowledge the entrepreneurial and
innovative spirit of the current players who are helping to
T
he development of energy resources and the exploration extend the LNG supply chain into new realms, namely offshore
and production of hydrocarbons represent one of the epic and small-scale LNG, and to develop new market opportunities,
accomplishments of the modern industrial world. Within not least the use of LNG as marine fuel.
this field of endeavour the emergence of the LNG industry over The industry can be justifiably proud of the exemplary safety
the last 50 years stands out as a success story of exceptional merit. record that has been built up over its first half century. So far
One of the reasons behind the success of LNG is the excellent some 77,000 LNG cargoes have been discharged without any
body of technical and operational guidance established by major accident attributable to the cargo.
those responsible for processing, transporting and handling the
T
product. The strong demand for plentiful, clean-burning natural he International Group of Liquefied Natural Gas
gas and the infrastructure that has been established for moving Importers (GIIGNL) – the worldwide association
it around the globe as LNG are poised to support the continued, of importers established in 1971 – has consistently
impressive growth of this sector well into the future. supported the development of the industry and has provided
Reinforcing this belief, the consensus view among experts is a forum for senior executives of importing companies to
that global LNG trade flows are likely to double within the next meet and contribute to its continued growth. Today GIIGNL
20 years. Trade growth will be accompanied by an increasing has 74 member companies in 24 countries worldwide. The
number of players and the emergence of new sources and three main regions are well represented, with 10 members
destinations worldwide, especially in Asia but also in Africa and in the Americas, 32 in Asia and 32 in Europe. The strength,
South America. geographical spread and long-term commitment of this
At this stage – on the occasion of the industry’s 50th membership are indicative of GIIGNL’s support to the LNG
anniversary – it is fair and fitting that we pay tribute to all adventure to date and of its confidence in the continued
those men and women who have made this adventure possible. success of the industry.
These are the ones who faced up to the many technological The LNG industry and GIIGNL have good stories to tell and
and business challenges encountered in liquefying natural gas we are pleased to be part of this commemorative magazine and
for the mutual benefit of buyers and sellers separated by the the celebrations of 50 successful years of LNG transport and
world’s oceans. handling. We hope you enjoy the stories.
Methane Pioneer
Constock International Methane Ltd.
Although the original barging
scheme was abandoned, it was decided
E
ven Methane Pioneer, the first and one of William Wood Prince’s the shipment of LNG by sea would
ship to carry a seagoing cargo consultants at the time, played a key pose special technological challenges.
of LNG, had a vessel that role in developing the various elements For a start the design of the cargo tanks
preceded it. William Wood Prince, of the project. would be complicated by factors such
president of Chicago’s Union Stock In 1954 a barge-mounted liquefaction as ship motions and the need to keep
Yard and Transit Co in the early 1950s, plant and a 5,500m3 transport barge, tanks firmly in position; independent
is acknowledged as the father of LNG Methane, were ordered at the Ingalls expansion and contraction; ship
and he pioneered the Pioneer. But he Shipbuilding yard in Pascagoula, hull deflections; and substantial
didn’t get there right away. Mississippi to carry out test work and temperature gradients during tank
In 1951, irked at a proposed price enable the scheme to move forward. filling and emptying.
rise by his local gas supplier, Prince At about this time Prince decided to Constock Liquid Methane Corp, a
had the idea of liquefying natural seek the involvement of a company subsidiary of Constock International
gas in Louisiana and barging the familiar with gas processing and found Methane, embarked on an ambitious
LNG up the Mississippi River to a willing partner in Continental Oil Co research programme to verify the
his stockyards. Here the fuel could of Oklahoma. commercial feasibility of LNG
be used in various meat-processing Continental Oil reviewed the work transport by sea. The investigative
operations, including in freezing and of Union Stock Yard’s research team work encompassed innovations in gas
preserving meat products. and carried out its own investigations processing and liquefaction techniques,
The plan called for liquefaction of LNG transport by river barge. The the evaluation of materials, ship
equipment to be mounted on a barge consensus view was that shuttling LNG designs, cargo-handling systems and
which could be moved around to up the Mississippi River by barge was storage tanks.
remote fields along the Gulf Coast not an economical proposition but that Consultants from universities were
where the cost of gas was very low. the ocean transport of LNG was. In 1955 employed on a part-time basis to
Willard Morrison, an engineer, inventor the partners came together to establish translate the research results into design
At its Calcasieu River jetty Methane Pioneer loads the historic first LNG cargo
Höegh LNG is a provider of floating LNG infrastructure services, offering regasification, transportation and
production services under long-term contracts. The company operates a fleet of five floating storage and regasification
units (FSRUs) that act as floating LNG import terminals, and four LNG transportation vessels. In addition, Höegh LNG
has new FSRUs under construction. The company has also developed a solution for floating LNG production (FLNG).
With a strong emphasis on technological development and operational excellence, Höegh LNG is one of the
energy service providers with the most versatile operational experience and substantial know-how, in addition to an
impeccable safety record.
The official ceremony for the delivery of the first commercial cargo of LNG,
by Methane Princess, was held at Canvey Island on 12 October 1964
C
ontracted in February 1962, build a pipeline linking the Hassi R’Mel French cargoes were transported by
the 27,400m3 Methane Princess field with a liquefaction plant that the the 25,500m3 Jules Verne, which, when
and Methane Progress were the Algerian Liquefied Methane Company completed in March 1965, was the third
first LNG carriers to go into commercial (CAMEL) would provide in the port LNG carrier to go into commercial
service. The UK, having no known of Arzew. The CAMEL terminal is service. Jules Verne discharged its cargoes
natural gas reserves of its own at the described on page 18. at a new import terminal at Le Havre.
time, was anxious to secure an overseas For its part BGC would construct Both the UK and France signed
source of the clean-burning fuel and ease appropriate receiving facilities at a site 15-year LNG purchase agreements with
its heavy reliance on coal. Algeria had on Canvey Island in the River Thames Algeria. For the UK each of the Methane
just discovered the Hassi R’Mel gas field estuary to the east of London. The Princess and Methane Progress was able
in the Sahara desert and was anxious Canvey Island import terminal would be to carry a 12,000-tonne cargo from the
to monetise this windfall. The two erected on land owned and utilised by CAMEL terminal and to complete a round
sisterships were the link that established the North Thames Gas Board. Methane trip in 12 days, travelling at 17 knots.
the first LNG supply chain and enabled Pioneer had discharged its trial shipments Between them, the pair were able to
the needs of the two parties to be met. to two small, hastily erected storage tanks deliver a volume equivalent to 10 per cent
Methane Progress and Methane at this same site. The facilities that were of the UK’s gas consumption at the time.
Princess were built following a provided for the Algerian LNG project The newbuilding contract for Methane
series of successful transatlantic trial were of an altogether greater magnitude. Princess was placed with the Vickers
shipments of LNG by the test vessel Five storage tanks able to hold a total of Armstrong shipyard at Barrow-in-Furness
Methane Pioneer in 1959. These voyages 22,000 tonnes of LNG were constructed in northwest England while Harland &
convinced the British Gas Council (BGC) and these were later augmented by four Wolff in Belfast, Northern Ireland won
of the viability of transporting LNG by inground LNG tanks. the order for Methane Progress. The vessels
sea and prompted orders for the two France also wanted to commence were sisterships, and Vickers Armstrong,
sisterships. Methane Pioneer and the LNG imports and agreed its own gas as the lead yard, took responsibility
background to that historic series of trial supply deal with Algeria. As a result for drawing up the working plans and
cargoes are described on page 10. CAMEL was designed with a liquefaction placing material orders for the pair. Each
In November 1961 the UK Parliament capacity of 1.1 million tonnes per annum ship was to cost £4.75 million to build.
granted approval for BGC’s plan to (mta) of LNG, 0.7 mta of which was The cargo containment system on
import Algerian LNG. Algeria agreed to for the UK and 0.4 mta for France. The the two ships was designed by Conch
air trunk up to the burner nozzles were light. The data-logger, for example, was of the Methane ships. Service speeds are
fitted with nitrogen-pressurised jackets. A never very reliable and needed frequent now a little higher at about 19 knots.
hood with its own extraction fan system attention from the manufacturer’s Since the adoption of the IGC Code,
was positioned over the burners. representative to keep it working. no LNG ships have been built with
Methane Princess and Methane Progress Both vessels also suffered fatigue Type A tanks. All new LNGCs are fitted
predated engine control rooms. All cracks in their inner hulls, leading to with shipboard inert gas generators and
control of the machinery was from the water ingress to the insulation. Repair vapour return compressors. Nitrogen
‘plates’ forward of the boilers. Automatic techniques were developed for this generators have replaced liquid nitrogen
combustion control was pneumatic with problem, and accounts at the time storage. The steam propulsion concept
a 10:1 burner turndown ratio. claimed that the insulation properties has remained much the same, with two
The gas-burning system was of balsa wood did not seem to degrade boilers, now roof-fired, supplying steam
interlocked such that the gas would when it became soaked. to the main turbine and, typically, to two
automatically trip in the event of a failure A more frequent problem was cracks turbo generators. These generators are
of either the forced draft fans or the flame. developing in the insulation system. These now condensing sets rather than back-
There was a gas flow control valve and were indicated by areas of frost on the pressure sets.
an automatic shutoff valve in series, with inner hull, or ‘cold spots’. An in-service All steam turbine ships are fitted
a bleed-off to the vent mast in between. technique was developed involving with steam dump systems to provide a
In event of a trip both valves closed and drilling through the inner hull at the secondary means of disposal for cargo
the valve to the vent mast opened, thus site of a cold spot and injecting a resin boil-off gas. The gas-firing system on
ensuring a tight shutoff of gas. adhesive to seal the crack. This seemed to modern vessels is very close in concept
A single flame detector was mounted work well, but it did mean that there had to that of the Methane ships, with the
looking through the side wall of the to be a regular inspection routine for the exception that many have a forcing
furnace of each boiler. The technology of inner hull to check for cold spots. vaporiser since modern cargo boil-off
the period was such that detectors could In addition there was no way of rates do not supply enough gas to
only discern bright luminous flames assessing the ability of the insulation achieve service speeds on gas only.
such as those generated by fuel oil. They system to act as a secondary barrier. It It still seems amazing that only five
could not detect the gas-only flame. As a can now only be a matter of conjecture years after the successful Methane Pioneer
result it was stipulated that a minimum as to how effective it would have been trial shipments and three years after the
of 10 per cent fuel oil should be burned after these repairs if there had been a UK government approved the project,
at all times and that the gas could not be leakage of LNG. Fortunately there was the first two purpose-built LNG carriers
supplied to a burner without the fuel oil no instance of such leakage during the should enter service. This start-to-finish
being on first. time the pair were in service. timetable compares very favourably
The IGC Code was mainly written When it comes to LNGC with all subsequent LNG projects!
in the late 1970s and early 1980s newbuildings today, steam turbine Another indicator that the maritime
and reflected the best practice at ships have largely been eclipsed by industry was confident in the ability
the time of its adoption in 1983. Its diesel-driven vessels. However, it is of these ships to perform as required,
development is described on page 64. interesting to compare Methane Princess despite their novel design and the
It is remarkable that the two Methane and Methane Progress with the latest challenging cargo, was the fact that
ships, designed in the early 1960s, designs of steam LNGCs built up to the insurance market insured Methane
stand up well to assessment against about six years ago. Obviously ship size Princess and Methane Progress with
the Code requirements. It is a credit to is the biggest change, as modern steam no additional premium or deductible
the ship designers that the final Code turbine LNGCs have a cargo-carrying compared with the going rate for clean
should reflect much of their thinking. capacity which is about five times that product tankers. BW
In particular the design of the cargo
containment system would satisfy the
cargo tank IMO Type A designation.
The gas-burning system would seem
to stand up well to the requirements of
Chapter 16 of the IGC Code.
The Methane ships fell short of the
Code requirements in a few areas. First,
there was a lack of any secondary means
of disposing of excess boil-off gas, i.e.
a steam dump system. In addition,
although the ships had a pneumatic
emergency shutdown (ESD) system,
it would not have complied with
the Code’s requirements for overfill
protection. It was linked to shore.
Methane Princess and Methane Progress
operated successfully throughout their
service lives. They were easy to operate
and popular with their crews, although Although built 20 years before the IGC Code was adopted, the Methane ships
one or two problem areas came to anticipated the Code’s requirements to a startling degree
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www.gtt.fr
Ex
LNG Shipping at 50|the early years
T
he history of Algerian hydrocarbons during those early years was Nordine viability on an industrial scale. Gas for
began in 1956 with the discoveries Ait-Laoussine. Having completed his the new liquefaction plant at Arzew was
of the Hassi Messaoud and Hassi studies in 1963 and worked in the supplied from the Hassi R’Mel field via
R’Mel fields by French oil companies. country’s Department of Mines for a a 500km pipeline.”
The development of these deposits, deep short period, he joined Sonatrach. By The CAMEL project had four
in the Sahara desert, was made first 1969 Ait-Laoussine was the company’s participants: Conch International
within the framework of a Petroleum vice-president hydrocarbons and in Methane, the Algerian Development
Code and then with the help of an 1971 he was appointed marketing vice- Bank and two oil companies, one
organisation established to develop the president. In this position he negotiated Algerian and one French. The Algerian
region’s resources. The group included various of the gas sale and purchase body was the National Society of
not only Algerian interests but also the agreements behind his country’s Exploration and Exploitation of Oil in
French oil companies involved in the pioneering LNG export projects. Algeria (SN Repal) while the other, the
exploration work. Looking back at these challenging Bureau de Recherches Pétrolières (BRP),
The recoverable reserves of the times, Nordine Ait-Laoussine states, was a subsidiary of Elf Aquitaine.
Hassi R’Mel, which is Arabic for ‘sand “Following independence a few of the “While CAMEL was a modest-size
well’, were determined to be over persons in charge of developing the project compared to the liquefaction
50 trillion ft3 (1,400 billion m3) of gas, Algerian economy, including Belaid trains of today, it was a pioneering
with the methane content of the gas Abdessalem, were particularly keen to initiative and the largest industrial
at about 85 per cent. At the time of exploit Algerian gas resources. And, undertaking in the LNG sector at
discovery, these figures put Algeria in when appointed the first president the time,” adds Mr Ait-Laoussine.
fourth place in the world league table of Sonatrach, Mr Abdessalem fully “Launched in 1960 the project was
of natural gas reserves, after the US, the supported the then Algerian president initially managed by CAMEL itself but
USSR and Iran. Houari Boumedienne in his drive to was taken over by Sonatrach following
A first step to amend Algeria’s build Algeria’s oil and gas exports Algeria’s 1965 gas policy agreements.
hydrocarbon legislation was taken and increase their value to the country “On 14 September 1962 Ahmed Ben
following the country’s independence in in the process. Sonatrach’s control of Bella, the first president of the newly
1962. Amongst the initial measures was Algerian gas development, as enshrined established Algerian republic, laid the
the creation of Sonatrach, the state oil in gas policy agreements concluded foundation stone at the Arzew plant, and
and gas company, at the end of 1963. in 1965, and the improvement of its construction work on the CAMEL facility
A key Sonatrach senior officer management resources provided the began. The successful completion of the
The Mediterranean
take early LNG cargoes from Arzew,
onboard Aristotle and Methane Princess.
In 1972 the CAMEL plant at Arzew
LNG crucible
added a new Mediterranean import
terminal to its list of customers –
France’s Fos Tonkin facility near
Marseilles. The Algeria-France cross-
Mediterranean connection was also
The busiest and most intense LNG shipping enhanced by the commissioning of a
second Algerian export terminal, the
arena since the industry’s inception, the cross- three-train Skikda plant in the eastern
Mediterranean trades show no signs of slowing down part of the country, in November 1972.
Each country agreed to provide
a new 40,000m3 ship for the Skikda-
T
he proximity of the gas-rich the Esso designers, shipbuilders and Fos Tonkin project. Hassi R’Mel was
nations of North Africa to the gas- class societies at a time when LNG delivered to Compagnie Nationale
poor countries of southern Europe transportation was just commencing. Algérienne de Navigation (CNAN)
has ensured a busy Mediterranean trade The result was a quartet of the most in 1971 by Constructions Navales
in LNG over the decades. Due to the robust LNG carriers ever built. The et Industrielles de la Méditerranée
short distances involved Medmax LNG four prismatic cargo tanks constructed (CNIM) at La Seyne in France. France’s
carriers, which are considerably smaller by Chicago Bridge & Iron (CB&I) for contribution, Tellier, was handed over to
than a conventional deepsea vessel, each vessel had double walls of Type Messigaz in January 1974 by Chantiers
consistently top the LNG shipping 5083 aluminium alloy and were fitted, Navals de la Ciotat.
industry’s Voyages Completed charts. one per hold, below the main and Hassi R’Mel, the first Algerian-owned
In November 1965 the Esso Libya trunk decks. LNG carrier, had six Gaz Transport No
LNG venture was initiated when The new LNG export terminal being 82 membrane cargo tanks and loaded
affiliates of the oil and gas company built at Marsa el Brega in Libya was its first Skikda cargo in 1973. A five-
agreed to supply 2.4 million tonnes per complemented by the Mediterranean’s tank ship with the Technigaz Mark I
annum (mta) of LNG to customers in first LNG receiving facilities, at membrane containment system, Tellier
Italy and Spain, beginning in late 1968. Panigaglia near La Spezia in Italy joined Hassi R’Mel on the Skikda-to-Fos
Italy was to receive two-thirds of the and at Barcelona in Spain. Delays in route in 1974. A look at Tellier’s logbook
volume and Spain one-third. construction work at Marsa el Brega in 2012, as the vessel was taken out of
Four ships of 41,000m3 were deemed meant that exports did not begin until service for despatch to the recycling
right for this cross-Mediterranean trade late 1971, at which point Libya became yard, revealed that the ship had
and Esso International developed its the world’s third LNG export nation. completed 1,956 loaded passages during
own independent cargo tank design In 1969, in advance of the a 38-year working life. It is a record
for the ships. During 1969 and 1970 completion of the Esso ships and the that is unlikely to be broken, given the
Italcantieri’s Genoa Sestri yard in Italy start of the Marsa el Brega plant, the larger vessels employed on the cross-
completed three of the ships – Esso 5,000m3 Aristotle (ex-Methane Pioneer) Mediterranean routes today. Tellier first
Brega, Esso Portovenere and Esso Liguria. delivered two cargoes from the CAMEL made history in 1992, as the first LNG
The fourth vessel, Laieta, was delivered plant at Arzew in western Algeria carrier to rack up 1,000 voyages.
by the Astano yard at El Ferrol in Spain to Panigaglia, where they were used Once the Skikda plant was in full
in 1970. to cool down the storage tanks and operation, its output was sufficient to
The hull and containment system pipelines. The Enagas import terminal enable the supply of several customers.
of Esso Brega and her three sisters at Barcelona was also commissioned In addition to the Fos shipments
reflected the cautious approach of in 1969 and, similarly, was able to cargoes were also directed to Barcelona
The long-running
Following the emptying of the cargo heel
and gas-freeing of the tank, it was found
that the electric cable supports of one of
M
arathon Oil discovered the operated by Marathon Oil and both were at the outset of her working life
Kenai gas field in the US provided with bow thrusters because it introduced the LNG shipping industry
state of Alaska in 1959 while was expected that there would be no tug to the phenomenon of cargo sloshing.
Phillips Petroleum and other partners services regularly available at the Kenai Membrane containment systems, with
found the nearby North Cook Inlet gas terminal in Alaska to assist with berthing. the large free surface areas afforded
field in 1962. With no local demand the Polar Alaska arrived at the new by the open space inside the tank, are
companies looked to overseas markets Nikiski plant on Kenai peninsula in particularly susceptible to the large
for the natural gas. The customer search southern Alaska on 15 October 1970 sloshing loads that can be generated
achieved success in March 1967 when and, after initial cooldown, testing while proceeding in a seaway.
Phillips and Marathon signed a 15-year and loading, departed for Japan The incident resulted in a major rethink
agreement with Tokyo Electric Power on 26 October. The ship tied up at on aspects such as the shape of membrane
and Tokyo Gas for the delivery of the Negishi terminal near Yokohama cargo tanks and filling limits. Following
1 million tonnes of LNG per annum. on 4 November and cargo discharge Polar Alaska, the size of the chamfered
To cover the transport of this gas, operations were completed on corners on membrane tanks was increased
bids were invited for the construction 11 November following an intial and filling limits were imposed. One
of two 71,500m3 LNG carriers. At a cooldown of the facility. condition that was introduced, for
hastily organised meeting at Phillips The shipment was the first export of example, was that cargo heel should not
Petroleum headquarters in Bartlesville, LNG from the US and the first import of exceed the 5 per cent fill level.
Oklahoma, rival cargo containment LNG into Japan and Asia. The second ship, Aside from a short period in 2012-13
specialists pitched their products. Arctic Tokyo, completed discharge of her in which the facility was mothballed
Representatives from Conch and first cargo at Negishi on 11 March 1970. due to dwindling gas supplies, the
McMullen promoted self-supporting During Polar Alaska’s return ballast Kenai liquefaction plant has remained in
tanks while Technigaz and Gaz passage gas was detected in the inner service for 45 years, making it by far the
Transport each espoused the merits of barrier spaces in the forward No 1 cargo oldest such facility in the world. New
its particular membrane tank design. tank. The cargo heel in this tank, used to gas discoveries have resulted in its recent
The invar primary and secondary keep the tank cool on the return voyage, reactivation and Kenai is scheduled to
barrier concept won the day and Gaz was in the 15-20 per cent fill range. load six LNG cargoes in 2014. SH
Transport was awarded the contract
to have the vessels built with its Small but significant – the
membrane cargo containment system. Kenai terminal in Alaska
In July 1967 Kockums Mekaniska continues to load cargoes 45
years after its commissioning
Verkstads of Malmö, Sweden secured
the order to construct what were to
become the first vessels in commercial
service fitted with Gaz Transport
membrane tanks. Kockums had quoted
a price of US$25 million for each ship.
Rather than the shipbuilder, Phillips
Petroleum signed the license with Gaz
Transport. The arrangement effectively
gave Kockums permission to use the
containment system and it was the only
Gaz Transport license agreement not
signed and paid for by the shipbuilder.
Polar Alaska was completed in August
1969 while sistership Arctic Tokyo
followed in December of the same year.
Each of the steam turbine ships had six
cargo tanks, an ice-strengthened hull and
a service speed of 17 knots. Both were
O
n 15 December 1972 the
75,000m3 membrane
tank LNG carrier Gadinia
discharged a cargo at the new
Senboku 1 terminal of Osaka Gas
in Osaka Bay. This historic delivery pushed the aggregate sales total to Corporation (Kogas).
marked not only the first shipment 5.14 mta. Prior to the expiry of the first
of LNG from Brunei to Japan but also The sales agreements also contract with the Japanese utilities
the start of the world’s first large- prompted orders for seven 75,000m3 the Brunei LNG plant was given a
scale LNG project. At the same time, LNG carriers from shipyards in revamp. Two new storage tanks were
the sultanate became only the fourth France. Five of the ships sported the built along with a new jetty able to
country to export LNG. original version of the Technigaz accommodate conventional midships
The Brunei LNG dream started in membrane containment system while loading operations.
1968 when Shell discovered promising the other two were built to the original To meet its transport needs Brunei
gas fields off the country’s coast. Gaz Transport membrane design. LNG has charter arrangements with
Mitsubishi Corporation (MC) joined The Lumut complex was built with both Brunei Shell Tankers and Brunei
in the effort to prove the reserves and five equally sized liquefaction trains and Gas Carriers. Brunei Shell Tankers
it soon became apparent that there a total production capacity of 7.6 mta. provided the original seven B-class
was enough gas to support what was Shallow waters in the area required the LNG carriers but this fleet of ageing
then still the rather unusual idea of an construction of a 4km jetty and berthed vessels is slowly being replaced by
LNG export project. The demand for ships took on cargo through a special new, larger A-class ships for which
gas in Japan, a country without any stern loading arrangement. Brunei Gas Carriers is responsible.
indigenous resources, provided the By 1986, following agreement The A-class ships, at double
incentive to overcome the challenges amongst the principals, the Brunei the size of the project’s pioneering
associated with mounting the project. government’s share in the venture vessels, are enabling increased
In August 1969 MC and Shell had been increased to 50 per cent, efficiencies in delivering cargoes, not
established Coldgas Trading, an while Shell and MC each retained a least through a reduction in fleet size.
LNG marketing company, as a 50/50 25 per cent stake. Brunei LNG later There are now three A-class LNG
joint venture and in December 1969 absorbed the Coldgas marketing carriers in service while a fourth is
Brunei LNG was created as the LNG activities. The 1986 realignment also under construction at Hyundai Heavy
production company. Shell and MC encompassed the establishment of Industries and due for delivery in
each took a 45 per cent stake in Brunei Brunei Shell Tankers and the names 2014. As the new ships join the fleet,
LNG while the Brunei government of the seven ships were changed from the old B-class ships are slowly being
held the remaining 10 per cent. the original Shell names to those removed from service and sent to
Tokyo Electric, Tokyo Gas and beginning with the letter B. Each breakers’ yards for recycling.
Osaka Gas were quick to express an vessel was given a Malay name for In March 2012 Brunei LNG agreed
interest in the Brunei gas and in June one of the local fish species. a new contract extension with its
1970 the three utilities signed up for In March 1993 Brunei LNG original Japanese customers, but at
the delivery of 3.65 million tonnes per concluded a 20-year extension a reduced volume of 3.4 mta and a
annum (mta) of LNG for a period of contract with Tokyo Electric, Tokyo reduced duration of 10 years, from
20 years from a new liquefaction plant Gas and Osaka Gas, at a level of 6.01 April 2013. The new arrangement
to be built at Lumut. Even before the mta, and in 1997 a long-term sales has set the scene for 50 years of
Lumut plant started, the principals contract, for 0.7 mta and spanning 16 operations for this pioneering
agreed to incremental volumes which years, was also signed with Korea Gas project. MC
El Paso ambitiously ordered nine 125,000m3 LNGCs in the 1970s to ship Algerian
LNG to the US, only for the trade to cease spectacularly in 1980
I
n 1969 El Paso Natural Gas Company and remained the industry standard containment system before construction
and Sonatrach, the national oil and gas until well into the 1990s when LNG work began. This concept featured a
company of Algeria, agreed a long- trade volumes and ship cargo-carrying stainless steel primary barrier and a
term contract calling for the shipment of capacities began to increase markedly. maple plywood secondary barrier. The
Algerian LNG to the US. Cargoes would The three French-built ships were newbuilding price for each ship was
be transported from Arzew in Algeria to delivered as El Paso Paul Kayser in July US$101 million, with a MarAd subsidy
new terminals at Cove Point, Maryland 1975, El Paso Sonatrach in June 1976 and covering 25.74 per cent of the cost.
and Elba Island near Savannah, Georgia. El Paso Consolidated in January 1977. Newport News extended its
El Paso recognised that it would The Gaz Transport No 85 membrane capabilities by constructing a new
require a fleet of nine steam turbine- cargo containment system with invar shipyard adjacent to its existing
driven LNG carriers to service its primary and secondary barriers was building berths. The centrepiece of the
new venture. The company split the chosen for the trio and each ship had new yard was a 76m-wide building
newbuilding contract equally between six cargo tanks, including a smaller basin dock with a 900-tonne gantry
three shipyards, with each builder tank amidships. crane. The arrangement allowed for
choosing a different containment system. Domestic US politics and funding the simultaneous construction of one
There was fierce rivalry between the from the US Maritime Administration complete LNGC and part of another.
promoters of the Conch, Gaz Transport (MarAd) helped determine where the The overall layout of the Newport
and Technigaz systems at the time and remaining six 125,000m3 ships would News vessels was similar to that of the
El Paso was assiduously courted by each be built. El Paso ordered three ships French-built trio. Each ship had six cargo
of the designers before the ships were at Newport News Shipbuilding and tanks, including a smaller tank used
ordered. Triumphant “breakthrough” Drydock in Virginia in September for pre-cooling the main tanks prior to
announcements followed the signing of 1972 and the final three at Avondale loading. The Newport News ships were
each newbuilding contract. Shipyards near New Orleans, Louisiana delivered as El Paso Southern in April
El Paso ordered two LNGCs at in July 1973. No LNG carrier had 1978, El Paso Arzew in December 1978
Chantiers de France-Dunkerque in 1970 previously been built at a US yard. and El Paso Howard Boyd in June 1979.
and a third carrier was later added to The original Newport News contract The Conch containment system was
the original pair. At 125,000m3, the trio was based on the use of a Chicago chosen for the Avondale newbuildings,
were the largest LNGCs ever ordered. Bridge and Iron spherical tank design with each vessel being provided with
The size quickly became the accepted but the principals subsequently decided five aluminium alloy, self-supporting,
norm for ‘conventional’ LNG carriers to opt for a Technigaz membrane Mark I prismatic cargo tanks. Each of the three
cost US$103m to build and in this case 1987 El Paso Columbia, the first of the the El Paso Paul Kayser series and 18
the MarAd subsidy covered 16.5 per cent Avondale trio, arrived at Kaohsiung in by the El Paso Southern series. Between
of the total outlay. Taiwan to be broken up for recycling. 1978 and 1980 a neat, but somewhat
The ends and sides of the Conch The colour scheme chosen for disappointing, 100 cargoes of LNG
cargo tanks were internally stiffened the El Paso fleet, allegedly for safety from Arzew were delivered to the Cove
with vertical aluminium extrusions reasons, gave the nine ships an eye- Point and Elba Island import terminals.
supported by horizontal ring stringers. catching appearance. A research study Both Cove Point and Elba Island were
A liquid-tight centreline bulkhead and a to determine an external hull colour mothballed following the demise of the
transverse swash bulkhead were fitted scheme which would allow maximum Algerian trade.
in each tank. The cargo tanks were visibility under various atmospheric The French-built trio were all
insulated by means of layers of sprayed and sea conditions resulted in a scrapped back in the 1980s. El Paso Paul
polyurethane foam (PUF) applied to the distinctive beige-orange-dark brown Kayser was the first to be broken up, in
ship’s inner hull. Bottom load-bearing colour combination. Taiwan in 1986. The next year El Paso
balsawood/plywood composite panels El Paso suffered more ill-fortune in Consolidated ended her days at a Chinese
supported the weight of the tanks and June 1979 when the fully laden El Paso breakers yard. El Paso Sonatrach was sold
cargo. Centreline anti-rolling support Paul Kayser ran hard aground on rocks to the Kuwait Oil Tanker Company in
keyways and transverse top keys held in the Straits of Gibraltar enroute to 1983 for a storage project and renamed
the tanks in place. Cove Point from Algeria. The vessel Al Rawdatain. The ship was sold for
Kaiser Aluminum and Chemical was travelling at a considerable speed recycling as Alar in China in 1987.
Corp was subcontracted to construct the when the incident happened and the Following the demise of the Algeria-
cargo tanks and supply and apply the hull structure below the waterline was US trade the three Newport News ships
insulation. Kaiser set up an assembly extensively damaged. The impact caused remained in lay-up for 18 years on the
plant on Pinto Island near Mobile, some upward movement of the inner James River in Virginia. El Paso Southern
Alabama to construct the tanks and hull supporting the membrane cargo and El Paso Arzew were reactivated in
used a facility at Wilmington, North containment system but the membrane the late 1990s to load cargoes at Nigeria
Carolina for the prefabrication of panels remained intact and no cargo was lost. LNG’s Bonny Island terminal under
of aluminium plate and stiffeners. These The ship was later refloated, thanks to charter to Shell as, respectively, LNG
units were then shipped by barge to part lightening of some cargo to the Delta and Galeomma. The 35-year old
Pinto Island for the final tank assembly. 25,500m3 Jules Verne. The remaining pair were despatched to the Far East for
Once Avondale completed its work cargo was later transferred to sister ship dismantling in 2013. The third Newport
on the vessels, including spraying PUF El Paso Sonatrach. News-built ship El Paso Howard Boyd,
insulation on the inner hulls, the open Algeria stopped shipments under the now Matthew, is the only one of the
hulls were towed to Pinto Island for El Paso contract in April 1980, after the original nine El Paso ships still trading.
the installation of the tanks. As each US refused to accept a request that the At the time the El Paso Algeria/US
cargo tank weighed, on average, 950 price of gas be increased to a level close initiative was the most ambitious LNG
tonnes, the mammoth 1,550-tonne crane to that of crude oil. In February 1981 El project ever mounted. It also turned out
at the Kaiser assembly plant was able Paso announced that “In view of the to be the largest to be brought to a halt
to position them onboard without any remote prospects for project resumption as a result of outside economic forces.
undue problems. the company considers its LNG activities Furthermore, the failure of the Conch
The three Conch ships - El Paso to be a discontinued operation.” insulation system on the three Avondale
Columbia, El Paso Cove Point and El Paso Cove Point received 31 Algerian ships was the most expensive mishap
Savannah - were all completed in 1979. cargoes on the French-built trio and 29 in the history of LNGC construction.
Unfortunately, extensive cracking of the on the Newport News ships. At Elba Still, the sheer enterprise of the El Paso
PUF foam was discovered throughout Island 22 cargoes were discharged by scheme at the birth of the LNG trades. SH
the insulation during the vessels’ gas
trials. As a result El Paso refused to
accept the Avondale ships. After many
years of claim and counter claim,
extensive layup periods and much
debate, it was decided that the ships
could not be economically repaired
for LNG trading. El Paso received a
US$300m insurance settlement.
El Paso Cove Point and El Paso
Savannah were later sold to Coastal Corp
and taken to the Hyundai Mipo repair
yard in Korea to be converted to bulk
carriers. The aluminium cargo tanks
were removed and reused ashore and
the boiler and steam turbine propulsion
systems were altered to enable them to
burn coal. In 1983 the ships began to
trade commercially as Jade Phoenix and Conch prismatic tanks being assembled at Kaiser’s Pinto Island facility in the late
Golden Phoenix, respectively. In March 1970s, for installation on the LNG carriers building at Avondale for El Paso
T
he US, or more specifically the containment system during the early then the world’s largest aluminium
Quincy yard of General Dynamics, days of LNG transport. In 1969 the rolling mill, was capable of turning out
was the most prolific builder of Norwegian shipowner Leif Höegh had finished plates 5.25m wide. Such large
Moss spherical tank ships during the asked Moss Verft, a local shipbuilder sections eased the sphere fabrication
early days. Between 1977 and 1980 the that had constructed many LPG carriers, work at Charleston by reducing the
yard built ten 126,300m3 ships with to investigate the challenges of LNG number of pieces required and the
spherical tank containment systems. At transport. Moss, then part of the Kvaerner amount of welding by 20 per cent.
the time the 10th Quincy LNG carrier engineering group, decided that robust Fabrication of the spherical tanks
was delivered only five other Moss spheres offered the best option at the time. at Charleston was accompanied by an
vessels of this size had ever been built. After considering some earlier elaborate programme of weld testing.
Called the Aquarius class, the first approaches to the design of small The non-destructive testing regime
eight Quincy ships were constructed for spherical tank ships, Moss opted to included 100 per cent X-ray, 100 per
the carriage of Indonesian LNG to Japan develop its own design for large LNG cent ultrasonic and 100 per cent dye
under a long-term agreement. The vessels carriers. The work was assisted by the penetrant checks as well as full visual
were bareboat chartered to Burmah Gas research department of Det Norske and dimensional inspections. The
Transport, time chartered by the Indonesia Veritas (DNV), and in mid-1970 the plating thickness of the aluminium
state oil and gas company Pertamina and Moss spherical tank concept gained varied over the surface of the tank, from
operated by Energy Transportation Corp. class society approval. By 1977 a total of a maximum of 75mm at the more highly
The final two ships were built for 14 shipyards worldwide were licensees stressed equatorial ring section to a
Lachmar and a proposed project which of the Moss system. General Dynamics minimum of 34mm in the top half.
called for the transport of Algerian gas Quincy was one of them. The Charleston facility was able
to a new US terminal at Lake Charles in The LNGC newbuilding contracts to work on eight spherical tanks
Louisiana. All the Quincy ships entered prompted some refurbishment work simultaneously: six under final assembly
into service as US-flag vessels manned at the Quincy yard in Fore River, and welding in the assembly hall; one
by American crews. Massachusetts as well as a novel at the outside hydrostatic test station;
Moss spheres were the most popular approach to the construction of the and one in a building dedicated to the
www.gaslogltd.com
the early years|LNG Shipping at 50
Cavalcade of LNG
non-starters
Few in number, today’s successful LNGC containment
systems emerged from a myriad of competing ideas
that did not make it to the high seas
N
o new LNG carrier cargo However, as the designers of these
containment system has been concepts will be quick to point out,
introduced since 1987. The the path to commercial acceptance is a Never short of ideas, Cornelis Verolme
ships in today’s fleet sport one of only difficult one. settled on multiple vertical cylinders
five tried and tested types. They are A number of obstacles have to be
IMO Type C pressure vessels, Moss overcome before a new containment was provided with a 1.5m diameter
spheres, IHI SPB tanks and the two system can be considered as being central column in which regasification
Gaztransport & Technigaz (GTT) viable for an LNGC newbuilding equipment was installed to enable the
membrane tank systems. project. Designers will encounter discharge of regasified cargo in Chicago.
The three principal tank systems for considerable development costs, This project, and the others highlighted
conventional size LNGCs – the Moss including those associated with a below, never materialised.
spheres, the Gaz Transport membrane rigorous prototype testing programme. In 1954 the possibility of shipping
and the Technigaz membrane – have Approvals from class societies and LNG from Venezuela to the UK
been established since the early years regulatory authorities will then was investigated. Six ship designs
of the industry. Delivered in August be required and any new system were produced, all of which had an
1969, the 71,500m3 Polar Alaska was the overcoming all these hurdles still has to amidships bridge deckhouse over the
first vessel to be fitted with the Gaz convince the traditionally conservative cargo tanks. One design featured six
Transport membrane system while shipowner of its merits. spherical tanks while another sported
the inaugural Technigaz stainless steel The following paragraphs describe four horizontal, cylindrical tanks. The
membrane ship was the 50,000m3 some of the LNGC containment systems other options were multiple horizontal
Descartes, completed in September that have been unveiled over the cylinders, cork-insulated cylindrical
1971. The 88,000m3 Norman Lady, which years but, for one reason or another, tanks and two variations on the theme
entered into service in November were never chosen to grace an LNGC of balsa-lined cylindrical tanks.
1973, was the first LNGC with Moss newbuilding in commercial service. The A patent was taken out in 1955 by
spherical tanks. vast majority were introduced during Norwegian shipowner Oivind Lorentzen
That is not to say that the industry the industry’s formative years. of Oslo for a 7,500m3 LNG carrier with
has been short of ideas. Over the 50 To meet the needs of a 1952 proposal six aluminium spherical tanks. The four
years since LNG was first carried by to ship Louisiana gas to Chicago, central tanks had 24m diameters while
sea many containment system designs consulting engineer Willard S Morrison the two at the fore and aft ends had
have been put forward as a means of designed a Mississippi River barge with 20m diameters. The design showed a
transporting this challenging cargo. five 15m diameter, vertically mounted, continuous weather cover over the six
mild steel, cylindrical tanks lined with tanks, similar to the ‘new’ Sayaendo
balsa wood insulation up to 30cm concept recently introduced by
thick. On the drawing board each tank Mitsubishi Heavy Industries in Japan.
In 1958 British naval architect
consultants Burness, Corlett developed
two designs for a 4,000m3 LNGC as part
of a study for Wm Cory & Sons. Eleven
horizontally mounted cylindrical tanks
were chosen for the first design, with six
in the holds and five on the main deck.
The second design had six vertically
mounted cylindrical tanks in the holds,
each with an upper cylindrical trunk.
A trunk deck was fitted throughout the
cargo area.
In 1969 Bridgestone Liquefied Gas
(BLG) of Tokyo teamed up with Liquid
One of many LNG design ideas that didn’t float – Gas Anlagen (LGA) in Remagen,
Dytam’s concept of a vessel with a concrete hull Germany to develop a semi-independent
T
he early challenges posed by the
quest to transport natural gas by
sea drew in many enthusiastic
engineers, naval architects, oil and gas
executives, shipowners and innovators.
Once smitten by the task at hand, many
went on to forge real breakthroughs.
These are the pioneers, visionaries
and driving forces that established the
foundations of today’s LNG shipping
industry. The soundness of those
foundations is reflected in the success
that has been achieved.
As described in the report on Methane
Pioneer on page 10, the man who got
the ball rolling was William Wood
Prince, president of Union Stock Yard
in Chicago. In the early 1950s he had
the idea of bringing gas from Louisiana,
where it was cheap and plentiful,
to Chicago, where it was becoming
increasingly expensive, for use in his
meat-processing operations.
In the absence of a pipeline and
to ensure deliveries of meaningful
quantities, the gas would have to be
liquefied and brought up the Mississippi
River to Chicago by barge. The job For each of the pioneers that made the headlines, there were hundreds of
of verifying the feasibility of such people behind the scenes helping to establish the new industry
a concept was entrusted to Willard
Morrison, a local Chicago inventor and contributed to this breakthrough ship? vessel. The task of designing Methane
refrigeration engineer of some renown Constock itself had vice-president Pioneer’s containment system fell to
that Prince had on his research team. John Murphy, director of engineering Alex Pastuhov, one of the company’s
Prince also set up a partnership Chuck Filstead and engineers engineers. The result was this historic
with Continental Oil of Oklahoma and, Jim Hunt, Carl Ritter and Elwood ship’s self-supporting, aluminium tanks
after much debate and research, it was Crouse. It also had the services of and balsa insulation-cum-secondary
decided that the future lay not with Dr Cedomir ‘Cheddy’ Sliepcevich, a barrier. Alex went on to join the Gazocéan
river barging but, rather, the ocean chemical engineer from the University Group in Paris in 1972 and until 1975 was
transport of LNG. The partners formed of Oklahoma who served as Constock’s president of Gazocean USA, a role which
Constock International Methane in 1955 lead consultant on the project. included the promotion of Technigaz
and specialists were brought in to move The Methane Pioneer project made activities in the US.
ideas forward. The effort culminated in use of other outside expertise. The The task of developing the
the epic series of trial voyages by the management consultants Arthur D Little specification for the ship and its overall
5,000m3 Methane Pioneer in 1959. of Boston were asked to investigate cargo design was assigned to the New
Who were the specialists who storage and handling methods for the York naval architect firm of JJ Henry.
the Conch Océan banner were Gilbert for the Worms Group to establish Gaz
Massac, Michel Kotcharian and another Transport as a new subsidiary.
ex-Shell man, Bob Jackson. Six engineers joined president and
Going back to the evolution of the founder Audy Gilles as the initial team
Gazocéan membrane itself, the next stage members of Gaz Transport. Pierre Jean
involved a seagoing trial. René Boudet, headed the group, which included
the company’s president, and his friend naval architect Roger Lootvoet and
Carol Bennett agreed to build a small Jacques Lenormand. Jacques Guilhem,
prototype ship to demonstrate the who had been the engineer in charge of
soundness of the design for LNG and to the Jules Verne project, also joined the
show that it could also be used for LPG team together with two other Jules Verne
and ethylene trading. Delivered in May technicians, Michael Bourgeois and
1964, the ship was the 630m3 Pythagore. Jean-Pierre Morandi.
René Boudet was one of the gas Work on the Moss LNG spherical
industry’s larger-than-life characters. tank containment system design started
A formidable pioneer of LPG trading at Moss Værft in Norway in February William Wood Prince is
and transport by sea in the 1950s, he 1969. Mikal Grønner, the president and acknowledged as the father of LNG
founded Gazocéan in 1957. Following CEO of Moss Rosenberg Værft (MRV),
the success of the Pythagore prototype and his design team set off with a simple generated their own contributions to
vessel, Boudet then placed a speculative three-pronged strategy. The design had the pioneer pool. Esso’s DM Latimer
order in 1968 for the 50,000m3 Descartes, to provide a high standard of safety; the played a key role in developing both
the first commercial ship with the construction would have to be based on the shipping and terminal elements
Technigaz Mark I membrane. In 1979 traditional shipbuilding methods; and the for his company’s Libya venture while
René Boudet moved on from Gazocéan initial and operating costs of a spherical Alexander Delli Paoli was section
and created Geogas Enterprise, a tank ship must be kept low. head of Esso International’s tanker
Geneva-based LPG trading company. The other members of the team were department and the man responsible for
One of the attendees at the Oslo test, Hans Jorgen Frank, who joined MRV the design and construction of the four
Audy Gilles, had also been involved with from the Lorentzen Group, Ragnar 41,000m3 vessels built for the project.
the Beauvais project. The Worms Group Bohgaes, the technical director of Ed Torney, another naval architect
man was investigating another potential Moss Værft, and Olav Solberg, who was from the JJ Henry stable, acted as design
membrane material. In particular he was head of the steel structure department at and construction advisor to Esso. He
considering a 36 per cent nickel steel Kværner Brug. The Kværner engineering later joined Energy Transportation Corp,
alloy which the Nobel prize-winning group was the parent of MRV. the company which operated the eight
Swiss physicist Charles Édouard In early 1970 DNV was spherical tank ships on the Indonesia-
Guillaume had discovered in 1896 and commissioned to help with the project Japan route on behalf of Burmah Oil.
named invar. Industrialised by Imphy and a team was assembled under the The Alaska-Japan trade began in
Alloys of France, invar has a near-zero guidance of manager Rolf Kvamsdal. October 1970 and Phillips Petroleum’s
coefficient of thermal expansion. The society’s Per Tenge, Gunnar Wold vice-president LeRoy Culbertson and
The Worms Group put Pierre Jean and Odd Solli were directed to weigh up John Horn in the natural gas sales
in charge of a research team to look the choice of materials for the spherical department were leading figures in
at invar in more detail and he was tanks while Helge Ramstad examined getting the venture off the ground.
assisted by Pierre Legendre of Imphy. stress levels and Odd Solumoen RJ Wheeler, the company’s director
By October 1965 the researchers’ investigated insulation matters. of marine operations, headed the
confidence in the material was sufficient DNV president Egil Abrahamsen team responsible for the running of
played an active role in this study, the two vessels that served the trade,
providing guidance on dealing with Polar Alaska and Arctic Tokyo.
national and other regulatory bodies. There were many other LNG
Early on in the study James Howard, a shipping and terminal pioneers who
former US Coast Guard officer, joined did not grab as much limelight as those
the Kværner Group and his background mentioned above. As SIGTTO and
proved useful when dealing with GIIGNL point out in their introductory
the US maritime authorities. Later remarks to this magazine, our industry
Tormod Grove and Hans Richard owes a great deal of gratitude to all the
Hansen contributed extensively to the pioneers that helped establish the solid
Moss spherical tank project with input foundation stones that are in place.
on stress and fatigue analysis. In January This group encompasses not just those
1971 Rolf Kvamsdal joined MRV as head who made the headlines but also those
of the gas technology department and shipyard workers, welding experts,
quickly became the well-known front- steel and aluminium manufacturers,
man and publicist for Moss spheres. insulation specialists, electrical engineers
Audy Gilles (left) and Pierre After Methane Princess, Methane and cryogenic equipment suppliers who
Jean, the men who brought the Progress and Jules Verne had established have played key but mostly unsung
Gaz Transport membrane tank the initial Algeria-to-Europe LNG roles in logging 50 years of safe LNG
containment system to life trade lanes, subsequent projects operations. SH
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LNG Shipping at 50|the pioneers
T
here was a great number of (H&W) of Belfast in Northern Ireland. In June 1962 Gaz Marine placed the
shipbuilders involved in the However, the contract allowed the latter contract for the 25,500m3 Jules Verne
construction of the early LNG yard to follow some of its own building at Ateliers et Chantiers de La Seine
carriers. Some yards built only a single, practices when constructing the Maritime (ACSM) in Le Trait, France.
albeit significant, vessel while others conventional parts of Methane Progress. Completed in March 1965, the ship had
were involved with one or more series Both ships featured nine aluminium seven independent, vertically mounted,
of ships, honing their skills with each alloy, prismatic cargo tanks of the Conch cylindrical cargo tanks of nine per cent
delivery. As much of the LNG industry’s design. All drawings required approval nickel steel. Two months later the ship
groundbreaking work was carried out in from five separate organisations, namely discharged France’s first LNG cargo,
the UK, France and the US, and all three Lloyd’s Register and American Bureau a shipment from Algeria, at the newly
countries had both a strong shipbuilding of Shipping as the dual classification commissioned Gaz de France import
tradition and growing demand for societies, Conch, British Gas and Shell, terminal at Le Havre.
gas, it is not surprising that this trio of which worked with J J Henry of New Describing the Jules Verne’s cargo
nations is responsible for many of the York on the vessels’ design. tanks as cylinders does not do justice
pioneering LNG carrier designs. Both ships were built on time and close to their ingenious shape. The lower
Politics also played a part. For to budget, although the first purpose-built bottom of each tank was an inverted
example, Methane Princess, Methane LNGC for commercial service, Methane cone with a rounded peak; the bottom
Progress and Jules Verne, the first three Princess, was to be the only gas ship built at side was elliptical-toroid; and the
LNGCs in commercial service, were by Vickers. The yard, now BAE Systems, top was ellipsoidal. Only the sides
required to be built in a home shipyard. is still constructing sophisticated vessels, were cylindrical.
Vickers Armstrong (Shipbuilders) including nuclear-powered submarines The design was selected from one of
of Barrow-in-Furness in the northwest and other complex naval ships. three different tanks which had been fitted
of England delivered the 27,400m3 H&W completed Methane Progress on the 640m3 converted experimental
Methane Princess in June 1964. As the in July 1964. During work on the vessel Beauvais. The conversion had been
lead contractor on the project, the vessel the Belfast shipbuilder gained completed in February 1962 by Chantiers
company also prepared the working some experience with LNG membrane de l’Atlantique at St Nazaire. Jules Verne
drawings and placed material orders technology by building a prototype tank was broken up in 2008 as Cinderella after a
for the sistership Methane Progress, based on a Conch Methane Services idea. record-breaking 43 years in service.
which was built at Harland and Wolff The membrane consisted of two sizes of Another experimental ship, the 630m3
T
oday’s LNGC cargo containment tanks had internal webs and stiffeners to handle French imports.
systems are well established and and external insulation. Another offering Each of the British pair had nine
proven in service. The developers was spherical tanks while perhaps aluminium alloy 5083–0 prismatic
of these systems had their ups and the most radical was the use of a thin tanks of the Conch design. These were
downs in the early days as they worked membrane supported by insulation and insulated using glass fibre and plywood-
through steep learning curves to bring the hull structure. faced balsa panels. The French ship had
their technologies to maturity. The Independent, self-supporting tanks seven vertically mounted, cylindrical
rivalry between them was intense were the first to get an airing. The 9 per cent nickel steel tanks. Each tank
and sometimes more time was spent converted, 5,000m3 prototype vessel was supported on Klegecell insulation
on highlighting the weaknesses of Methane Pioneer, the first ship to carry with loose perlite arranged around the
competing systems rather than extolling a seagoing cargo of LNG, in 1959, was sides and top.
the merits of the in-house product. provided with five aluminium alloy grade The next newbuilding series, ordered
In truth there is something to be said 5356–0 tanks. The insulation comprised in 1966, also sported independent, self-
for all the containment systems in use prefabricated panels of balsa wood faced supporting tanks. The four 41,000m3
today. They would not have achieved the with maple and oak plywood fixed to the vessels were built to carry Libyan
degree of acceptance they have if that was vessel’s hull. In 1962 the experimental exports to Italy and Spain on behalf of
not the case. Each incorporates touches ship Beauvais, fitted with three different Esso. The vessels, each of which had
of technical brilliance, good engineering types of independent cargo tank, was put four prismatic, aluminium alloy 5083–0
and innovative thinking throughout the through a series of tests off the coast of tanks, were built to the oil major’s own
supporting structures, materials and Brittany in France. design. The insulation comprised a layer
layouts that go to make up the system. As a result of the Methane Pioneer and of polyurethane foam (PUF), plywood
Early research and development Beauvais trials, the first three commercial sheets, a second layer of PUF, aluminium
work into how to carry a liquefied gas LNGCs were ordered. All had sheathing and aluminium batten strips.
cargo at near atmospheric pressure and independent cargo tanks and all were The insulation arrangement was mounted
a temperature of –162°C produced three constructed to transport Algerian LNG on the outer tank boundary while the
basic approaches to LNG containment. exports. The 27,400m3 Methane Princess plywood was secured to the cargo tank
One solution was the use of independent, and Methane Progress were built in the with studs, and the aluminium batten
self-supporting cargo tanks based on UK to carry cargoes to the UK while the strips fixed to the plywood with screws.
traditional shipbuilding techniques. Such 25,500m3 Jules Verne was built in France During the early 1960s French
I
n discussions on the various early Deepwell pumps had been fitted Honeywell was another US supplier
LNG carrier designs, the emphasis on Methane Pioneer for its historic trial of equipment to Methane Princess and
has always been on the relative voyages in 1959 but such units proved Methane Progress. A Honeywell 320
merits of the rival cargo containment not to be ideal in LNG service as the point data logger was installed in each
systems. Engineering components like temperature differential between the vessel’s main cargo control room for
cargo pumps, compressors, valves, tank and the external atmosphere had a recording temperatures from the cargo
gauges and control systems, so vital to tendency to cause the shaft to bind. tank surfaces, the insulation and the
the safe and effective operation of the The first shipboard JC Carter SEMPs hull structure. The data recorded was
vessels, rarely get a mention. were installed in one of the three cargo transferred to a strip printout sheet for
Many of the essential pieces of cargo- tanks on the experimental 640m3 LNG onboard use and a punched tape for
handling equipment developed for the vessel Beauvais, the conversion of which computer analysis ashore.
early LNG carriers enjoyed universal was completed in February 1962. The Foster Wheeler provided two of its
applicability, irrespective of the ship’s tests proved to be satisfactory and a ESD II main boilers for each of the steam
chosen containment system. And many shipset of nine JC Carter SEMPs was turbine-driven Methane Princess and
of these pioneering equipment items ordered for both Methane Princess and Methane Progress. The units were the first
are still around today, albeit in scaled- Methane Progress. Each cargo tank on to utilise cargo boil-off gas (BOG) on an
up versions. Their longevity bears the vessels was fitted with a single LNG carrier, and the combustion system
testimony to the sound engineering pump with a capacity of 205 m3/hour. A was designed to burn fuel oil, methane
principles and innovative technology secondary gas lift pumping system was BOG or a combination of both. Foster
on which the design of the original
equipment was based.
One good example is the
submerged electric motor pump
(SEMP). Without these sophisticated
cargo pumps, with the ability of their
motors to operate within the liquid
cargo, the progress from original
experimental LNG vessels to the
modern ships of the 266,000m3 Q-max
size would not have been possible.
The original JC Carter cryogenic
centrifugal pump was developed in
1947 in support of the US government’s
early rocket programmes. The pumps
were used to feed liquefied gas fuel
to the rocket engines. James Coolidge
Carter conceived the idea for a SEMP
for liquefied gas service at his factory in
Costa Mesa, California in 1958.
SEMPs have a major safety
advantage over their external motor
counterparts in that there is no need
for a shaft to penetrate the tank, thus
eliminating mechanical seals. Another
advantage of integrating the pump and
motor into a single unit with a common
shaft is that coupling and alignment
issues are removed. As hydrocarbons are
dielectric fluids, electrical cables and the
motor itself can be safely surrounded More often than not, modern equipment is simply a scaled-up version of the
by LNG. technologies first proven on the early LNG carriers
nwsssc.com
Today’s LPG and ethylene
carriers stem from many
starting points
The genesis of today’s LPG and ethylene carriers was with gas for use as a fuel.
A key early ship in the annals of LPG
peopled by as many pioneers as the LNG carrier transport history was the 6,050m3 Natalie
sector, and often their paths would intersect to O Warren. This vessel, a former CA-I
mutual benefit type cargo ship named Cape Diamond,
was converted at the Bethlehem Steel
yard at Beaumont, Texas in 1947 for
B
ecause of the simplicity of insulation or reliquefaction plant is Warren Petroleum, a subsidiary of Gulf
the design and the range required. Tanks are designed typically Oil. Natalie O Warren was provided
of worldwide trading based on a minimum cargo temperature with 68 vertical, cylindrical cargo tanks.
opportunities, more fully pressurised of –5°C and maximum design pressures Elsewhere in the US in 1947 and 1948
(FP) LPG carriers have been built than between 17 and 18 barg (1,800 and Esso modified its oil tankers Esso Sao
any other type of gas carrier. The FP 1,900 kPa). Paulo, Esso El Salvador and Esso Brazil
fleet is engaged in the distribution Trade routes in the 1950s and by installing pressurised tanks for LPG
of liquefied gases to virtually every 1960s – the real formative years of LPG in part of the oil cargo spaces below the
country with a coastline. FP ships are transport – fell into two categories and main deck.
amongst the smallest of the gas carriers influenced ship design. First the oil A number of European companies
and tend to serve regional trades. majors, anxious to make use of the LPG also entered into LPG transport by sea
The design parameters for produced by their oil refineries, looked in the years immediately after World
pressurised cargo tanks remain as at ways of moving all the products War II. Norsk Hydro took delivery of
they were in 1934, when the first of the refining process to market. the 1,454m3 anhydrous ammonia carrier
riveted types were installed on board This resulted in the development of Hydro in 1950. This conversion, by the
the pioneering Shell tanker Agnita. combined oil/LPG carriers and oil Marinens shipyard in Norway, had
Because the tanks are essentially tankers with additional deck pressure 20 cylindrical cargo tanks and traded
pressure vessels for carrying cargoes vessels for LPG. The second basic ship between Hydro’s plants.
under pressure at or near ambient type was the small dedicated LPG In Denmark the Tholstrup family
temperature, mild steel is used as the carrier specifically built to supply LPG business had started in 1941 based
tank material and no tank/piping remote coastal and island communities on the import of LPG from Poland and
Germany using railway tank wagons. configured with the typical ‘three island’ compressor, the cargo in this tank was
In 1951 Tholstrup contracted the oil tanker profile of the time, had a cooled. The tank in question was one
Svendborg shipyard to convert the small forecastle, a bridge deckhouse over the of 36 vertically mounted, pressurised
coaster Morild to the 129m3 Kosangas by cargo tanks and a poop. Esso Puerto Rico cylindrical tanks on board the ship.
installing a single horizontal cargo tank. could carry 33,600m3 of oil in the lower As a follow-up an order was placed
Italy introduced LPG distribution in wing tanks, while 40 of the ship’s 58 at La Ciotat by Gazocéan for the 920m3
the Mediterranean. In 1953, to enable the pressure vessel tanks were positioned Descartes. All the tanks on the ship were
carriage of LPG from the mainland to vertically in the centre tanks and 18 modelled on the Butagaz experimental
Sicily and Sardinia, a small coaster was horizontally in the upper wing tanks. tank. Descartes was to be the first semi-
converted to the 540m3 Flavia Bonfiraro, How do modern FP LPGCs differ ref LPG carrier.
A year later another conversion, the from the pioneering vessels of this type? In the years immediately following
315m3 Cornelia, entered service; she was The main difference is that now two the French breakthrough other
provided with onboard bottle-filling or three horizontally mounted tanks European shipyards converted or built
equipment as there was no shore storage. are the preferred arrangement rather relatively small LPG carriers with a
In 1954 the 817m3 Cap Carbon, built than the multiple numbers of vertical cargo refrigeration capability, each
by the Dutch shipyard Foxhol and tanks. Also tank thicknesses have one experimental in its own way. Tank
fitted with 14 vertical cylindrical tanks, increased, enabling considerably larger pressures varied in the range 5–9 barg
opened a new trading route from a individual tank capacities as a result. (600-1,000 kPa) and, depending on the
facility near Marseilles in southern Another significant change is that most products carried, different minimum
France to Arzew in Algeria. modern carriers have deepwell pumps design temperatures were specified for
In 1955 two European oil majors took to discharge the cargo rather than using these early refrigerated ships, including
delivery of their first purpose-built LPG compressors and booster pumps. 0°C, –10°C, –25°C, –30°C and –34°C.
vessels. The French yard La Ciotat built Looking to the future there is every A major decision was made by the
the 1,390m3 Butagas, with 36 cylindrical indication that in coming years there classification societies in 1966 when
cargo tanks, for Maritime Shell while will still remain more fully pressurised they specified that, subject to strict
in Germany the Ottensener yard LPG carriers in service than any other requirements for the gas-handling
constructed Neviges and Langenburg, a type of gas carrier due to not only their and storage arrangements, a semi-
pair of 2,580m3 sisterships, each with versatility and simplicity of design but pressurised LPG carrier could carry fully
nine cargo tanks, for British Petroleum. also the nature of market demand. refrigerated cargoes without a secondary
The Dutch Bijkers yard made two In terms of cargo-handling containment system barrier.
contributions to the early fleet of LPG characteristics the semi-pressurised/fully This ruling cleared the way for a
carriers with the 2,006m3 Marion P refrigerated (semi-ref) LPG carrier is a busy few years, beginning in 1967 when
Billups in 1956 and the 3,178m3 Fred more technically challenging gas ship to the first semi-ref LPG carriers were
H Billups in 1960. Both ships were for operate than the simple FP LPGC. delivered. The tanks on these ships were
Marine Caribbean Lines, a subsidiary From the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s designed for the carriage of liquefied
of New York-based Marine Transport a great deal of research was carried out propane at its atmospheric-pressure
Lines, and were fitted with 19 vertical in Europe on onboard refrigeration in boiling point of –48˚C.
cylindrical tanks. order to enable the carriage of larger A considerable change of direction
The conversion of the cargo volumes of LPG in lighter weight tanks. occurred in 1976. The publication of the
ship Haut-Brion to the 1,012m3 LPG The experiment that was to lead to the then IMCO Code for the Construction
carrier Loex by the INMA La Spezia successful refrigeration of LPG carrier and Equipment of Ships Carrying
yard in Italy on behalf of Gazocéan cargoes was carried out in France in Liquefied Gases in Bulk required a
in 1958 represented a significant 1958 when a 40m3 pressurised cargo rethink on design as ships with large,
design change in terms of cargo tank tank on board the fully pressured above-deck tanks could not satisfy
orientation. The nine cylindrical 1,390m3 Butagaz, the first ship to the damage stability requirements
pressure vessel cargo tanks on this be built at La Ciotat, was specially of the Code. Transversely mounted,
ship were horizontally mounted. insulated. Then, through the use of a gas below-deck, cylindrical tanks and
Japan was in the vanguard in
introducing LPG transport to Asia. In
1960 L P Maru No 1, with 13 vertical
cylindrical tanks, was delivered to
Nippon Ekika Gas Yuso by the Harima
shipyard in Aioi. This 990m3 ship also
had a horizontally mounted tank on
the main deck forward which was
used to discharge each of the other
tanks using two compressors and an
electric cargo pump.
The combined oil/LPG carrier Esso
Puerto Rico, built in 1958 by Cantieri
Riuniti dell’Adriatico in Italy, was
able to carry 12,788m3 of LPG and
was the largest ship ever built with The fully pressurised LPGC remains the workhorse of the gas carrier fleet,
fully pressurised LPG tanks. The ship, extending the supply chain into the remotest parts
longitudinally mounted, below-deck, prismatic and membrane versions European shipbuilders introduced
bilobe tanks were two of the solutions and longitudinally and transversely more LEGC variations at the start of the
used to improve ship stability. mounted cylindrical and bilobe types. 1970s. The Hebburn shipyard of Swan
Some noteworthy series designs Cargo tank materials compatible Hunter in the UK delivered the fully
were completed in Europe. Moss Værft with the -104°C boiling point carriage refrigerated 3,344m3 Emiliano Zapata to
delivered the 12,060m3 Inge Maersk to A temperature of ethylene have included Petroleos Mexicanos in 1970. Another
P Møller in 1972 as the first of nine-ship aluminium alloys and 5, 9 and 36 per Technigaz prototype for Gazocéan, the
series. The Jos L Meyer shipyard was cent nickel steels. 4,073m3 LNG/ethylene/LPG carrier
rebuilt to enable it to win an order for In May 1964 Pythagore, a 630m3 Euclides, built at Le Havre in 1971, was
six 12,000m3 semi-ref LPG carriers from experimental LNG/ethylene/LPG the first LNG carrier with spherical
Latvian Shipping. The first, Yurmala, carrier, was delivered to Gazocéan cargo tanks and the first without a
was delivered in 1975 and all were fitted by Ateliers et Chantiers du Havre in secondary barrier. German shipbuilder
with three bilobe cargo tanks. In 1981 France. The first ethylene carrier built Heinrich Brand in Oldenburg delivered
the Danish yard of Odense at Lindo in Japan was the appropriately named the 2,741m3 Melrose with aluminium
completed the 15,070m3 Sally Maersk as Ethylene Maru No 1, which was delivered bilobe cargo tanks in 1971. The ship
the first of six semi-ref LPG carriers for to Ishikawajima Ship and Chemical was the first in a series of five LNG/
its A P Møller parent company. Company in Tokyo in 1965. ethylene/LPG carriers for George
The first South Korean yard to enter Also in the mid-1960s the Scottish Gibson and Bernhard Schulte from
this niche market was Hyundai Heavy shipowner George Gibson received a Brand but none of the quintet ever
Industries (HHI) when its Ulsan yard contract to ship ethylene for Imperial carried LNG.
delivered the 4,415m3 Greta Kosan in Chemical Industries (ICI) from Moss Værft in Norway introduced
1990, one of a pair for Kosan Tankers of Teesside in the UK to Rozenburg, near what was to be the first in a long line
Denmark. China took its first step down Rotterdam. This deal resulted in the of successful LEGC designs in 1971,
the semi-ref path in 1996 when the delivery, in July 1966, of the 833m3 through the delivery of the 4,100m3
Shanghai Edward yard built the 3,200m3 Teviot and, later in the same year, the Roald Amundsen for Einar Bakkevig. To
Coral Obelia for Anthony Veder. 824m3 Traquair from the Burntisland round off 1971, a remarkably varied
“The apple does not fall far from shipyard in Scotland. This pair of fully 12 months for LEGC newbuildings, the
the tree,” is an old adage that springs refrigerated ships each had a single Yokohama yard of Mitsubishi delivered
to mind when considering the small- prismatic aluminium-magnesium alloy the 1,120m3 Shinryo Ethylene Maru, a
scale LNG/ethylene/LPG carriers cargo tank extending in a sloped fashion ship with two Technigaz membrane
which are currently joining the LNG above the main deck. tanks, to Shinwa Chemicals.
fleet in increasing numbers. This In September 1966, on the other side In 1972 Italy completed its first
multi-gas carrier concept was exactly of the North Sea at Bremen, AG Weser ethylene carrier, the 1,100m3 Capo
the approach taken in the early 1960s delivered the 824m3 Lincoln Ellsworth to Verde. In 1974 Hitachi’s Innoshima yard
when designers were competing to find Oslo shipowner Einar Bakkevig. Like delivered the 1,106m3 Sankyo Ethylene
the best way to transport LNG by sea Teviot, Lincoln Ellsworth was fitted with a Maru, a unique experimental LNG
safely and economically. single, fully refrigerated cargo tank. carrier embodying two different cargo
The initial ethylene trade routes were During the 1967-70 period Japanese tank systems. The forward aluminium
established around the coasts of Europe, shipyards flexed their muscles with spherical tank was based on a Chicago
Mexico and Japan. In addition to the eight LEGC deliveries. The Sumitomo Bridge & Iron design, and the aft 9 per
cargoes carried by a semi-ref LPG carrier, yards built the experimental 785m3 cent nickel steel prismatic tank had a
a typical liquefied ethylene gas carrier Ethylene Daystar in 1968 and the part-Exxon pedigree.
(LEGC) could also trade with ethane, 1,188m3 Ethylene Dayspring in 1969 for The Spanish built a prototype LNG/
ethene and ethylene, ensuring the longest Daiichi. Each ship had two aluminium ethylene/LPG carrier, the 4,936m3 Sant
cargo list of all the gas carriers. membrane cargo tanks developed by Jordi, to a design by Sener at the Tomas
Ethylene ships have incorporated Bridgestone, utilising 3mm thick plate, Ruiz de Velasco yard in Bilbao in 1976.
a grand variety of cargo tank shapes and the cargo tank area was protected Constructed with four spherical, 9 per
over the years, including spherical, by a double hull. cent nickel steel cargo tanks, the ship
S
hipowners poised to benefit outweighed exports, the US became a Gulf Coast terminals. Existing Gulf
from the US shale gas revolution net exporter of LPG once again in 2011 LPG terminals are being expanded and
are not limited to those in the and seaborne shipments are forecast to new facilities are under construction to
LNG sector. Because shale gas, and grow strongly in the years ahead. The cope with the growing export volumes.
shale oil, are rich in natural gas liquids US exported 9 million tonnes (mt) of The terminal expansion projects
(NGLs) and because the volumes being LPG in 2013, about 75 per cent ahead of will help US LPG exports reach an
produced are rising rapidly, US exports the level recorded in 2011. estimated 13.5mt in 2014 and rise to a
of the principal NGL fractions propane Propane accounts for 90 per cent possible 21mt in 2017.
and ethane are set to climb. of this traffic and butane 10 per cent. At the moment, most of the US
These products are also providing With propane in Houston now costing exports are shipped to customers in
US petrochemical manufacturers about 60 per cent of that in Japan and Latin America and Europe. However,
with cheap feedstocks and boosting the US market for propane currently given the relatively low price of US
their competitiveness in the world oversupplied, it is not difficult to LPG and rising local demand, it is
marketplace. There are currently 11 appreciate the overseas interest in US hardly surprising that Asian buyers
major projects underway in the US to product. US exports are driving the are becoming increasingly interested
either expand existing chemical plants demand for new very large gas carriers in the VLGC cargoes loading on the
or build new ones to run on ethane (VLGCs) and supporting the healthy Gulf Coast.
feedstock. These developments, in turn, freight rates commanded by the ships in The opening of the enlarged
will support resurgent US chemical the existing fleet. Panama Canal in 2015 will help trim
exports, including of chemical gases Falling in the 75-85,000m3 size the shipping costs associated with
such as ethylene. range, VLGCs are the largest LPG these long-distance deliveries. In terms
As a result, the US shale boom is carriers afloat and the gas shipping of Panama Canal transits VLGCs are
going to reverberate throughout all the industry’s workhorses when it comes to currently a borderline case. Only the
gas shipping sectors, not just LNG. In transporting large volumes of propane smallest ships in the class, or about
fact LPG carriers are already accruing and butane over long distances. The 20 per cent of the fleet, are able to utilise
benefits. Whereas the first US exports 156-vessel VLGC fleet transports LPG the Canal as it stands. The enlarged
of LNG derived from shale gas are not as fully refrigerated cargoes. The waterway will be able to accommodate
due to begin flowing until late 2015, current VLGC orderbook stands at a the entire VLGC fleet.
LPG loadings for overseas customers are massive 82 such vessels. Chinese plastics producers are
already on the rise. Approximately 90 per cent of the US lining up to become major buyers of
After a decade in which LPG imports LPG export cargoes are shipped from US LPG. There is a major shortage of
T
he scene is set for the emergence into their pure, component parts. The biggest production centre is
of ethane as a notable liquefied gas Ethane has traditionally not at Kårstø in Norway, where some
carrier cargo on deepsea routes. traded in global markets and is used 900,000 tonnes per annum of ethane
The product is a key component of the primarily in facilities adjacent to are separated out from the North
natural gas liquids (NGLs) in which where it is processed. This is because Sea dry gas arriving at the terminal
the new US shale oil and gas volumes it is relatively difficult to liquefy and by pipeline. Aside from these
coming onto the market are rich. It is transport in bulk. Ethane has a vapour European shipments, which have been
also a major petrochemical industry pressure of 3.85 MPa at 21.1˚C and a underway for a couple of decades, the
feedstock offering many advantages boiling point of –88.5˚C. It has a specific movement of ethane has been limited
over the alternatives. gravity of 0.54, as opposed to 0.45 to transmission through pipelines in
As a reflection of this new dawn for for LNG. These properties mean that gaseous form.
a liquefied gas that has figured only ethane must be either refrigerated to a The new ethane carriers that have
marginally in the annals of gas shipping to very low temperature, compressed to a been ordered recently are being built
date, orders have been placed for several high pressure or have both temperature with US ethane exports in mind. The
comparatively large ethane carriers in and pressure controlled to keep it in a newbuilds comprise a series of six
recent months. The contracts are backed liquid state and enable its transport by 27,500m3 vessels and four of 35,000m3.
by long-term charters with European sea in bulk. These new ethane carriers are being
chemical manufacturers seeking to gain In gas carrier terms ethane can be built as semi-ref vessels with IMO Type
advantage from imports of competitively carried fully refrigerated in liquefied C, bilobe, pressure vessel cargo tanks.
priced US ethane feedstock. ethylene gas carriers (LEGCs), because All are bigger than the largest LEGC
Ethane is at the ‘light’ end of the ethylene has a boiling point of –104˚C, yet built.
NGL mix and the most prolific of its or at –45˚C and a pressure of 5 bar The 27,500m3 ships are under
five components. The other constituents (500 kPa). Some ethane, processed construction at the Sinopacific Offshore
are propane, normal butane, isobutane from North Sea gas, is moved around & Engineering (SOE) yard in China for
and natural gasoline. In most NGL locally in the North and Baltic Seas Copenhagen-based Evergas. Termed
flows ethane accounts for almost region in small semi-pressurised/ the Dragon series by the shipowner,
50 per cent of the total volume. Gas fully refrigerated (semi-ref) gas carriers they will also be able to transport LNG,
fractionators are used to process NGLs provided with extra compressor power. LPG and petrochemical gases, including
Douglas on the Isle of Man was the venue for a SIGTTO board meeting in June 2012
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here was no body dedicated Company following suggestions made between ship and terminal operators
to liquefied gas during the by Compagnie Nationale Algérienne in the matters of safety and reliability
formative years of the industry. de Navigation (CNAN) and others at the ship/shore interface.
Although the International Group that such an organisation could prove It was understood that in
of LNG Importers (GIIGNL) was useful. At the time, the intention was developing and maintaining
established in 1971, this still left a gap, to call the new group the Society appropriate safety standards
most notably as regards gas carriers for International Methane Tanker and in gaining public acceptance
and their interface with terminals. Operators (SIMTO). of these standards, the various
During the 1977–78 period Although the initial interest components of the industry – LNG
a number of operators of LNG was centred on LNG carrier and LPG ships and terminals – were
vessels in mutual correspondence operations, these meetings included mutually supportive. The Society
had expressed interest in the representatives from across the of International Gas Tanker and
establishment of some form of liquefied gas transportation field. Terminal Operators (SIGTTO) was
association in which LNG carrier It was quickly recognised that any therefore decided upon as the most
operators internationally could assist such association would be the more appropriate name for the new
each other in tackling safety and valuable if it encompassed all forms industry body.
reliability issues and maintaining of liquefied gas carrier operations In these formative discussions the
high operational standards across (LPG and chemical gases as well participants had the very ready help of
their expanding industry. as LNG) and if it also included the senior executives from the International
Stemming from this interest a operation of terminals loading or Chamber of Shipping (ICS) and the Oil
series of meetings was convened receiving these cargoes. Companies International Marine Forum
in order to discuss the need for In recognising this it was (OCIMF). Both bodies had already
and possible formation of such appreciated that safety and reliability included consideration of the liquefied gas
an association. The first meeting issues were broadly similar shipping industry within their activities
took place at the Princess Hotel throughout the various forms of and both already had consultative status
in Hamilton, Bermuda on 11-12 liquefied gas marine transportation. with IMCO (now IMO).
December 1978. The meeting had been Also, there would be great value in A most pertinent question
called at the request of El Paso LNG providing a channel of direct liaison clearly was whether the perceived
meetings, the Society of International superintendent, having been involved May 2007 – William Wayne
Gas Tankers and Terminal Operators with the G-class LNG carriers and the Nov 2012 (Shell)
Ltd came into existence as a two I-class LPG carriers for Shell, and Nov 2012 – present Andrew Clifton (BP)
Bermuda-exempted company with was used to being fairly autonomous.
limited liability and with availability The attraction of joining an unknown By the end of the first year
of membership and shareholding and embryonic SIGTTO was pretty the membership had grown to 30
in the company to those owning small. However, Maurice persuaded me companies, including several terminal
or operating a liquefied gas carrier and I became SIGTTO’s first technical operators. One of the immediate
or a liquefied gas marine terminal. adviser in July 1980. The offices in priorities was to achieve consultative
The first board meeting was held Staple Hall were much better than status at IMO. This was achieved in
in Bermuda on 5 October 1979. The Marble Arch and my job was made 1982 when the membership had grown
founder members were: much easier as a result of the support to 50 companies. By this time the
•E l Paso LNG Company given by our excellent members.” Society had an active GPC and a well-
•E nergy Transportation Corp The first technical issues the established Panel Meeting programme.
•M alaysian International society dealt with were as follows: In the following years SIGTTO
Shipping Corp •C ontingency planning steadily grew in membership and
•B P Tanker Company Ltd •S hip/shore linked emergency progressed to a point where it was
•M oore, McCormack Bulk shutdown acknowledged as the authoritative
Transport Ltd •S afe havens voice of the liquefied gas shipping
•P &O Bulk Shipping Ltd •C argo strainers and terminals industries. This
•G otaas Larsen Inc • Training. position rests on the reputation
•M arine Transport Lines It is interesting to note that the that the Society quickly established
• Exxon. SIGTTO General Purposes Committee for its impartiality and integrity in
A further board meeting with more in 2014 is still discussing most of the addressing operational and safety
members present was held in Houston above to some degree or another! issues. A number of publications were
A recent gathering of SIGTTO general managers and technical advisers, past and present
released to the industry as a result a period of great change in the the regulatory bodies that influence
of issues addressed by the GPC and liquefied gas shipping and terminals the industry. SIGTTO has published
working groups. industry. Floating liquefaction over 50 books, recommendations
Robin Gray became the second and regasification vessels were and guidelines. On average, two
SIGTTO general manager in May being ordered and put into service such documents per year have been
1985, by which time the Society had while ship size and numbers were produced or updated.
over 60 members. Bruce Kier became increasing and new technologies, The Society is as strong now as
general manager in June 1991 and in including innovative propulsion it has ever been. The membership
April 1993 the Society moved into its systems, were being introduced. controls around 97 per cent of the
present offices at St Helen’s Place in In a major project SIGTTO facilitated world’s LNG vessels and terminals
London. The next day the infamous the revision of The International Code for and encompasses around one-half of
Bishopsgate car bomb explosion the Construction and Equipment of Ships the LPG market. SIGTTO now has
occurred nearby. It was a Saturday Carrying Liquefied gases in Bulk (IGC more members than ever before and
morning and, although no one from Code) on behalf of IMO. In 2008 the remains the industry leader for best
the Secretariat was in the office at the Society formed nine working groups practice and technical support for
time, the damage to the immediate under the auspices of a steering group liquefied gas shipping and terminals.
area was substantial. Access to the to undertake this work. Carried out In 50 years of commercial shipping
office was not permitted for several over a two-year period, the revision operation LNG carriers have carried
weeks afterwards. of the document involved nearly 140 over 77,000 cargoes. During this
In 1994 membership passed the experts representing over 40 entities period there has been no loss of cargo
100 mark. Alain Vaudolon served as and 20 countries. tank containment and no onboard
general manager from July 1995 to July SIGTTO ensured that the draft fatalities directly attributable to the
1998, when John Gyles succeeded him. revised IGC Code was delivered cargo. This is a very impressive, in
That year the number of LNG ships to IMO according to the agreed fact unprecedented, safety record for
in service had just passed 100. By the timetable. The draft was approved at the carriage of liquid hydrocarbons in
time James MacHardy was appointed the 92nd Session of IMO’s Maritime bulk by sea. SIGTTO has played a key
general manager in February 2003 Safety Committee (MSC 92) in June part in achieving this safety record.
the industry was entering a phase of 2013 and it was adopted at MSC 93 in The philosophy of the Society is
rapid expansion. Many new players May 2014. The revised IGC Code will best described in the words of its
were entering the marketplace and come into force in 2016. founding president, Barry Hunsaker
new projects, terminals and ships were In November 2012 Andrew Clifton, of El Paso Natural Gas, some 35
being commissioned. the present general manager, took years ago: “We will best achieve our
The seventh general manager, over the reins, becoming SIGTTO’s goals by sharing with each other
Bill Wayne, was appointed in May first general manager who was our non-proprietary technical and
2007 and he led the Society through formerly a technical advisor. In 2013 safety information and operating
SIGTTO established the Society for experiences through open and
SIGTTO TECHNICAL ADVISERS Gas as a Marine Fuel (SGMF) as a frank discussion. Only in this way
(BY DATE APPOINTED) separate industry body to oversee the will each of us benefit from the
use of LNG as a marine fuel. experience and knowledge gained
Jul 1980 Dick Oldham
SIGTTO’s General Purposes by all of us and thus maximise the
1984 Robin Buncombe (Shell)
Committee and its Secretariat provide safety of our operations. Remember,
Sep 1986 Roy Izatt (Shell) the vehicle through which the the industry will be judged by the
Sep 1988 Doug Brown (BP) knowledge and information gathering record of its least safe operator.
within the organisation can best be Let’s help ourselves by helping that
Sep 1991 Richard Chadburn (Shell)
promulgated to the members and operator.” AC
Jul 1993 Ken Sprowles (Shell)
Thierry Descamps
Jul 2014
(ConocoPhilips)
SIGTTO’s second Asia Pacific Regional Forum, in Shanghai in February 2006
We are excited about being part of the next era of LNG development.
bg-group.com
@BGGroup
youtube.com/BGGroup
Pictured at right:
Methane Pioneer at Lake Charles, Louisiana
Above:
Methane Kari Elin at Elba Island, Georgia
LNG Shipping at 50|the safety regime
A
s this SIGTTO/GIIGNL A few companies, including Gaz been discontinued were offset by new
commemorative publication de France, took the initiative to try to members joining from Asia.
highlights, the LNG industry bring together from across the globe the On the occasion of this SIGTTO/
was launched in the 1960s when several top executives of those gas companies GIIGNL commemorative publication,
export projects were developed, namely involved in LNG imports and facing we had the opportunity to interview
in Algeria, Libya and Alaska. common challenges. The idea of creating Robert Venet, GIIGNL director from
By the end of the decade Japan an industry association of LNG importing April 1981 to April 1989, a key period in
had received its first shipments companies received very favourable the association’s history.
and embarked down a path that feedback from the interests concerned.
would soon establish the country Thus were laid the foundations Q: Mr Venet, what was the state of the
as the world’s No 1 LNG importer. of a new association consisting of 19 LNG industry in the 1980s and what
In the Atlantic Basin the US made founding members. The International were the interests of the world’s major
preparations to receive Algerian Group of Liquefied Natural Gas LNG importers at that time?
volumes while Italy and Spain pushed Importers (GIIGNL) was born just as Robert Venet: “The late 1970s were
ahead with plans to join France and the nascent LNG industry was taking its a very turbulent period for the LNG
the UK as European LNG importers. first tentative steps. industry because many of the leading
The technologies needed to create The association had, at least in its buyers of gas, especially in the US, had
a safe and effective LNG supply early stages, the character of a club become rather disillusioned by the high
chain were novel and complex for without a rigid legal structure and prices being demanded by the Algerian
the time. The industry was opening statutory framework. The members LNG producers.
up new realms of engineering as it exchanged information and developed “In Europe some new players, like
introduced natural gas liquefaction, studies covering the scientific, technical the Italian companies, wanted to enter
LNG storage and LNG regasification and economic aspects of issues such as the LNG scene by acquiring some
on a large scale, as well as LNG carrier purchasing, processing, transportation, supplies. However, eventually most
containment systems and concepts storage, handling, regasification and the opted instead for cheaper pipeline
such as cold recovery. various uses of natural gas. supplies, especially from Russia.
LNG importers faced formidable GIIGNL’s work was undertaken with “The LNG boom happened in Asia,
technical and economic challenges when the aims of promoting the development and specifically in Japan, when supplies
purchasing, shipping and handling LNG of the industry and pursuing objectives from Indonesia began to flow.”
in the volumes required to justify the of common interest, including the
commercial viability of the project and to development of safety and industry best Q: Can you describe the function of
satisfy the needs of their customers. All practice guidelines. Delegates from the GIIGNL at that time? What were the
these activities needed to be developed US member companies in particular, organisation’s activities?
and implemented in the context of their anxious not to breach any anti-trust Robert Venet: “The International Group
respective national energy policies and laws, appreciated the association’s set- of LNG Importers was essentially an
regulatory frameworks. up and working methods. association which offered a meeting
The first meeting of the Group was place for the top executives of our
Everett, a long-time member of GIIGNL held in Paris in December 1971 under LNG importing member companies.
and the first US import terminal, opened for the leadership of Gaz de France. Mr At that time Howard Boyd, who was
business in November 1971, the month before Le Guellec, honorary president of Gaz a leading personality in the US gas
the Group’s first meeting
de France, accepted the presidency of industry and had chaired El Paso, was
GIIGNL while Hiroshi Anzai of Tokyo GIIGNL president, while Pierre Alby
Gas and Howard Boyd of El Paso were from Gaz de France, Denis Rooke from
appointed vice-presidents. British Gas and Hiroshi Anzai from
The association functioned well Tokyo Gas were vice-presidents. All
throughout the 1970s and 1980s. were distinguished captains of the
In tandem with the relatively slow gas industry in the 1980s and chief
expansion of the global LNG industry executives of leading gas companies.
in those formative years, GIIGNL’s “The activities of the association were
membership grew only slowly and did mainly centred on two annual meetings.
not rise above 25. The resignations of These gatherings allowed member
some US members whose projects had representatives to meet, exchange views
and commission joint studies on topics Q: Who conducted these meetings? … may have been somewhat more
of specific interest. These projects were and how did they evolve? ‘conventional’ in their conversation,
carried out by the members themselves, Robert Venet: “Many Japanese they were no less noticeable. At the
of which one would act as coordinator. companies were represented at these Florence General Assembly in 1981,
“I remember one particular meetings. When I joined the association for example, several of the wealthier
groundbreaking study on the in 1981, there were 13 Japanese US companies had chartered a private
certification of LNG carriers. Indeed at companies among our 23 members. Boeing 727 for their presidents to make
the time, the rules governing the design There were no other Asian members; the transatlantic flight.
and construction of such vessels were the remainder comprised five European “These same US delegates were
in their infancy and work to establish and five of the original eight American somewhat amazed when, at the end
an appropriate regulatory regime was founding members. of a meeting in Sapporo in 1984,
being coordinated by the International “During the meetings the discussions our Japanese hosts proposed a lake
Maritime Organization (IMO). GIIGNL, were simultaneously translated into three excursion in a very American style
through the experience and expertise languages – English, French and Japanese. Mississippi paddle boat steamer.
of its members, was able to provide Mitsubishi, with its very effective “These meetings were not always free
valuable input to the investigations that interpretation services, was in charge of of mishaps. During our 1989 Montreux
underpin the regulations which were the Japanese language translations. Steering Committee in Switzerland
made mandatory for new ships in 1986. “Gaz de France, British Gas and the host company representative given
“The study topics selected covered Tokyo Gas had assumed clear leadership responsibility for organising the closing
a very wide range of technical, roles in the meetings and the organisation dinner, no doubt in an effort to limit
operational, regulatory and commercial in general. The first non-Japanese Asian costs and impress his superiors, invited
issues. It goes without saying that those members were Korea Gas in 1985 and the delegates to an inn whose culinary
sensitive commercial issues which might CPC, headquartered in Taipei, in 1989.” standard could only be described
have impinged on competition law were as “average”. The chosen meal – a
strictly off-limits.” Q: Do you have any particular memories greasy raclette, which is melted cheese
of your time at GIIGNL that stand out? served with boiled potatoes and cold
Q: How was the association organised Robert Venet: “Given the level of meats – was particularly average. The
and managed? participants at our meetings, not raclette did not agree with everyone’s
Robert Venet: “GIIGNL worked on surprisingly the events did not lack digestive system, and the president
the basis of rules which had been laid in style. I remember the 1983 Steering of the host company did his best to
down by the founding members at the Committee at Artigny country house in put on a bright face and salvage the
First General Assembly in Paris in 1971 France. Steeped in history, this is a castle evening. All the while he was gritting his
(these rules have since been transformed that Renaissance writer Rabelais used to teeth and casting his eyes out over the
into statutes, the current version being visit. At our meeting Hiroshi Anzai was congregation, looking for his minion who
updated in 2008). Day-to-day functioning knighted as a member of the Confrérie des had booked the inn.”
of the association was managed by Tastevins, a brotherhood whose purpose is Over the past 20 years GIIGNL’s
a permanent chief officer or general the development of burgundy wines. membership has grown strongly. Today
delegate in consultation with and under “On another occasion, at the 1985 the Group has 74 member companies in
the guidance of the Group’s president. Steering Committee at Woodstock in 24 countries worldwide. The membership
“The statutes require that at the UK, Denis Rooke (by then Sir Denis) comprises nearly all the companies active
least two meetings a year are held. proposed to the delegates that we attend in the import of LNG or in the operation
These are a General Assembly of all a parade of the guards at Blenheim of LNG import terminals. By region,
members, in which all decisions of Palace …. in the pouring rain. Sir Denis 32 of the members are from Asia, 32
statutory importance are taken and spoke perfect English but with such from Europe and 10 from the Americas,
plenary discussions are held, and an a pure Oxford accent that our French including North and Latin America.
Executive Committee meeting attended and Japanese interpreters had difficulty It is a non-profit organisation
by a selection of member companies in understanding him. Away from the and its resources only come from the
representing the three regions in which formal meeting proceedings, however, Sir membership fees. The association
the industry operates, namely Europe, Denis spoke much more ‘plainly’, with constitutes a forum for the exchange
the Americas and Asia. The Executive acid comments about, for example, the of experience among its members,
Committee receives an update on the privatisation plans that UK prime minister with the goal of enhancing the safety,
activities of the association and prepares Margaret Thatcher had for British Gas. reliability and efficiency of LNG import
proposals to be voted on by the AGM.” “While the American delegates activities. J-YR
BV
CCS
KR
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
2018
2017
Matson’s 2 LNG fuelled
Crowley’s 2 ConRo vessels
container vessel will enter
will join TOTE’s container
into operation.
vessels on the U.S. – Puerto
Rico trade.
Important events
www.dnvgl.com
LNG FUELLED
SHIPS IN LNG fuelled ships
OPERATION
1,000
AIS plot of operation
2013 January to April 2014. 900
The world's first bunker
vessel SeaGas enters into
operation fuelling the
800
RoPax Viking Grace.
700
600
500
400
2013
Fjordline takes delivery of
Stavangerfjord, the world’s
first ship with pure gas
engines not deployed
in domestic trade.
300
2014
Searoad orders a LNG 200
fuelled RoRo vessel,
becoming the first ship
to operate with LNG in
Australia in 2016. 160
140
LNG Ready ships
2013 120
UASC demonstrates that
LNG fuel is also an option 100
for mega container vessels
and orders 17 LNG Ready
vessels to DNV GL class. 80
Ships on order
60
40
20
Ships in operation
0
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2020
I
n the early 1970s the Inter- societies agreeing to work together, of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk,
governmental Maritime Consultative under the auspices of the International known as the GC Code. Governments
Organization (IMCO, the earlier Association of Classification Societies were recommended to incorporate its
name for IMO) was preparing an (IACS), to help prepare universally agreed provisions, which covered new ships
international code covering the code chapters on cargo containment, cargo built from 1976 onwards, into their
construction and equipment of ships handling and materials of construction. national regulations as soon as possible.
carrying chemicals in bulk. The nascent The societies had done the early work To cover ships already in service
gas shipping community, aware of the in developing gas carrier design and another instrument, the Code for Existing
need for a similar set of harmonised construction criteria and in helping those Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk,
provisions for gas carriers, began to make bold shipowners launching pioneering known as the Existing Ship Code, was
representations to IMCO. projects. It was essential for IMCO and introduced within a year of the first code.
Up until that point shipowners and its efforts to develop a harmonised code While mirroring the initial document in
shipbuilders had relied on classification to have the societies onside and speaking many respects, the new code recognised
society rules to guide their design with a common voice. that there were areas where it would be
and construction work. The US Coast The Organization’s work was also neither easy nor cost-effective to bring
Guard (USCG) was a national maritime supported by industry associations existing ships into compliance with the
administration that also played a key role and technical bodies and their input provisions for new ships.
in laying down standards for gas ships. was coordinated through the maritime The international regime governing
Before a gas carrier could enter a US port, administrations of certain IMCO gas carrier construction and equipment
it had to undergo a rigorous inspection member states. For example, the has been updated over the years. The
by USCG staff and be issued with a Letter membership of a new USCG group that GC Code was a voluntary instrument
of Compliance. Like the class societies, was to eventually become the Chemical but in 1983 the provisions for new ships
the technical branch of the Coast Guard Transportation Advisory Committee were made mandatory with the adoption
was struggling to keep pace with the rich (CTAC) included a vast range of by IMO, the name for IMCO since 1982,
variety of ship and containment system organisations, not least the American of what was in effect a new code. The
designs being introduced into the vibrant Gas Association (AGA) and the Society provisions of the International Code for
new gas carrier market. of Naval Architects and Marine the Construction and Equipment of Ships
IMCO, too, realised there was a need Engineers (SNAME). The International Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk, popularly
for a unified approach and in September Chamber of Shipping (ICS) and the UK known as the International Gas Carrier
1971 the first meeting was held of a Ship Chamber of Shipping channelled their Code, or IGC Code for short, govern
Design Sub-committee ad hoc working contributions to the IMCO deliberations vessels whose keel was laid on or after 30
group tasked with defining the general via the UK Department of Trade. June 1986.
format and scope of the proposed gas Drafting work on the code was Over the two decades following its
code, including the type of ships to be completed and a text agreed at an adoption the IGC Code was amended
covered. The working group, under the October 1974 meeting of the ad hoc several times. However, during the
chairmanship of the USCG’s Bob Lakey, working group. This set the scene first decade of the new millennium the
continued its deliberations for four years, for the adoption, at IMCO’s Ninth pace of change in gas carrier design
until 1975. Assembly in November 1975, of the and equipment accelerated. Shipboard
Progress was facilitated by the class Code for the Construction and Equipment reliquefaction and regasification of LNG
www.bs-shipmanagement.com
the safety regime|LNG Shipping at 50
in partnership
been jointly covered by both SIGTTO
and GIIGNL include:
• Gathering of LNG industry data
• Ship/shore compatibility
• LNG terminal and ship security
The LNG import terminal ship/shore interface is where • LNG quality, weathering and quality
the interests of the SIGTTO and GIIGNL memberships adjustment
come together and prompt wide-ranging cooperation • Small-scale LNG
• Specificity of the LNG industry
• Guidance for the use of the Panama
Canal.
T
he nature of the objectives and For several decades after the birth of A major joint project is the LNG
the memberships of the Society the industry there was little variation at terminal information web portal. This
of International Gas Tanker and such ship/shore interfaces. Conventional- project was commenced in 2004 after a
Terminal Operators (SIGTTO) and size LNG carriers would shuttle between series of meetings. The initial objective
the International Group of Liquefied dedicated terminals under long-term was to establish a common location for
Natural Gas Importers (GIIGNL) contracts. Ship and terminal staff LNG terminal compatibility information.
means that the two organisations share involved with a particular project became This was later expanded to include
considerable areas of mutual interest. very familiar with each other. LNG ship information. The portal is
This alignment also means that SIGTTO In more recent years, however, great extensively used today and can be seen
and GIIGNL regularly work together changes have occurred in the industry at http://lngwebinfo.org. The website is
on projects and initiatives of common and these changes have introduced new jointly funded by both organisations and
interest to their memberships. dimensions to operations at the ship/ both sets of members contribute towards
Both SIGTTO and GIIGNL were shore interface. Quite aside from the inputting the information contained
established in the 1970s as non-profit rapid rise in short-term and spot cargo within it.
organisations. Both bodies have grown movements, the LNGC fleet now contains GIIGNL sits on SIGTTO’s General
in tandem with the industry, and the mega gas carriers as large as 266,000m3 Purposes Committee (GPC) and each
rapid pace of change over the past and coastal tankers as small as 1,100m3. organisation has nominated members to
decade has ensured that the areas of Import terminals are now gearing up sit on those working groups established
mutual interest and cooperation are to handle a much wider range of LNG by its opposite number that are
greater than ever before. carrier sizes as well as a new generation considering issues of mutual relevance.
SIGTTO was established in 1979 to of LNG bunker vessels. Another type of Both SIGTTO and GIIGNL are part
promote liquefied gas shipping and import terminal becoming increasingly of the Protocol of International LNG
terminal operations which are safe, prevalent is the floating storage and bodies, which is an agreement between
environmentally responsible and reliable. regasification unit (FSRU), and such international gas organisations on
GIIGNL, which held its first meeting facilities often require the use of ship- cooperation and information sharing. This
in 1971, was formed to enhance the to-ship transfers of LNG from visiting group last met in Geneva in April 2014.
safety, reliability and efficiency of LNG delivery tankers. This LNG Shipping at 50 magazine is
import activities, and in the operation The good relationship that SIGTTO the latest example of cooperation between
of LNG import terminals in particular. and GIIGNL have enjoyed over the the two organisations. SIGTTO and
It is at the ship/shore interface, when years has strengthened in response to GIIGNL are pleased to be joint sponsors of
an LNG carrier is at an import terminal the expansion and diversification of the a publication they hope will be enjoyed by
delivering cargo, that the interests of the LNG industry. The two bodies meet on not only both their memberships but also
two associations overlap. regular occasions and exchange views the LNG industry at large. AC/J-YR
Class underpins
LNGC safety record
Although class society rules are empirical, in the early
days of LNG carrier design there was no experience
on which the required standards could be based The register of ABS-classed gas carriers
encompasses all the LNG carrier
containment systems in service today
B
ack in the 1950s, when new LNG certificates for gas ships trading in significant progress in understanding
carrier design proposals were Japanese waters. the techniques required to transport
being considered, a face-to- In 1970 the Italian Ministry of LNG by sea. These advances were made
face, roundtable discussion between Merchant Marine published provisional possible as a result of the pioneering
designers, the shipbuilder and the rules for the carriage of liquefied gases LNG research work in the US and an
classification society’s technical staff in bulk in Italian waters. Ships were extensive study by British Gas on the
was a common occurrence. In the early required to have a fitness certificate from feasibility of transporting LNG from
years class societies were in a fortunate the Italian maritime authority. Existing Venezuela to Britain.
position in that submissions of plans for ships could generally comply with the On 26 January 1962, as the society’s
approval were being made from various Italian rules but a requirement that did Notice No 2182 indicates, LRS added
sources. They were able to discern catch some out was the need for lightning a new Section 70 to its Chapter D Steel
whether any patterns of consistency in conductors or suitable lightning copper Ships rulebook. Section 70 laid down
LNGC design were emerging. nails to be fitted at the vent masts tops. provisional requirements for the carriage
Early class society work on rule Back in 1930 some small research of liquefied petroleum and natural gases
development was augmented by the projects had been undertaken in the US at or near atmospheric pressure.
efforts of government agencies in some and the UK on uninsulated pressure In March of the same year a paper
of the importing countries. The Italian vessel tanks used on ships for the entitled The Carriage of Liquefied Petroleum
Ministry of Merchant Marine, the carriage of butane and propane. Both the and Natural Gases by principal surveyor
Japanese Ministry of Transport and the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) and J B Davies was presented to the Lloyd’s
US Coast Guard (USCG) had each drawn Lloyd’s Register of Shipping (LRS) were Register Staff Association in London.
up their own operational requirements. involved in assessing these new ideas. The Association had been established
The USCG published tentative LRS followed up this work by classing to advance and disseminate within LRS
standards in August 1959 for the the first purpose-built LPG carrier, Agnita. knowledge of current shipbuilding and
transport of liquefied flammable gases at The vessel was delivered to Anglo-Saxon marine engineering problems and issues.
atmospheric pressure. In 1965 the Coast Petroleum, a Shell affiliate, in 1934 Appendix II of the Davies paper
Guard’s exacting Letter of Compliance from the Hebburn yard of Tyneside contained an example of calculating
programme was initiated. The Japanese shipbuilder Hawthorn Leslie. methane tank scantlings, complete with
Ministry of Transport required fitness During the 1950s ABS and LRS made formulae for acceleration, and dynamic
and static loading. Despite the stated
restriction of this information to LRS
members and technical staff, the paper
was widely circulated and used, with
biblical reverence, by naval architects to
determine cargo tank scantlings.
In the period 1954-56, during the early
phases of the development of the Methane
Pioneer project, the USCG was assisted by
an industrial advisory group. Established
within the framework of the American
Petroleum Institute (API), the group
contributed to the drafting of preliminary
regulations for cryogenic tank vessels.
ABS participated in this activity and
contributed to the formation of some of
the basic principles of LNGC design.
At the time, ABS rules had
requirements for refrigerated cargo
The feedback of surveyors has been an essential element in the development of installations for ships carrying
class society rulebooks for gas carriers refrigerated foodstuffs. However, these
H
owever tentative it may have
been in its earliest days,
LNG transportation took
hold quickly and went on to become
a great success – both technically and
commercially. LNG offered a clean and
attractive alternative to gas derived from
coal gasification or naphtha reforming
and to other hydrocarbon fuels.
The investment in liquefaction plant and
shipping enabled companies to cash in on to be given top priority. A measure of the Early LNG carriers were steam
gas assets that were otherwise stranded or success of the LNG shipping industry’s turbine-driven vessels of relatively
flared. This became increasingly important ongoing commitment to minimising risks small size, in the 25,500–75,000m3
as environmental concerns developed and is the exemplary safety record achieved range. The relatively high cargo
oil reserves became scarcer. over the past 50 years. tank surface-to-volume ratio and the
The pioneering exports from If asked what makes the LNG insulation technology at the time meant
Algeria, Libya and Alaska were soon business unique and why a quality there was a comparatively high cargo
joined by those from Brunei, Abu training regime is so important, there boil-off gas rate to deal with. In order to
Dhabi and Indonesia and within the is no need to look beyond the ships avoid wasting this valuable product, it
short span of 10 years the global LNG themselves. From the birth of the was used as propulsion system fuel in
trades had developed into the pattern industry LNG carriers have always been the ship’s boilers. Because ship service
we recognise today. regarded as rather special. They are, speeds were usually chosen to match fuel
The subsequent expansion of in effect, a ‘floating pipeline’, linking availability, this led to service speeds that
these trades was more evolution than gas exporters and importers where no were higher than the average for the time.
revolution. The industry favoured pipeline alternative exists. Of course, most of the LNG carriers
established commercial practices, Also, given the very nature of the ordered today are dual-fuel motor
proven liquefaction plant technology trade – which is closely linked to the ships and managing these propulsion
and reliable ship designs. Ship size fuel requirements of public utilities – the systems requires a completely different
increased only marginally over the first reliability of LNG deliveries has always set of engine room skills. At the same
quarter of a century, in tandem with been of paramount importance. The need time, steam ships still account for the
discreet rises in LNG production plant to provide a continuous, seamless flow largest part of the fleet, so the industry’s
capacity. The conservative approach and to keep the supply chain functioning retention of a body of engine room staff
was understandable, as the industry according to tight contractual terms is one familiar with the operation of steam
gained familiarity with what is a of the key differences between LNG ships turbines is essential.
challenging cargo and accommodated a and most other liquefied gas carriers. Given the international nature of the
relatively slow buildup in trade in the The highly engineered systems and shipping industry, it is perhaps surprising
1970s and 1980s. equipment needed to contain and handle to note that IMO’s first set of provisions
LNG presents certain risks when large volumes of valuable, cryogenic aimed at standardising maritime training
carried as a cargo in significant volumes. cargo make LNGCs expensive ships. In worldwide was not introduced until
Its vapours are flammable and its the early days it was possible to build 1978. However, for gas carrier operators
cryogenic carriage temperature of seven (single-hull) very large crude this Standards of Training, Certification
–162˚C requires special precautions. The carriers (VLCCs) for the price of a single and Watchkeeping (STCW) Convention
shipping industry realised early on that if LNGC. The high cost of entry ensures proved to be an excellent example of
LNG was to gain and maintain a place in that the LNG domain is open only to the joined-up thinking.
the global energy mix, safety would have committed shipowner. The ‘Lakey Group’ had just completed
T
he vetting of LNG carriers has the external condition of a ship and the the fleet in general and some of the
not become an integral element standard of operations onboard, they are pioneering vessels in particular, is
of the operation of such vessels not structural surveys and do not cover the structural condition of ships. The
until relatively recently. In the early days inspections of internal or void spaces. earliest ships have been put through
LNG ships would be engaged on long- The SIRE system has been taken up life extension refurbishments at around
term projects shuttling cargoes between by the LNG shipping community as an 20 years of age to provide them with
dedicated terminals, and charterers important vetting tool. Amongst other another long lease of life. As part of
would be extremely familiar with the things, the use of SIRE as a centralised these rigorous life extension projects,
ships they employed and their general system helps reduce the number of the class society overseeing the work
condition and performance. ship inspections required and eases the will provide the vessel with a Condition
In the late 1990s, however, spot burden on ship crews. Assessment Programme (CAP) rating.
cargoes and short-term contracts began But SIRE inspections are only one More and more vetting departments
to feature in the LNG trades, and vessels part of any vetting programme. The are requiring a CAP rating of at least
began to call at terminals they had not vetting team will also make use of a certain minimum standard before
previously visited. In the circumstances relevant vessel information arising vessels of a certain age, type or size
charterers, buyers, terminal operators from classification society records, port will be considered for employment.
and sellers needed to assure themselves state inspections, flag administration Although age is not necessarily an
that the condition, operation and data, casualty records and the previous indicator of ship quality, its structural
ownership of any third party vessel they operational performance of not only the condition needs to be taken into account
were considering making use of was up ship itself but also other vessels in the in the vetting process.
to an acceptable standard. same fleet. The third key element in the LNG
For guidance the LNG industry On a par with the condition carrier vetting process, besides the
turned to the oil tanker, chemical tanker of a vessel and the state of its assessments of the quality of a ship and
and LPG carrier sectors, where short- operation is the standard of the its suitability for the intended use, is the
term trading and spot voyage fixing was vessel’s management. On the vetting question of ship/shore compatibility.
prevalent and where a sophisticated department’s agenda will be a review Factors that need to be considered are
ship vetting regime was in place. of the management systems that the compliance with local and national
Companies involved in those sectors shipowner or operator has in place. regulations; ship dimensions versus any
were acutely aware of the perils that Such reviews are carried out to terminal limitations; cargo-handling
attached to the employment of a tanker assess the operational and technical and mooring equipment; security
or LPG carrier subsequently found to be competency of the company behind the arrangements; waterway restrictions;
substandard. If such a vessel was to be vessel in question. and weather conditions. Furthermore
involved in an accident that jeopardised Another vetting consideration that terminal feedback can be utilised in ship
lives, property and/or the marine has increased in importance in recent vetting assessments and the process can
environment, their reputations could be years, in tandem with the ageing of be reciprocal. MC
irretrievably damaged. They established
vetting departments whose sole purpose SIRE inspections cover the operational
was to assess the quality of ships and standards in play onboard a ship as
their management. This data could then well as its external condition
be measured against their own in-house
acceptance criteria to determine if a
candidate ship should be selected.
In 1993 the Oil Companies
International Marine Forum (OCIMF),
the industry body representing users of
tankers, developed the Ship Inspection
Report (SIRE) system as a voluntary,
industry-wide programme to assist
in the vessel vetting process. SIRE is
a very large database of up-to-date
information about tankers, based
on vessel inspections carried out by
independent, third party specialists
qualified and certified to undertake
such work. While SIRE reports cover
LNG terminal the arriving LNG carrier operate receiving terminals. The Milford the four Costa Azul tugs. The winches
will be joined by four tugs in the outer Haven complement comprises four are able to achieve the constant tension
port approaches. One of the quartet will RAstar 3400 tugs, each with an 80-tonne requirement in sea conditions with wave
be tethered to the stern of the gas ship BP, a 90-tonne BP RAstar 3600 tug and a heights of up to 3m.
and this vessel will be able to exert a 105-tonne BP RAstar 3900 vessel. In common with many sectors of the
braking or steering force in case of an The most notable difference between shipping industry, the drive to reduce fuel
emergency such as the LNGC losing typical harbour operations and those consumption and harmful atmospheric
power while en route. The escort tugs at offshore/exposed terminal locations emissions is also impacting the tug
must be able to maintain a speed that is in the type of deck machinery, market, for both harbour and offshore
enables the gas carrier to continue at its particularly the design of the main applications. The load profile of an
port approach speed of up to 10–12 knots. hawser winches. While there are a few offshore terminal tug, with more extended
Two principal escort tug design tugs in harbour operations which have use of higher power levels, can place such
concepts have been developed. The first winches with a degree of ‘render/ vessels in a more favourable position as
is the high-performance, ‘skeg-forward’ recover’ capability, it is essential regards early recovery of investments in
Voith tug while the second is the to have this attribute in offshore hybrid or similar power configurations.
azimuthing stern drive (ASD), or Z-drive, applications. This is because wave- Over the past year the LNG power
escort tug with indirect towing capability. induced loads in the towline can easily option has made a breakthrough in the
Following a rapid evolution in design, exceed typical line breaking strengths, escort tug sector. Buksér og Berging of
modern ASD tugs are able to generate even with large margins in safe Norway has recently put two LNG-
significant indirect steering forces and working loads. fuelled tugs, Borgøy and Bokn, into
thus provide a performance which is A rather extreme example of this service at the Kårstø gas terminal on the
directly comparable to that of a Voith tug. render/recover capability can be found country’s southwestern coast. Built by the
The latest ASD tugs make use of hull on the tugs developed for operation at Sanmar yard in Turkey, the vessels are
forms that are much improved on those the Costa Azul LNG terminal on Mexico’s on charter to Statoil and in service at a
of the early tugs of this type and they Pacific Coast. The tugs are operated by terminal that handles a larger volume of
are also fitted with large ‘escort skegs’. Servicios Marítimos de Baja California of LPG and ethane tanker shipping than any
These design features, combined with Mexico, a joint venture between Moran other port in Europe. Each of the pair is
a better understanding of the physics Towing and the Boluda group. powered by two Rolls-Royce Bergen lean-
of escort operations, have proven that a Because the terminal is located burn gas engines fuelled solely by LNG.
properly designed ASD tug can fulfil all on a lee shore in an area exposed to China State Shipbuilding’s Huangpu
the requirements of a ‘true’ escort tug. Pacific swells, the owner’s specification yard is also building two LNG-fuelled
One naval architect firm that has demanded that each tug and its winch escort tugs, each powered by twin
devoted considerable effort to developing must be able to sustain a constant Wärtsilä 34DF dual-fuel engines. The
a range of effective ASD escort tug line pull of 75 tonnes throughout the duo have been constructed for the state-
designs is Robert Allan Ltd of Vancouver entire terminal approach in a 2m-plus owned China National Offshore Oil
on Canada’s west coast. As part of the significant swell. Markey Machinery of Corp (CNOOC) and for operation at
process, the company developed its own Seattle, Washington designed the 520kW, the new Zhuhai LNG import terminal
model testing programme, the initial double-drum winch with Asymmetric on the western flank of the Pearl River
focus being aimed solely at evaluating Render/Recover™ capability fitted on Delta. MC
the hull characteristics that achieved the
highest indirect forces. The Robert Allan The SAFETUG research yielded a
research evaluated tug performance as a new set of tools enabling the design
function of a range of design parameters, of tugs tailored to the demands of
each specific operating area
including basic hull geometry and
proportions, sloped hull sides, sponsoned
hull sides, skeg geometries and positions
and tow-point position.
The company’s investigations into
optimised escort tug hull forms resulted
in the development of the company’s
RAstar class vessels. This series now
includes tugs from 27 to 39m in length,
with bollard pulls (BPs) ranging
from 70 to 120 tonnes. These designs
have proven successful in numerous
offshore/exposed terminal applications,
particularly at LNG terminals.
For example, there are four RAstar
3600 tugs in operation for Smit Lamnalco
at the Balhaf export terminal of Yemen
LNG, each with a BP of 90 tonnes, while
Svitzer has six RAstar tugs in service at
Milford Haven in South Wales, where
Dragon LNG and South Hook LNG both
safety-first focus
Since the early days of LNG
transportation, there have been many
changes to the industry. LNG vessel size
has increased considerably, especially
since the start of the new millennium.
The LNG shipping industry has built up an exemplary Whereas the average cargo-carrying
safety record over its 50-year history, and those few capacity of a conventional LNG carrier
incidents that do occur provide valuable lessons was 125,000m3 up to the mid-1990s, it
has been moving steadily upwards since
then and such newbuildings now fall in
the 160,000–175,000m3 size range.
I
n the 50 years since they loaded their remarkable safety record is the fact that The LNG carrier fleet also includes
first commercial shipment, LNG the International Gas Carrier (IGC) 31 Q-flex ships of 216,000m3 and 14
carriers have safely delivered over Code was developed based on actual Q-max vessels of 266,000m3. These gas
77,000 cargoes. These consignments experiences in the early days of LNG carriers were ordered a decade ago to
all reached their destinations with no transport and our industry’s ability help Qatar realise economy-of-scale
breach of a cargo containment system to share lessons learnt and to develop benefits in shipping its cargoes to world
and with no onboard fatalities directly universally accepted best practices. markets. They remain by far the largest
attributable to the cargo. This is a very Credit also needs to be given to the LNG carriers trading today.
impressive, in fact unprecedented, pioneers who contributed first to the Fleet growth has also picked up a
safety record for the carriage of liquid development of design standards and head of steam over the past decade. The
hydrocarbons by sea in bulk. operating procedures during the early number of LNG carriers in the current
This exemplary safety record is days of liquefied gas shipping and fleet reached the 400-ship milestone in
due to several reasons. These include, then to the development of the IGC April 2014. With over 125 such vessels
but are not limited to, a strong, Code, with its safety margins and safe on order, the 500-ship mark is due to
overarching safety philosophy; robust design provisions. They played a key be attained in late 2016. The industry’s
equipment and systems design; role in laying the foundation stones on record of achievement in terms of fleet
good operational and maintenance which the industry’s excellent safety growth is made all the more notable by
procedures; operating in excess of the performance has been built. the fact that it was not until 1997 that
minimum requirements and according The pioneering cargo of LNG was the LNG carrier fleet reached the 100-
to best practice guidelines; and high carried across the Atlantic Ocean by the ship landmark.
standards of training coupled with 5,000m3 Methane Pioneer at the start of a LNG carriers are also amongst the
competency verification. series of trial shipments in 1959. By 1964 most durable of all ships. Several have
Amongst other factors that have the first purpose-built LNG carriers, the successfully traded up to and beyond
contributed to LNG shipping’s 27,400m3 Methane Princess and Methane their 40th year. In 2013 approximately
10 per cent of the LNG carrier fleet
Valuable lessons have been learned from those cargo-handling equipment was in excess of 30 years of age. Due
incidents that have occurred at the ship/shore interface to the industry’s requirement for a safe
and reliable performance, rigorous
maintenance routines and good
housekeeping practices are given top
priority on these high-value vessels.
Some older vessels have been
converted into floating storage
and regasification units (FSRUs), a
modification which effectively gives the
vessel a new lease of life. In addition
a contract has recently been signed
under which a 1975-built LNGC will
be converted into a floating LNG
production (FLNG) vessel. As a result
of FSRU and FLNG conversions, it will
not be long before some LNG ships go
beyond 50 years of active service.
In the delivery of 77,000 cargoes
some minor incidents and near misses
have occurred within the overall fleet.
The Society of International Gas Tanker
and Terminal Operators (SIGTTO)
maintains a highly detailed database
of incidents which have taken place
Expected
London
2 protected berths 5th Floor, Berkeley Square House
2018
3 LNG storage tanks, 160,000 m3 each (~10 Bcfe total) Berkeley Square
3 liquefaction trains, ~13.5 mtpa total London W1J 6BY +44 (0) 203 214 2700
I
n the early 1960s Sheikh Zayad Bin
Sultan Al Nahyan, president of the
United Arab Emirates and ruler of
Abu Dhabi, and Sheikh Khalifa Bin
Zayad Al Nahyan, the Abu Dhabi
crown prince, decided that something
needed to be done to halt the wasteful
flaring of the associated gas that
came with the country’s rising oil Three ships were built to service with four to be built in Japan and four
production. They issued directives the Abu Dhabi project, all owned by in Finland. The newbuildings were to
which called for the valuable gas to be Gotaas-Larsen Shipping. Hilli was replace the older ships on the route.
captured and marketed. delivered by Moss Rosenberg Værft of The four 137,500m3 ships built
The leadership’s aspirations were Stavanger, Norway, in December 1975 in Japan were designed with five
fulfilled on 29 April 1977, when while sisterships Gimi and Khannur Moss spherical cargo tanks, and the
the 125,000m3 Hilli departed Das followed in June and July 1976, construction was shared between
Island with the country’s inaugural respectively. Each vessel sported six three yards. As the lead yard, Mitsui
LNG cargo, bound for Japan. Hilli Moss spherical cargo tanks. Engineering and Shipbuilding in Chiba
successfully discharged the shipment at The trio was joined by a fourth built the first and third ships, Al Khaznah
the Sodegaura import terminal in Tokyo vessel, the 1973-built, 88,000m3, and Ghasha. Kawasaki Heavy Industries
Bay on 14 May 1977. The LNG project spherical tank Norman Lady, which was in Sakaide constructed Shahamah, the
helped bring the flaring of associated owned by a Buries Markes/Leif Höegh second ship, while the final ship, Ish,
gas to an end. joint venture. The fleet was chartered to was completed by the Nagasaki yard of
Das Island is a small piece of land Liquid Gas Shipping Company (LGSC), Mitsubishi Heavy Industries. Al Khaznah
in the Gulf, 160km northwest of Abu a firm that had been established to loaded its first cargo at Das Island in
Dhabi City, and its LNG plant is the handle the carriage of Abu Dhabi LNG August 1994.
first to be built in the Middle East. to Japan under a 20-year contract. LGSC The Finnish quartet were built at the
Covering only 2.5km2 in the late itself was a joint venture, comprising new Kvaerner Masa-Yards shipbuilding
1960s, the island’s footprint has been BP, Compagnie Française des Pétroles facility in Turku. Each 135,000m3 in
augmented with further tranches of (CFP), Mitsui and Bridgestone capacity, they were the first LNGCs to
reclaimed land over the years, parts Liquefied Gas. be built in Finland and amongst the first
of which have enabled the expansion In 1980 another Gotaas-Larsen to incorporate a four Moss spherical
of the liquefaction facilities and LNG vessel of the Moss spherical tank type, cargo tank arrangement. The first pair,
storage capacity. the 126,000m3 Golar Freeze, joined Mubaraz and Mraweh, were delivered in
In 1972 Abu Dhabi National Oil the original quartet under a 15-year January and June 1996, while the final
Company (ADNOC) finalised a sales charter. Golar Freeze was completed at two, Al Hamra and Umm Al Ashtan, were
and purchase agreement (SPA) with Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft in Kiel, completed in January and May 1997.
Tokyo Electric Power Company Germany, in February 1977. The eight newest ships are managed
(TEPCO) covering the delivery of 2 In October 1990 ADNOC and TEPCO by Abu Dhabi’s National Gas Shipping
million tonnes per annum (mta) of LNG signed another SPA under which Company (NGSCO).
and 800,000 tonnes per annum (tpa) of ADGAS would double its production All 13 ships that have been and are
LPG for 20 years. The following year and the Japanese would purchase the being used on the Das Island to Tokyo
Abu Dhabi Gas Liquefaction Company additional LNG cargoes for a further 25 Bay run to serve the ADNOC/TEPCO
(ADGAS) was established to own and years, from 1994. At this point ADGAS agreements have had Moss spherical
operate the Das Island LNG plant. The placed a contract for the construction of tanks. Furthermore they have fulfilled
participants in this joint venture company a third liquefaction train on Das Island as all their delivery obligations admirably,
are ADNOC, Mitsui, BP and Total. well as orders for eight new LNG carriers, without any major interruptions. SH
I
ndonesia despatched its first LNG Shipbuilding (MES) handed over Senshu that year the three-tank ship was
cargo, from the Bontang plant in East Maru and Wakaba Maru. delivered by KHI’s Sakaide yard to
Kalimantan to the Senboku 2 terminal The ships were owned by various MCGC International in fulfilment of a
in Japan for Osaka Gas, in August 1977. consortia of Japanese companies, supply contract signed by Pertamina
This shipment, onboard LNG Aquarius, all of whom were to become major and MOL on behalf of several small
was made only five and one-half years players in the carriage of Japanese Japanese gas companies. Surya Aki
after the discovery of gas in the nearby LNG imports during the years that transported LNG from Bontang to the
Badak gas field. The country’s second followed. Ownership of the vessels Hatsukaichi terminal for Hiroshima Gas,
LNG plant, at Arun in northern Sumatra, was shared between Japan Line, K to Kagoshima for Nippon Gas and to
opened for business in October 1978, Line, Mitsui OSK Lines (MOL), NYK, Senboku for Osaka Gas.
again with an inaugural cargo to Japan. Showa Line and YS Line. Two new In their heyday Bontang’s eight
Pertamina, the Indonesian state oil operating companies were formed liquefaction trains and Arun’s six
and gas company, had signed long- to serve each of the Indonesian provided Indonesia with a clear lead at
term gas sale and purchase agreements terminals; Badak LNG Transport had the top of the LNG exporters league table.
with Japanese electricity and gas three ships in its fleet and Arun LNG However, dwindling gas supplies have
utility companies in December 1973 Transport four. meant that output at both facilities has
to initiate the country’s involvement The new phase of the Indonesia- been on the decline over the past decade.
with LNG. Four new import terminals Japan trade began in August 1983 when Although a third LNG export terminal, at
were built in Japan for this new trade. Bishu Maru delivered a cargo from the Tangguh, was brought onstream in 2009
The Senboku 2 terminal served Osaka Bontang terminal to Chita for Chubu and two medium-scale liquefaction plants
Gas and Kansai Electric, Chita was Electric Power. In the following month are now under construction in Sulawesi,
for Chubu Electric and Tobata was for Echigo Maru loaded its first cargo at the this new capacity does not match the
Kyushu Electric, while Nippon Steel Arun plant for delivery to Niigata on extent to which output from Bontang and
and Kansai Electric made use of the behalf of Tohoku Electric Power. Arun has been shrinking.
new Himeji facility. Pertamina and Korea Gas Corp Ironically LNG is poised to play
Pertamina and Burmah Gas Transport (Kogas) signed an LNG supply contract an even greater role in the country’s
signed a 20-year transport contract for in 1983. Upon completion of Korea’s energy mix in the years ahead. Several
this trade in September 1973, following first import terminal, at Pyeong Taek, LNG receiving terminals are being
which Burmah placed an order for Kogas began importing LNG from built to enable the delivery of gas to the
seven 125,000m3 LNG carriers at the Indonesia in 1986. The inaugural Korean archipelago’s diverse population and
General Dynamics Quincy shipyard in cargo arrived onboard the 129,000m3, industrial centres. One of the receiving
Massachusetts. The ships, known as the Moss spherical tank Golar Spirit. terminals is Arun, which is being
LNG Aquarius series after the lead vessel, Completed by KHI in September 1981, reconfigured to enable cargo discharges.
had five Moss spherical cargo tanks each. the ship was the first LNG carrier to be While cargoes to date have been sourced
LNG Aquarius was the first purpose-built built in Japan. from the country’s own LNG terminals,
LNGC to be delivered from a US yard. In March 1987 Pertamina and Indonesia is currently negotiating its
All seven ships were US-manned and Chinese Petroleum Corp (CPC) signed first supplies of imported LNG. SH
flagged and were operated by Energy an LNG supply contract covering
Transportation Corp. the delivery of 1.5 million tonnes per
In 1981 Pertamina and the Japanese annum (mta) of Indonesian LNG to CPC
utilities signed an extension to the 1973 and Taiwan Power for 20 years from
supply contract. This spurred orders 1990. To fulfil this contract a 137,000m3
for seven additional Moss LNGCs of LNGC was ordered at MHI in Japan.
125,000m3 at three Japanese shipyards. Ekaputra was delivered in January 1990
The ships were delivered between to Cometco Shipping, a joint venture
August 1983 and April 1985 and were between Mitsui OSK and Indonesia’s PT
the first Japanese-flag LNGCs. Kawasaki Humpuss Group.
Heavy Industries (KHI) built Bishu Maru The smallest LNGC built with Moss
and Kotawaka Maru. Mitsubishi Heavy spherical cargo tanks, the 19,100m3
Industries (MHI) completed the trio of Surya Aki, opened up a new trade LNG Aquarius got the ball rolling for
Banshu Maru, Echigo Maru and Dewa from Indonesia to smaller receiving Indonesia on its path to the top of
Maru, while Mitsui Engineering and terminals in Japan in 1996. In February the LNG exporters league table
Linde AG
Engineering Division, Dr.-Carl-von-Linde-Strasse 6–14, 82049 Pullach, Germany
Phone +49.89.7445-0, Fax +49.89.7445-4928, natural-gas-plants@linde-le.com, www.linde-engineering.com
the middle years|LNG Shipping at 50
Tenaga Empat and Tenaga Satu, two of the earliest LNG carriers built for MISC,
are now on station at the Malacca import terminal as floating storage units
In 2003, 20 years and seven liquefaction trains after the first such unit came
onstream at Bintulu, Malaysia became the world’s second largest LNG exporter
W
hen Malaysia’s first for a new three-train plant at the Bintulu ships are engaged in the carriage of
liquefaction train came complex. Termed MLNG 2, this project Bintulu cargoes under direct charters
onstream at Bintulu in the state came onstream in 1995. The process with Petronas, the shipowner has been
of Sarawak in 1983, it was only the ninth was replicated once again and the diversifying its range of activities and
LNG export plant to be commissioned. two-train MLNG 3 project at Bintulu client base over the past decade. One of
It was also the third such facility on the was commissioned in 2003, the year the new customers is Asean LNG Trading
island of Borneo, joining Brunei’s Lumut Malaysia moved past Algeria to become Co Ltd (ALTCO), a company established
and Indonesia’s Bontang terminals. the second biggest LNG exporter in the in 2003 by Petronas to secure the shipping
As with the Lumut project, Shell as world. The new production units and necessary as it develops its own portfolio
well as Japanese buyers and financial debottlenecking of the existing trains have of LNG activities outside Malaysia.
institutions played key roles in bringing boosted total export capacity at Bintulu to Expansion work is not finished
LNG to Malaysia. The energy major had 25.7 mta. The complex boasts six 65,000m3 at Bintulu. Petronas has recently
discovered substantial reserves of gas in storage tanks and one of 120,000m3. sanctioned the construction of a ninth
fields off the coast of Sarawak in the late The MISC LNG carrier fleet grew in liquefaction train at the site. When
1960s but a decade was to go by before tandem with the country’s production commissioned in the first quarter of
steps were taken to exploit this wealth. capacity. The delivery of the 157,600m3 2016, Train 9 will boost LNG production
In 1978 Tokyo Gas and Tokyo Electric Seri Balqis in March 2009 by Mitsubishi capacity at Bintulu to 29.3 mta. Of
Power Co (Tepco) initialled purchase Heavy Industries completed the most liquefaction complexes worldwide, only
contracts covering the output from the recent phase of MISC’s fleet buildup. Ras Laffan in Qatar, with 14 trains now
planned Malaysia LNG (MLNG) scheme. MISC now has an LNGC fleet of 29 in place, has a larger LNG output.
MLNG was to be a three-train facility vessels, two of which were recently Amongst the various LNG projects
with a total production capacity of 6 removed from seagoing service for with which Petronas is involved are
million tonnes per annum (mta) of LNG. conversion to floating storage units two floating production (FLNG) vessels
Under the terms of the sales (FSUs). The pair are now positioned at the currently under construction in Korea.
agreements, Malaysia would have control Malacca jetty-based regasification facility, At the moment, the first FLNG vessel
of the shipping element and would playing a key role in the operation of is yet to enter service and Petronas is
deliver cargoes to Japan on an ex-ship Malaysia’s first LNG import terminal. behind two of the five such vessels
basis. Nominated to own and operate the MISC is a subsidiary of Petronas, the under construction or being converted.
required vessels, Malaysia International Malaysian state oil and gas company and On delivery in 2015 and 2018, the
Shipping Corp (MISC) ordered five the majority shareholder and operator two Petronas FLNG vessels will be
130,000m3 GTT No 88 membrane tank of MLNG, MLNG 2 and MLNG 3. The positioned in Malaysian coastal waters
LNG carriers at two French shipyards. shipowner provides Petronas with the offshore Sarawak and Sabah to enable
The newbuildings were delivered in 1981 transport capacity and flexibility to ensure the development of marginal-size gas
and 1982 and the MLNG plant loaded its a secure and reliable supply of Bintulu fields. The commissioning of the two
first cargo in January 1983. LNG to its full range of contracted buyers. FLNG projects will boost Malaysia’s
More gas was found, as were buyers, Although the majority of the MISC production capacity to 32 mta. MC
comes up trumps
leading LNG import nation by 1989, and
69 per cent of the LNG moved by sea
that year was discharged at Japanese
receiving terminals. LNG imports met
about 10 per cent of the country’s total
The North West Shelf project, Australia’s first LNG energy requirements in 1989.
scheme, is celebrating its 25th anniversary this year Today the NWS venture remains
and setting a fine example for the country’s many Australia’s largest hydrocarbons project.
Over the past 20 years the original three
new schemes trains were debottlenecked and two
further trains were added at the plant,
boosting the total capacity to 16.3 mta.
T
he big event in the world of LNG in to be provided with only four cargo The modular construction techniques
1989 was the start-up of Australia’s tanks. All previous ships built with used with Train 5 represent a first for
North West Shelf (NWS) liquefaction Moss spheres were designed with five, the LNG industry. The project also uses
plant, the world’s 10th baseload LNG or occasionally six, such tanks. pipeline deliveries to meet 65 per cent of
export facility. The inaugural cargo The cargo tank arrangement gave Western Australia’s gas supply needs.
departed the new Withnell Bay terminal, the NWS vessels a greater beam – The expansion work has included
on the Burrup Peninsula near Karratha, 47.2m – than any LNG carrier yet built. the provision of a second jetty, and cargo
1,500 km north of Perth, on 28 July. The ships’ aluminium cargo tanks are loadings have climbed to the 200 per
The first cargo was entrusted to the almost 40m in diameter. The four cargo annum mark. Exports are now also
125,000m3 Northwest Sanderling, a ship tank configuration made the ships shipped to long-term customers in China
which Mitsubishi had delivered six cheaper to build and repair and easier and Korea as well as to buyers around
months ahead of schedule. The US$9.36 to operate than a five-tank tank ship. the world on an occasional, spot basis.
billion, two-train NWS project itself was The same month that Northwest The original 20-year contract that
commissioned two months earlier than Sanderling departed with the inaugural the NWS project had with the eight
originally planned. Sales of LNG from cargo, the NWS project partners ordered Japanese utilities expired in March
the new Woodside-operated plant, to the final two of the seven 125,000m3 2009. Rather than continue with a
eight Japanese utilities for a period of ships needed to service the project. similar arrangement, it was left to each
20 years, were due to climb to their peak Contracted at the Mitsui and Mitsubishi individual utility to renegotiate its own
level of 6 million tonnes per annum shipyards, each of the ships cost US$200 follow-up sales contact. The original
(mta) by 1993 when a third NWS train million. The NWS project ship scheduling Japanese buyers adopted a more flexible
was due for completion. called for each LNG carrier to make 14 approach during these contract renewal
Northwest Sanderling carried the voyages per year, for a fleet total of 100 talks and most finalised medium-term
inaugural cargo to the Sodegaura voyages per year when all seven vessels agreements, of 10-12 years duration. In
terminal in Tokyo Bay, some 7,000km were in service from 1993 onwards. addition, because several renewals are
and 11 days distant, on behalf of Tokyo The phased start-up of the NWS on a free-on-board (FOB) rather than an
Gas and Tokyo Electric. The series of project did little to add to global LNG ex-ship basis, the Japanese utilities are
spherical tank ships that were built to trade levels in 1989 itself. As a result, playing a greater role in arranging the
transport LNG from Withnell Bay to worldwide movements increased only shipping requirements than was the case
Japan were the first vessels of this type marginally during the year, to top in the past. MC
The NWS project’s Karratha terminal is despatching cargoes to customers in Asia at the rate of four per week
Spain was the biggest buyer of the output from Nigeria’s first two trains
The Atlantic Basin LNG trades enjoyed a rebirth in 1999, with the commissioning of
the first new liquefaction plants in the region in 25 years
A
s the 20th century drew to a the commencement of operations at only purchase 60 per cent of the Atlantic LNG
close the LNG industry was the second LNG liquefaction plant in the Train 1 output, while Enagas of Spain
rubbing the sleep out of its western hemisphere. North America’s had secured the remaining 40 per cent.
eyes and about to embark upon a first LNG export terminal, at Kenai in The commissioning of the Trinidad
decade of unprecedented growth. Asia Alaska, had come onstream 30 years plant, coupled with an increase in
was putting behind it the economic earlier, in 1969. demand for natural gas in the US,
crisis of the late 1990s that had The new US$1 billion, one-train, particularly for power generation,
temporarily slowed its strong forward 3 million tonnes per annum (mta) LNG and an increase in US natural gas
progress and the first new Atlantic liquefaction plant at Point Fortin in prices, prompted renewed interest in
Basin liquefaction trains in 25 years southwestern Trinidad, known as the LNG in that country. Decisions were
were about to be commissioned. Atlantic LNG project, still represents made to reactivate two mothballed US
In 1999 the global trade in LNG the largest, single investment in the LNG receiving terminals, Elba Island
reached 90.8 million tonnes (mt), Caribbean. It was also the first new, eventually returning to service in 2001
8.4 per cent ahead of the previous year. baseload LNG project in the Atlantic and Cove Point in 2003.
The Asian market, namely imports by Basin in 25 years. With the loading of The increasing demand for natural
Japan, Korea and Taiwan, accounted the Matthew cargo, Trinidad became the gas and the availability of adequate gas
for 76 per cent of the world total. world’s 10th LNG export nation. reserves around the coast of Trinidad
Indonesia was the leading exporter, with The inaugural Point Fortin cargo had already ensured that Atlantic LNG
shipments of 28.3 mt, then Algeria with represented the culmination of a six- would not be a single-train operation.
18.8 mt, Malaysia 14.9 mt, Australia year programme in which adequate Even before Train 1 was commissioned,
7.1 mt, Brunei 6.1 mt, Qatar 4.9 mt and gas reserves were proven; innovative engineering studies had been completed
Abu Dhabi 4.7 mt. contracting mechanisms were employed for two further 3 mta trains at Point
The LNG trade surge in 1999 was in finalising gas purchase agreements; a Fortin and sale and purchase agreements
abetted by the commissioning of six greenfield LNG export plant was built; (SPAs) finalised for their output.
new production trains. Three of the and shipping arrangements secured. Spain had agreed to buy 3.75 mta
units were built for two new Atlantic The then existing LNG projects had of the additional Trinidad LNG and
Basin export projects. The first of the taken, on average, twice that long to contracts had been put out to tender
pair opened in Trinidad in July. When bring to fruition. Cabot LNG of the US, for four 138,000m3 LNG carriers to
the 125,000m3 Matthew loaded the the operator of the Everett terminal and serve this trade. Deliveries were to
first cargo, for shipment to the Everett a company which had recently been begin in the first quarter of 2002.
receiving terminal in Boston, it marked acquired by Tractebel, was contracted to Under the terms of a second SPA,
S
uperlatives are required to produce an aggregate 77 mta, three times commencing in 1999, and later exercised
describe every aspect of Qatar’s more than Malaysia, its next nearest rival an option to purchase an additional
involvement with LNG. The at the top of the LNG exporters league. 2.4 mta, beginning in the year 2000.
country possesses the largest single The port has been operating at, or close The RasGas 1 complex was to feature
concentration of gas yet discovered, to, capacity in recent years, despatching two 3.3 mta liquefaction trains and two
the North Dome field, and has built approximately 1,000 LNG cargoes per 140,000m3 LNG storage tanks at the port
the world’s biggest LNG export annum to customers worldwide. to service the initial contract levels.
complex, at Ras Laffan, to bring that The Gulf emirate’s LNG adventure The RasGas 1 project is a 70/30
gas to world markets. began in December 1996 when the joint venture between Qatar General
The cargoes are transported by 135,000m3 LNG carrier Al Zubarah loaded Petroleum Co and Mobil. The Mobil
Nakilat, owner and operator of the Ras Laffan’s first export cargo. Al Zubarah share was to become an ExxonMobil
world’s largest fleet of LNG carriers. is the lead tanker of a 10-ship fleet of share when the two energy majors
Furthermore that fleet features 31 Q-flex spherical tank vessels built to deliver merged in 1999. ExxonMobil is also
ships of 216,000m3 and 14 Q-max ships 6 mta of Qatari LNG to Japan over a one of the shareholders in the Qatargas
of 266,000m3, the only LNGCs over contracted period of 25 years. Delivered 1 scheme and was to hold stakes in
200,000m3 in size. by Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding, several subsequent Ras Laffan LNG
Amongst the 14 liquefaction units Al Zubarah was the 49th LNG carrier to export projects mounted by Qatargas
operating at Ras Laffan on behalf of be built to the Kvaerner Moss spherical and RasGas. Qatar Petroleum possesses
Qatargas and RasGas, the country’s two tank design out of a world fleet of 90 a controlling share in all the Qatargas
LNG exporters, are six Super Trains, each such ships in service at the time. and RasGas LNG export projects.
able to produce 7.8 million tonnes per Chubu Electric signed up for the The shipping arrangements for the
annum (mta) of LNG. This is the highest full output but 2 mta of the total was RasGas 1 project were to be similar
capacity of any such production facility purchased on behalf of seven other to those for Qatargas 1 in that they
in the industry. Ras Laffan is able to Japanese utility companies. Although would be the responsibility of the gas
purchaser. In August 1996 orders were project did emerge. In March 2001 a third export nation and LNG revenues would
placed, against Kogas charters, for six Qatari LNG company – RasGas 2 – was exceed those from oil for the first time.
135,000m3 LNG carriers at four Korean established to supply 7.5 mta of LNG to The Adriatic LNG project also marked
shipyards: Hyundai Heavy Industries the Indian utility Petronet for 25 years, the first in which Qatar was to secure
(HHI) was to build two ships for commencing in late 2003. RasGas 2 built control of the full supply chain, including
Hyundai Merchant Marine; Daewoo two LNG production trains, each of making deliveries ex-ship. In addition to
Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering 4.7 mta, at Ras Laffan to meet the needs its majority shareholding in the receiving
(DSME) one ship for Korea Line and of this new agreement. At the time, the terminal, RasGas made arrangements
one for Yukong Line; Hanjin Heavy Petronet deal was the world’s largest to charter four LNGC newbuildings to
Industries one ship for Hanjin Shipping; LNG sale with a single customer, while transport cargoes to Italy.
and Samsung Heavy Industries (SHI) the two RasGas 2 trains were to be the Qatar Gas Transport Co Ltd (QGTC),
the final vessel for Yukong Line. world’s largest, at least for a short period. or Nakilat, was established as a joint
The Hyundai ships were built with Even then there were no plans stock company in 2004 by the state of
Moss spherical tanks while the four other to ease back. Qatargas was pressing Qatar to provide shipping and marine-
ships sported membrane tanks of either ahead with a proposal to add a related services, including in the
the Technigaz or Gaz Transport type. fourth liquefaction train and boost its transport of the country’s gas exports.
All the vessels were constructed for the production capacity to 9.2 mta by 2003. Nakilat took an ownership interest in
then-competitive price of approximately In April 2001 Qatargas announced a one- the four Adriatic LNG ships as well
US$220 million each and were delivered off deal with Spain for the sale of up to as five further conventional size LNG
over the 1998-2000 period. These RasGas 1.5 mt of LNG, and a few months later carriers built for other Ras Laffan export
1 vessels were the first LNG carriers to be RasGas signed a sales agreement with projects. Amongst the marine services
built in Korean yards. A seventh Korean- Italy calling for the supply of 3.5 mta of provided by Nakilat, in tandem with
built and operated ship was later ordered LNG for 25 years to a new offshore LNG foreign partners, are a harbour towing
to meet the transport needs of the full receiving facility in the North Adriatic, and mooring operation and a ship repair
4.8 mta Kogas contract. beginning in 2005. yard at Ras Laffan.
The RasGas 1/Kogas agreement was The latter arrangement represented Of the 45 Q-flex and Q-max ships
inaugurated on schedule in August 1999 the first long-term LNG sales contract mentioned above, 25 are wholly owned
when the 135,000m3 SK Summit loaded signed between a Middle East supplier by Nakilat and 20 are part-owned. The
the first of 1,900 cargoes scheduled for and a European importer. The Adriatic three Korean yards of DSME, HHI and
delivery to the Korean utility over the LNG terminal was an offshore gravity- SHI recorded a remarkable shipbuilding
25-year life of the scheme. based structure, the industry’s first achievement by delivering the full
In those early days Qatar was also such facility, and Qatar Petroleum and complement of Q-flex and Q-max
negotiating a possible LNG export deal Exxon Mobil were to become the major vessels within the space of 34 months,
with Enron, the self-styled “world’s shareholders in the venture. between October 2007 and August 2010.
first gas major”. Enron was seeking to By 2000 LNG shipments to overseas The 45 LNG carriers were constructed
purchase 5 mta for the Dabhol power customers of Qatargas and RasGas had at a cost of US$12.5 billion and three
plant it was building in India. However, climbed to 10.4 mt. Within the space of societies – ABS, DNV and LR – were
Enron was already running into trouble four years Qatar had become the fourth involved in classing the fleet. The 19
with the Maharashtra state government largest LNG exporter in the world DSME-built ships have GTT No 96
over energy pricing, and the LNG and was achieving annual gas sales membrane tanks while the eight vessels
terminal adjacent to the power plant revenues of US$2.5 billion. This was constructed by HHI and 18 by SHI have
was not completed at that time. Enron only an initial step in the growth curve, GTT Mark III membrane tanks.
filed for bankruptcy in late 2001, the however. The country was targeting The Q-flex and Q-max ships, which
biggest collapse in US corporate history. production levels of 30 mta by 2007, at are all chartered by either Qatargas or
It was not long before an Indian LNG which point it would be the top LNG RasGas, have enabled Qatar to achieve
The possibility of converting Q-flex and Q-max ships to dual-fuel running on a fleetwide basis is under review
improved economies of scale in the provided with two reliquefaction plants fleet. At the busiest time of the newbuild
delivery of LNG to its customers. The to provide a full measure of redundancy. project Qatargas Operating Co had 150
four Qatargas and two RasGas Super Because the reliquefaction plants are people on its payroll.
Trains in place at Ras Laffan have computer-controlled when in service Qatargas Operating Co believed that
also contributed to this capability. rather than operated manually, additional one of the key advantages of providing
These facilities have built Ras Laffan’s redundancy is provided through back- high-capacity reliquefaction plants for
production capacity to today’s level of up monitoring and control systems. For the Q-flex and Q-max vessels was that
77 mta from 14 trains. emergencies, to dispose of excess gas if it disentangled the issue of cargo tank
The technical management of the the full cargo reliquefaction capability is pressures from the ship’s fuel cycle.
25 Q-flex and Q-max ships fully owned down, each vessel is provided with a gas Nevertheless fuel is the major cost item for
by Nakilat is the responsibility of Shell combustion unit (GCU). Qatargas and RasGas, as charterers of the
International Trading and Shipping All the Q-flex and Q-max ships are vessels. Oil bunkers are now expensive
Company (STASCO). Under the master built with five cargo tanks, in contrast to relative to natural gas, to the extent that
services agreement signed by Nakilat the four tanks on conventional size LNG conversion of the existing MAN engines
and Shell, STASCO is assisting the Qatari carriers. As many of the conventional on the Q-flex and Q-max ships to dual-
owner in managing its LNG carrier fleet size LNG ships now being ordered fuel running is being considered.
and recruiting and training seafarers. are of 170,000m3 and above, there is In 2015, as a test case, the two engines
Further, the partnership agreement calls not much difference in cargo-carrying on one of the Q-max vessels will be
for Nakilat to assume full responsibility capacity between an individual cargo converted in a project likely to require
for the management of the fleet within a tank on one of these ships and one on 40 days in drydock to complete and
timeframe of 8-12-years. a Q-flex vessel. Amongst other things, an expenditure of US$15-20 million.
The Q-flex and Q-max vessels were the five-tank arrangement reduces the The results of this trial will determine
designed and ordered when oil prices risk of cargo sloshing damage. The whether the conversion of the whole or a
were low and those for gas high. The longitudinal strength of the big LNG further part of the 45-ship fleet is feasible.
situation resulted in a ship design which carriers is such that the ships are capable In the meantime most new
is unique for LNG carriers, i.e. a pair of of handling any combination of full or LNG receiving terminals coming
conventional, oil-burning, low-speed empty cargo tanks. onstream worldwide are designed to
diesel engines for each vessel in tandem As is the case with several of the accommodate ships of up to the Q-max
with a powerful reliquefaction plant liquefaction projects at Ras Laffan, the size and many existing facilities not
which processes cargo boil-off gas and key principals behind the development previously sized for such vessels have
returns it to the tanks as LNG. of the designs for the Q-flex and Q-max now been suitably modified. In recent
Hamworthy provided the ships were ExxonMobil and Qatar years one-third of all LNG moving by
reliquefaction plants for the Q-flex ships Petroleum. The pair established the sea originated in Qatar and in 2013
and Cryostar those for the Q-max vessels. Qatargas Operating Company Ltd to shipments from Ras Laffan reached
It was decided at the design stage oversee the design and supervise the 25 of the world’s 29 LNG-importing
that each of the large ships had to be construction of the Q-flex and Q-max countries. MC
Perhaps the greatest proof of our commitment to our partners is Sembawang Shipyard is indeed proud to be the world's leading
the unfailing consistency with which we deliver results. We are shipyard for LNG vessels' repairs, refurbishment & life extension.
I
n 2000 El Paso Corporation began could proceed to the export terminal to Excelerate Energy and Exmar went
to explore the novel concept of load cargo itself or even serve in the LNG on to develop a strong relationship
shipboard LNG regasification. trades until that time its regasification over the past decade and to record
Known US gas reserves were dwindling services were required. many regasification vessel ‘firsts’ in
at the same time that domestic In 2002 El Paso agreed to take on the process. Excelerate now has a fleet
consumption was rising and LNG long-term charter three 138,000m3 of nine DSME-built regas ships, the
imports were recognised as the best way regasification vessels that Exmar of latest being the 173,400m3 Experience,
of bridging any future gaps between Belgium would order at Daewoo delivered in April 2014. The other
supply and demand. Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering components of the fleet are the original
El Paso’s theory was that an offshore (DSME) in Korea. The vessels, which three 138,000m3 ships and five vessels of
offloading system could be designed were priced at approximately US$270 151,000m3. All are managed by Exmar,
and built at far less cost than a shore- million each, would be owned and both the Belgian shipowner and
based facility and that, by delivering and operated by Exmar. Advanced Excelerate hold 50 per cent stakes in
the product offshore in its gaseous Production and Loading AS (APL) of four of the regas ships. Excelerate fully
state using a regasification vessel, Norway was contracted to provide the owns the remaining five.
expensive shore-based facilities could be STL buoy required for the Gulf Gateway The Gulf Gateway facility was
eliminated from the transport equation. Energy Bridge deepwater port facility. inaugurated in March 2005 with the
A regas vessel-based receiving facility At about this time El Paso Corp had delivery of a part cargo from the
would also enable LNG imports to begin need to raise cash and it was decided 138,000m3 Excelsior, the industry’s first
more quickly than would be the case if a that the Energy Bridge technology regas vessel. All that had been needed to
new shore terminal had to be built. would be one of the assets put up bring the port onstream, besides the STL
The company chose the Gulf of for sale. Although one or two majors buoy, were some short lengths of pipe to
Mexico for its initial installation, considered the offering, they decided a metering station installed on a nearby
selecting a site 180km off the US Gulf to pass. unused platform and to the existing gas
Coast at the Louisiana/Texas border as It was at this point that George pipeline network in the US Gulf. Gulf
the location of a deepwater port named Kaiser, an Oklahoma billionaire who Gateway proved its resilience later in
Gulf Gateway Energy Bridge. The ‘port’ had a strong belief in a bright future the year when Hurricane Katrina passed
itself would be invisible except for a for natural gas in the US, stepped in to through the Gulf and the facility was the
small marker buoy fixed to a submerged buy the technology and take over the only terminal in the area that remained
turret loading (STL) buoy, itself linked
to a subsea pipeline via umbilicals. A Italy’s FSRU Toscana project has
similar technology had been utilised extended the offshore regasification
for handling oil cargoes offshore in the technology envelope
North Sea for a decade.
On arrival at the sea marker the
regasification vessel would pull up the
STL buoy and connect it to a moonpool
arrangement in its bow. Regasification
units mounted on the ship would then
begin to process the LNG and pump the
resultant natural gas to the shore grid
via the subsea pipeline link.
The regas vessel would be supplied
by LNG delivery tankers, and cargoes
would be transferred in the open sea in a
ship-to-ship (STS) operation using flexible
cryogenic hoses. Because the regas vessel
would be, to all intents and purposes,
a conventional LNG carrier fitted with
suitable regasification equipment, the ship
Gaz de France Energy, now GDF Suez Global Energy, is the first
LNG carrier to be ordered with a DFDE propulsion system
The blossoming of
de l’Atlantique in February 2002 while
orders for two 153,500m3 sisters, Provalys
and Gaselys, were placed with the same
LNGC propulsion
yard in September 2003 and July 2004,
respectively. Complications with the
innovative membrane containment
system also specified for the three vessels
delayed their delivery but they were all
Until a decade ago requirements are another attribute. in service by March 2007.
Steam turbines are also able to Gaz de France was in a good position
there was no serious handle any excess cargo boil-off gas by to pioneer DFDE propulsion because
alternative to steam means of dumping surplus steam to the of the company’s control of the supply
turbines for LNGC seawater-cooled condenser in the engine chains on which the vessels would
room. This capability means that low operate. The three ships loaded cargoes
propulsion. Today
propulsion system loads pose no undue at export plants where GDF Suez had
shipowners have four problems. It also obviates the need for contracted supplies and delivered them
viable options available expensive ancillary equipment such as to company-owned receiving terminals
reliquefaction plants and gas combustion in France.
units (GCUs). Nevertheless, despite the ‘in-house’
L
NG carriers have been the last However, just over a decade ago, on nature of the employment, it was still a
redoubt of the marine steam turbine the verge of a major new growth phase courageous move for an industry that was
industry. Until the early years of for the LNG industry, Gaz de France notoriously conservative. Gaz de France
the new millennium every LNG carrier (now GDF Suez) took the brave step of had been impressed by the performance
newbuilding was specified with a steam choosing a new LNGC propulsion system. of Wärtsilä’s 50DF dual-fuel test engine
turbine propulsion system. While all The LNG industry was pushing to cut and decided that, given the level of
other sectors of commercial shipping had costs and improve efficiencies along the reliability and redundancy provided
long since been seduced by the greater transport chain in order to improve the by the propulsion system, its improved
propulsive efficiencies of diesel engines, economics of gas projects. Ship propulsion efficiency compared to steam turbines
LNG owners had stuck with steam had been identified as an area of potential would yield significant cost savings over
turbines for several reasons, most notably savings, and investigative work on the life of the vessels.
their dual-fuel capabilities. alternatives to steam turbines on LNG GDF Suez Global Energy was specified
Cargo boil-off gas (BOG) generated ships had been intensifying. with four six-cylinder Wärtsilä 50DF dual-
during the course of an LNG carrier Through its Gazocéan shipowning fuel engines which provide an aggregate
voyage can be burned in a steam subsidiary, Gaz de France ordered the power of 22.8MW and a service speed of
vessel’s boilers as readily as fuel oil to first three LNGCs to be powered by 17.5 knots. In normal operating conditions
generate steam. In addition turbines dual-fuel diesel-electric propulsion natural BOG is complemented, when
have proved to be extremely reliable (DFDE) systems. The newbuilding required, by forced BOG for use as fuel.
throughout the history of LNG carrier contract for the 74,130m3 GDF Suez The engines can run on marine diesel oil
operations. Their low maintenance Global Energy was placed with Chantiers in situations where no gas is available.
Nine out of the 10 ships in the Dynagas fleet are ice class 1A vessels
T
he stakes are formidable for sharing ownership stakes in individual were Exmar, Maersk, Knutsen OAS and
shipowners in the LNG sector. ships and vessel management amongst Bergesen, now BW Gas.
Newbuilding costs set the the vast pool of vessels they operate As described in the article on
bar high for entry into the business on behalf of a range of Japanese utility page 92, Exmar carved out a niche
and the lack of a long-term charter companies is well established. The in the regasification vessel sector in
exposes the newcomer to the vagaries expertise of the Japanese trio is also tandem with Excelerate Energy. BW Gas,
of the market and, potentially, if no now much sought after internationally, Knutsen OAS and Maersk built up their
immediate business is forthcoming, a to the extent that they participate in fleets through newbuildings backed by
rapid drawdown of available funds and a number of LNG shipping ventures long-term charters. In the case of BW
financier goodwill. On the other side outside Japan, both singly and in Gas the employment for their vessels
of the coin, if a lucrative term contract various combinations. was provided by Nigeria LNG and
can be secured, the shipowner could be A decade ago the rather limited GDF Suez while Knutsen operated its
assured of a steady revenue stream not LNGC owner community was newbuildings on behalf of Stream in
likely to be encountered in many other completed by a handful of independent Spain. RasGas of Qatar was the charterer
sectors of shipping. owners, including Golar and Leif of Maersk’s first LNG carriers.
In the early days of the LNG Höegh, with a long involvement in The expansion of the LNG trades in
industry national shipping lines in the LNG transport. Their presence was the first decade of the new millennium
export countries became involved with relatively marginal, reflecting the slow was so great that there was room for
the transport of their cargoes as soon pace at which the LNG industry had yet more new players. The second wave
as they were able, usually making use been expanding up to that point and the can be summed up as the late arrival of
of the LNG carrier expertise of one of limited room to manoeuvre due to the Teekay and the emergence of the Greeks.
their international oil company project presence of national shipping interests. Teekay, a significant presence in
partners in the drive to get up to the The new millennium brought with the oil tanker and offshore sectors,
necessary speed. it the first sustained wave of growth in announced that it was seeking to
In the two top LNG importing the LNG sector, both in terms of new become involved in LNG shipping
countries, Japan and Korea, the leading projects and the expansion of the LNGC in late 2003. Within months it had
shipping lines have long played a major fleet. The surge opened up opportunities secured an entrée through the
role in those projects where cargoes are for new owners to become involved acquisition of Tapias, Spain’s leading
purchased on a free-on-board (FOB) and a small group, with experience of tanker company, with its four LNGCs
basis. In Japan in particular, Mitsui LPG carrier and oil tanker operations, and nine Suezmax tankers. This was
OSK Lines, NYK and K Line have built were quick to seize the opportunity. quickly followed by an order for three
a significant presence. Their pattern of Most notable amongst the newcomers 151,700m3 newbuildings at Daewoo
T
he annual compilation of trade, exporting LNG in 2005, Equatorial
fleet and terminal statistics Guinea and Norway in 2007, Russia and
published by the International Yemen in 2009, Peru in 2010 and Angola
Group of Liquefied Natural Gas in 2013. There were 86 liquefaction
Importers (GIIGNL) provides a succinct trains in operation in 17 LNG exporting
yet comprehensive overview of the state countries at the end of 2013. Qatar has
of the LNG industry for that particular the greatest concentration of liquefaction
year as well as a record of the most capacity, with 14 trains able to produce
notable achievements and developments an aggregate 77 million tonnes per
over the 12-month period. Because annum (mta) in place at its Ras Laffan
the organisation has been maintaining complex. Malaysia is in second place,
its log of all LNG carrier voyages and the eight trains at Bintulu being able to
cargo discharges completed each year produce a combined 25.7 mta.
for some considerable time, it is in a The main feature of LNG trade in the
position to look back and trace how the last 10 years has been the tremendous
global LNG trades and infrastructure growth in Asian demand. LNG volumes
have developed and, also, discern shipped to the region have more than
emerging trends. doubled over the period, climbing from
The latest GIIGNL report, The LNG 83 mt in 2003 to 178 mt in 2013. Whereas
Industry in 2013, reports that the world Asia accounted for 66 per cent of global
trade in LNG last year was 236.9 million LNG imports 10 years ago, the region
tonnes (mt). A review of the GIIGNL was the destination for 75 per cent of
reports of 10 and 20 years ago shows global movements of LNG in 2013.
that the comparable figures for 2003 Meanwhile Europe’s share of world
were 125.2 mt while 61 mt was traded LNG purchases declined from 24 per
in 1993. LNG shipments have doubled cent in 2003 to 14 per cent in 2013 while
over each of the last two decades and imports in the Americas remained stable
over the last 20 years international at around 9 per cent. The decrease in US
movements of LNG have grown by imports was offset by rising volumes of
about 7 per cent per year on average. At LNG shipped to South America.
the end of 2013 approximately 10 per In terms of supply sources, the
cent of global demand for gas was met Middle East remained the biggest
by LNG. LNG export region in 2013, with
In recent years the number of shipments of 98.3 mt being equal to a
countries and players involved in the 41.5 per cent market share. The 87.9
LNG trades has increased dramatically. mt exported from the Asia-Pacific
As regards importers, 29 countries region represented 37.1 per cent of total
received LNG in 2013, compared with shipments worldwide.
13 countries in 2003. A total of 104 In 2013 Qatar supplied 33 per cent
LNG receiving terminals, including 15 of all LNG traded worldwide, followed
floating storage and regasification units by Malaysia with an 11 per cent
(FSRUs), were in operation at the end of market share and Australia 10 per cent.
2013, compared with 46 in 2003 and Shipments to the four North East Asia
31 in 1993. import nations of Japan, Korea, China
Delivered in early 2014, the 160,000m3
Cool Runner is helping push up the On the supply side, seven new and Taiwan accounted for 67 per cent of
average ship size in the LNGC fleet countries have joined the ranks of LNG all LNG moved by sea in 2013.
exporters since 2003. Egypt commenced Collating this import and export data
shows that the two major LNG trade Most notable amongst the new Sabine Pass, is under construction and
flows are currently that from the Middle supplies of LNG poised to enter the due to begin loading cargoes in early
East to the Asia-Pacific region and intra- market are seven projects in Australia. 2016. By the end of the decade the US
Asia-Pacific movements. Between them the facilities will be is likely to be the third largest LNG
Switching to the LNG carrier fleet, able to produce an aggregate 65 mta of exporter, behind Australia and Qatar.
at the end of 2013 there were 393 such LNG when at full throttle. All seven are Beyond the emerging Australia and
ships compared with 152 in 2003 and scheduled to be up and running by 2017. US projects, a range of ambitious LNG
76 in 1993. The orderbook as of end- Australia will be followed by the US. export schemes is being developed
2013, at 113 vessels, indicates a surge in The Department of Energy has so far in Canada and East Africa, with
fleet growth over the next three years. granted seven proposed plants approval production startups targeted for the end
The average capacity of an LNG for the export of LNG to countries with of the decade.
carrier has risen progressively over the which the US does not have a free trade As GIIGNL points out, 2013 can
period under review, from 102,000m3 in agreement. The total capacity of these be considered to be a transition year
1993 to 117,000m3 in 2003 and 143,000m3 facilities will be 62.5 mta and the first, for the LNG industry. Although final
in 2013. Of the end-2013 fleet, 91 per
cent of the ships had a capacity above
90,000m3 while 14 per cent were above
170 000m3 in size.
In comparison to the LNG carrier
fleet of 10 years ago, today’s is younger.
At the end of 2013 some 66 per cent
of the ships in the fleet were less than
10 years old. The comparative figure
for the fleet of 10 years ago was 45 per
cent. In terms of containment systems,
68 per cent of the LNG vessels in service
at the end of 2013 were equipped
with a membrane system, versus only
47 per cent in 2003.
The emergence of new importers Singapore was added to the list of LNG import nations in 2013
and exporters over the 50 years of
commercial LNG shipping operations
has created an elaborate matrix of
shipping patterns. At the end of 2013
the world LNG trade involved 168
‘flows’ (country-to-country trades) over
423 sea transportation routes (port-to-
port routes).
Focusing on more recent trade
developments, 2013 was the third
consecutive year of stagnation in global
movements of LNG. In 2012 trade
retreated by 1.9 per cent, to 236.3 mt.
Although 2013 did mark a return
to growth, it was only a marginal
expansion of 0.3 per cent. Of the total
trade in LNG last year, 65 mt, or 27 per One-third of the global trade in LNG is currently loaded at the port of Ras Laffan
cent, was traded on a spot or short-
term basis.
While the demand for LNG is
robust, very little new liquefaction
capacity has been commissioned in
recent years. Shipowners have derived
some benefit from an increase in long-
distance shipments from the Atlantic
Basin to Asia following the March 2011
earthquake, which forced the closure
of Japan’s nuclear reactors. However,
the pace of LNG carrier newbuilding
deliveries has been picking up over the
last 18 months and the fleet is facing
a short period of oversupply, until the
next wave of new LNG liquefaction
capacity starts coming onstream in 2015. FSRUs are the option of choice for a growing proportion of new LNG import terminals
LNG import terminals played a part by Middle East, more specifically Dubai, Italy 4.05 –21.6
continuing with innovative transactions Kuwait and Israel. Israel and Malaysia
in the search for business, including are the two new LNG import nations Netherlands 0.36 –35.4
re-loadings, two-port loadings and of 2013.
Portugal 1.49 –1.6
ship-to-ship transfers. Of the 78 re-load While setting the scene for the
cargoes despatched worldwide in 2013, buoyant times ahead, GIIGNL’s The Spain 9.13 –36.9
Spanish terminals were responsible LNG Industry in 2013 publication also
for 40 and the Zeebrugge facility in looked back to report that since the Turkey 4.40 –21.9
Belgium 20. first commercial LNG delivery in 1964,
UK 6.91 –33.4
As part of the subtle shift in trading over 75,000 cargoes had been delivered
patterns, China and Korea, too, also without loss. That end-2013 total is Europe
33.93 –28.5
(Total)
recorded notable increases in LNG currently being added to at the rate of
import volumes. China has moved up about 340 cargoes per month. J-YR Argentina 4.72 40.4
quickly through the ranks to become the
Brazil 4.15 53.7
world’s third largest LNG importer. LNG EXPORTERS
After commissioning four new Chile 2.61 –5.5
Volume
LNG import terminals over the past
(million Change Dominican
year China has four further receiving 0.84 –9.0
Country tonnes) 2012–13 (%) Rep
facilities under construction, with a Algeria 10.81 –3.5 Mexico 5.67 61.2
combined capacity of 12 mta. Worldwide
there are more than 25 import Angola 0.33 N/A Puerto Rico 1.16 20.3
terminal projects, both newbuilds and Egypt 2.66 –43.9
Canada 0.76 –42.0
expansions, underway. Most, if not all,
should be in service by the end of 2015. Eq Guinea 3.77 4.2
USA 1.90 –38.7
The popularity of floating storage Nigeria 16.47 –15.9 Americas
and regasification units (FSRUs) as a (Total)
21.81 17.1
means of fast-tracking LNG imports at Norway 3.05 –7.8
China 18.60 27.0
comparatively low cost has skyrocketed Trinidad 13.67 1.5
in recent years. Almost one-half the new India 13.05 –1.7
Atlantic
import terminals under construction 50.76 –9.2
Basin (Total)
will utilise FSRUs. Four FSRUs were Indonesia 1.43 98.6
Abu Dhabi 5.08 –10.2
completed in 2013 while three further
Japan 87.98 –0.1
such units were delivered in the first Oman 8.35 2.5
half of 2014. Korea 40.39 9.8
Qatar 78.02 2.1
The LNG carrier fleet completed
3,998 laden voyages last year. Japan’s 26 Yemen 6.82 39.4 Malaysia 1.50 N/A
receiving terminals accounted for 1,532 Middle East
98.28 3.4 Singapore 0.91 N/A
(Total)
LNG INDUSTRY GROWTH OVER Australia 22.41 7.3 Taiwan 1272 0.4
THE PAST 20 YEARS
Brunei 7.01 2.8 Thailand 1.45 41.9
1993 2003 2013
Indonesia 18.36 –3.2 Asia (Total) 178.04 6.5
Liquefaction plants 11 15 26
Malaysia 25.14 6.0 Dubai 1.15 10.0
Receiving terminals 31 46 104
Peru 4.25 10.1 Israel 0.40 N/A
Number of
8 12 17
exporting countries Russia 10.69 –1.6
Kuwait 1.59 –20.4
Number of
9 13 29 Pacific Basin
importing countries 87.86 3.0 Middle East
(Total) 3.14 3.4
(Total)
LNG carriers 76 152 393
World (Total) 236.91 0.3
World (Total) 236.91 0.3
LNG imports
61.0 125.2 236.9 Source: GIIGNL
(million tonnes) Source: GIIGNL
I
t is ironic that the first LNG to be
liquefied for transportation by sea,
as described in the Methane Pioneer
article on page 10, was produced on a
floating barge in the Louisiana bayous
some 55 years ago. The industry has
had to wait for over half a century
since that historic moment but the first capacity of 3.6 mta, PFLNG 1 will be other of its older LNG carriers. The
production of commercial quantities of able to liquefy 1.2 mta. The Malaysian shipowner has not yet finalised a
LNG on a floating vessel is now only a unit is scheduled to commence LNG charter deal for Hilli in its new role
matter of months away. The five projects production in late 2015. but is in negotiations with several
currently underway – comprising four In February 2014 Petronas sanctioned a potential customers.
newbuilding vessels and an LNG carrier second floating LNG project for Malaysian On paper it looks like the Exmar
conversion – bring the LNG industry waters. The PFLNG2 vessel will be built FLRSU will be the first past the finishing
full circle and launch it into a new era. at SHI and have a capacity to produce line. However, the contenders will not
The FLNG conversion project is a late 1.5 mta. It is due to go into service in be claiming a place in the history books
starter, having only been announced in 2018 off the coast of Sabah, where it will until the first cargo from their floater
summer 2014. Which of the four floating process gas from the Rotan field. is transshipped. Experience has shown
LNG production (FLNG) newbuilding The smallest of the four FLNG that it is best not to take anything for
vessels under construction will be the vessels under construction is that granted when new technologies are
first to enter service has been the subject being developed by Exmar for a being applied.
of some speculation. Shell contracted 15-year charter with Pacific Rubiales The five committed FLNG projects
the first LNG ‘floater’ in May 2011, and positioning at Tolú on Colombia’s look set to be the first batch of many
the 488m-long Prelude vessel which Caribbean coast. The non-propelled similar initiatives. Floating production
Samsung Heavy Industries (SHI) is vessel, named FLNG Caribbean is poised to follow in the footsteps
building for positioning off Australia’s and termed a floating liquefaction established by the LNG industry’s
northwestern coast. regasification and storage unit (FLRSU), adoption of the floating storage and
Prelude embraces many was ordered at the Wison yard in China regasification unit (FSRU) concept
groundbreaking technologies and in June 2012 and is scheduled to be over the past decade. Having said
will be the world’s largest floating, providing LNG, at a rate of 0.5 mta, by that, the technologies involved in LNG
man-made structure upon completion. the second quarter of 2015. regasification are much less complex
However, such is the scale of the project The recently announced conversion than those involved in its liquefaction,
that it will not be ready to enter into project involves the fitting of four so FLNG will never match the extent
service until early 2017. modular liquefaction trains on Golar and the pace of the FSRU take-up.
A more modest newbuilding is the LNG’s 1975-built, 125,000m3, spherical Nevertheless the welcome given
300m-long FLNG vessel that Petronas tank LNG carrier Hilli. The work, which by the LNG industry to floating
ordered at Daewoo Shipbuilding and will be carried out at Keppel Shipyard regasification shows how quickly
Marine Engineering (DSME) in early in Singapore, will provide the vessel innovative technologies can be
2012 for what it terms its PFLNG 1 with a liquefaction capacity of 2.2–2.8 adopted and accepted in the modern
project. The scheme calls for the vessel mta. Black & Veatch’s proprietary Prico era. Just as importantly, floating
to be positioned in shallow water about liquefaction technology will be utilised regasification has been quick to prove
180km off the coast of Bintulu in the and the conversion project is due for that major cost savings can accrue
Malaysian state of Sarawak in order to completion in the first quarter of 2017. from offshore solutions. When the
liquefy gas from the Kanowit field. In Golar holds options with Keppel regasification cost element of delivered
contrast to the Prelude LNG production covering similar conversions on two gas via an FSRU comes in at one-third
Coastal LNGCs
carrier fleet that are not fully employed in
the trade. Eight of the ships are designed
as multipurpose gas carriers, with the
ability to carry ethylene and LPG as well
come into their own as LNG. This flexibility has helped the
operators achieve high utilisation rates
for the vessels until that time they are
needed for LNG distribution duties. The
Only a decade old, coastal LNG carriers are poised current strength of the ethylene trades
to help a major extension of the LNG supply chain at has been a boon in this respect.
The largest of the coastal LNG
the small-scale end of the spectrum carriers currently in service, the
15,600m3 Coral Energy, is fully
dedicated to the trade. The vessel was
T
he delivery of the 6,500m3 Coral drawing boards around the world are built by Neptun Werft of Rostock in
Anthelia to Anthony Veder and the filling up with coastal LNGC design Germany, part of the Meyer Group,
2,500m3 Kakayu Maru to Tsurumi concepts. A number of newbuilding for Anthony Veder, and Skangass, the
in 2013 raised the complement of coastal projects have been mooted and several vessel’s long-term charterer, worked
LNG carriers worldwide to 16 vessels. are poised to materialise. closely with the principals in the design
Another four such ships are on order, all All the coastal LNG carriers built of the vessel. The ability to load LNG
building in China and earmarked for gas to date have IMO Type C insulated, at large terminals and deliver cargoes
distribution duties along the country’s pressure vessel cargo tanks fitted to all sizes of terminals by means of a
long coastline. Three of the vessels are horizontally in the vessel. The Type C dual manifold arrangement was a key
in the 28–30,000m3 size range and, on tanks are either cylindrical or bilobe in design consideration.
delivery in 2015, will be the largest shape and stainless steel and aluminium Anthony Veder describes Coral
coastal LNG carriers yet built. have been used as tank materials. Energy as the world’s first direct-drive,
This fleet of small-scale LNG carriers With Type C tanks there is no need dual-fuel, ice-class 1A LNG carrier.
is only a decade old. It has emerged to for the cargo containment system to The ship’s Wärtsilä dual-fuel engine
facilitate the extension of the LNG supply have a secondary barrier. Ship designs is linked directly to the propeller, thus
chain and to bring the benefits of this with alternative containment systems, avoiding the power losses that can arise
clean-burning, competitively priced fuel including GTT membrane tanks, have with diesel-electric drive systems. The
to a much wider range of customers. The been developed but as yet only Type C 1A ice class rating means that the vessel
main market drivers for small-scale LNG tanks have been specified. will be able to function in the Baltic Sea
are the growing use of gas as marine fuel Various types of propulsion system throughout the winter months.
and the need to supply remote residential have been utilised on small-scale Coral Energy has been delivering
communities, power stations and LNG carriers, including dual-fuel cargoes loaded at the Skangass
commercial ventures not connected to the arrangements which enable the use of liquefaction plant in Stavanger’s
pipeline grid. cargo boil-off gas as vessel fuel. When Risavika harbour to receiving
Predicting the size of the coastal LNG dual-fuel plant is specified, back-up terminals at Fredrikstad in Norway
carrier fleet 10 years hence and the pace arrangements, such as a reliquefaction and Nynäshamn in Sweden. Until
at which it will grow pose challenges plant or gas combustion unit, must be the European LNG distribution and
but it is safe to say that the influence in place either to handle excess boil-off bunkering markets get up to speed the
being exerted by the current market gas or for emergencies when there are Risavika plant has spare capacity, and
drivers will continue to strengthen. problems with the propulsion system. Coral Energy has also been facilitating
New delivery routes, terminal facilities, While the new reality of an extended product sales by transporting LNG
bunker depots and fuelling stations are LNG supply chain is getting closer, there offered by Skangass on the spot market.
being developed and naval architects’ are still parts of the existing coastal LNG IM Skaugen operates four LNG
LNG bunkering
projects while the Fluxys LNG import
terminal in the Belgian port of Zeebrugge
and the Gate facility at Rotterdam in the
market beckons
Netherlands are engaged in the provision
of dedicated jetties to enable the loading
of small LNG carriers and bunker
vessels. Both ports, along with Antwerp,
are likely to host their own LNG bunker
The use of LNG as marine fuel is poised to become vessel operation within the next two
an important new market. The extent of the years. Several other European ports are
breakthrough is dependent on many variables embarking on similar initiatives.
Progress with the provision of LNG
bunkering arrangements in the region are
being reinforced by the European Union’s
A
s of 1 May 2014 there were developed LNG bunkering infrastructure commitment to the use of LNG as marine
52 gas-fuelled vessels that are that is supplied by coastal LNG carriers fuel. This commitment takes the form of
not LNG carriers in service and and a fleet of cryogenic road tankers. both the strict environmental legislation
57 such vessels on order. The majority LNG World Shipping published a list it promulgates and the subsidies on
of this 102-ship fleet are either currently showing all the ships in the in-service offer to initiatives that support its Trans-
sailing in emission control areas (ECAs) and on-order fleets as of 1 May 2014. The European Network-Transport (TEN-T)
or will be upon delivery. catalogue of ships on order highlights programme. Measures have also been
The allowable sulphur content of the extent to which the use of LNG introduced to promote the use of LNG to
fuel used by ships sailing in ECAs as marine fuel is spreading out from propel vessels sailing on the Rhine-Main-
will be reduced from 1 to 0.1 per cent Norway. It is not only going global but Danube inland waterway system.
as of 1 January 2015. Not surprisingly also encompassing many more ship types Shell is playing an important role in
this restriction is creating considerable than the cross-fjord ferries and offshore the advances being made in Europe. The
interest in the use of LNG as marine fuel supply vessels (OSVs) that feature energy major has acquired Gasnor, the
in the North and Baltic Seas and North prominently in the current Norwegian Norwegian LNG distribution company,
American coastal waters – the three fleet. As well as car/passenger ferries and is building upon the network already
regions which are currently designated and OSVs, the on-order listing also in place. Shell will be the foundation
ECA zones. includes container ships, roll-on/roll- customer of the new breakbulk LNG
LNG is one of three options available off cargo vessels, gas carriers, product/ facility being built at the Gate import
to shipowners seeking to ensure chemical tankers, car carriers, tugs, a terminal in Rotterdam and is chartering
compliance with the increasingly bulk carrier and an icebreaker. two LNG-powered inland waterway
strict requirements governing ship Norway has provided the ideal tankers currently sailing on the Rhine.
atmospheric pollution. Alternatively springboard for the breakout of LNG Another notable feature of the LNG-
ships can be either switched to running bunkering into other parts of Scandinavia powered ship orderbook is the progress
on low-sulphur marine diesel oil (MDO) and Northern Europe. Sweden, Finland now being made in North America. The
fuel or fitted with an exhaust gas and Denmark are pressing ahead with region’s operators have contracted 19
scrubber to enable the continued use of small-scale terminal and fuelling station LNG-fuelled vessels, comprising 16 for
heavy fuel oil.
All the options have advantages and
disadvantages but it is acknowledged
that the use of LNG entails higher upfront
costs in providing the necessary systems
for a newbuilding than those associated
with the two alternatives. On the other
hand burning LNG ensures compliance
with all existing and likely clean air
regulations and holds the promise of
lower lifecycle costs, due not least to
reduced maintenance costs. That potential
increases with any widening of the gap
between oil and gas prices that may occur.
Most of the existing LNG-fuelled
ships are Norwegian-flag vessels
sailing in Norwegian coastal waters.
The country’s government incentivised
shipowners to opt for LNG as marine
fuel through benefits deriving from a
nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions fund
that was established a decade ago. The A converted Norwegian ferry now working
in Stockholm, Seagas is the world’s first
inducements were backed by the ready
dedicated LNG bunkering vessel
availability of North Sea gas and a rapidly
T
he Arctic Pilot Project (APP) was shipping companies, joined the venture Shipbuilders, consultants, ice specialists
launched to determine if there was to provide technical resources and and equipment manufacturers with
a technically and economically expertise for the shipping segment. The experience in LNG ship construction
feasible way of delivering gas from the shipowners were Federal Commerce flocked to Canada to promote their
Canadian Arctic islands by ship. The and Navigation of Montreal, Upper capabilities. This frenzied competition
shipping component of the scheme was to Lakes Shipping of Toronto and Canada prompted a range of research
comprise two 140,000m3 icebreaking LNG Steamship Lines of Montreal. programmes worldwide in the search
carriers, operating year round. Loading The APP project itself had a for the optimum icebreaking LNG
was to take place at a terminal on Melville precedent. In 1969 Exxon had converted carrier design.
Island’s Bridport Inlet while the delivery its crude oil tanker Manhattan into an Because there were no class or
voyage would be across Lancaster Sound icebreaking vessel to prove the viability regulatory rules in place governing
and between Baffin Island and Greenland of North West Passage transits. More the design and construction of
across Baffin Bay and the Davis Strait out specifically the oil major had sought to LNG carriers for operations in such
into the North Atlantic. evaluate the potential for Arctic tanker a hostile environment, designers
Panarctic Oils of Calgary had operations as a means of exploiting were left to formulate their own
discovered the Drake field, with its Alaska’s North Slope oil field. In the specifications. No LNG ship of the
110 billion m3 of gas, in the Melville event, although the tanker successfully proposed size had yet been built and
Island region in the late 1960s. Although navigated the route, carrying a single, the cargo sloshing phenomenon was
Melville is not considered to be in the token barrel of oil on the return voyage, not understood to anything like the
High Arctic, it does fall within what it was an expensive exercise and a extent it is today.
the Canadian Arctic Shipping Pollution pipeline across Alaska was deemed to be An additional challenge was the
Prevention (ASPP) regulations specify as more economically feasible. choice of material and thickness for
Zone 6. Vessels navigating in this zone The challenge of discovering a sea the low-temperature steels to be used
are required to be able to move unaided route along the North West Passage for the hull ice belts. Another design
through ice 2-2.5m thick during the through the Canadian Arctic has excited consideration was the fact that the
winter months. entrepreneurs and explorers alike for vessels would spend 70 per cent of
APP was initiated by Petro Canada, centuries. The challenge was just as real their time in open water en route to and
as the overall project operator and for the interests behind APP, bearing from the proposed Canadian east coast
manager, in early 1977. Melville in mind the need for a year-round receiving terminal.
Shipping Ltd, a consortium of three solution for large, sophisticated ships. Not surprisingly under the
A 140,000m3, triple-screw vessel with four Moss tanks was one of the Arctic Pilot Project design options
LNG Shipping at 50: The global Ed Carr: I don’t have a figure in mind,
trade in LNG is currently around but it is logical to think that natural
the 240 million tonnes per annum gas will continue to be the fossil fuel Andrew Clifton
(mta) mark. What do you think of choice into the foreseeable future,
the trade level will be in 2029 primarily for power generation lower requirement for BOG as fuel.
(approximately) and why? but also for domestic use such as For floating terminal projects there
heating and cooking, particularly in may be a trend towards greater use
Andrew Clifton: It will probably be emerging markets. The use of gas as a of Moss spheres or self-supporting,
around double that, if not more. Demand petrochemical feedstock is also driving prismatic IMO Type B (SPB) tanks. The
is rising and is likely to continue to do so demand. Indonesia and South America new, enlarged Panama Canal locks will
for environmental, cost and security of are good examples of LNG markets that determine the maximum size for future
supply reasons. The two countries with did not exist 10 years ago. Furthermore LNG vessels – about 175,000m3 for
the largest reserves of natural gas, Russia the threat of geopolitical disruptions membrane tank ships and 160,000m3
and Iran, currently have just one export to pipeline deliveries will prompt for Moss ships for a maximum beam
terminal between them. Once these vast decision makers to put in place LNG of 49m.
reserves come onstream, along with import infrastructure as a hedge against
the export projects planned for the US, supply interruptions. Bill Wayne: No, I think there will be
British Columbia, East Africa, the eastern continual evolutionary development of
Mediterranean, the Arctic and Australia, Chris Clucas: Extrapolation of statistics established systems, mainly for lower
the world’s LNG production profile will from the past 10 years suggests a level BOG rates. There are high entry barriers
look very different to that of today. Of of around 425 mta, or about 80 per cent to completely new containment systems,
course, not all proposed projects will be ahead of the current trade volume. and backing a novel design is regarded
built but those that go ahead will mean a The positive factors include world as being a significant technological risk.
significant boost to world output. population and economic growth, To gain acceptance, a new design must
environmental concerns and plentiful be either significantly cheaper, quicker
Jean-Yves Robin: Global trade could supplies of gas. On the other side of to build or, preferably, both.
be in the 400–425 mta range. This figure the coin are the imponderables. As
is arrived at because export plants the late Malcolm Peebles memorably Ed Carr: I believe that SPB will make
traditionally work at an 85 per cent commented at one Gastech conference, a comeback, now that the JMU yard in
utilisation rate while liquefaction the LNG industry has seen numerous Japan has received several orders for
capacity worldwide could reach the demand forecasts, and the only SPB tank vessels and has been able to
450–500 mta level. consistent factor is that they are always reduce costs by using more automated
wrong! No doubt my comments above welding. The displacement tonnage
Bill Wayne: My guess would be about have just added to the tally. disadvantage of SPB ships has more
400 mta. The drivers are an increasing or less been negated by the fact that
awareness that gas will have a key role LNG Shipping at 50: Do you expect many terminals have upgraded to
to play in a world of low CO2 emissions any breakthroughs in terms of new accept Q-flex and Q-max size vessels. At
and the possibility that significant containment systems over the next 177,000m3, conventional LNG carriers
quantities in the form of LNG could 15 years? with Moss tanks have probably reached
be utilised as marine fuel. It is worth their maximum size, although spherical
noting that the global market for marine Andrew Clifton: The main containment tank vessels of greater capacity could
bunker fuel oil stands at 300 mta. Just a systems in use today are unlikely to be used in offshore applications. I
15 per cent swing, which seems a fairly be easily displaced. They are proven, can’t imagine shipowners or charterers
conservative estimate, would require well-established and have stood taking a chance on a new membrane or
an extra 40 mta of LNG production. the test of time. The drive towards hybrid containment system just to save
Moderating influences on this gas increased efficiency will continue, with the GTT license fee. For that to happen
demand are the traditional issues of high a particular focus on better insulation to there would need to be risk sharing, and
capital cost requirements and perceived ensure lower natural boil-off gas (BOG) we don’t see much of that in today’s
risks in doing business in some countries rates, in tandem with improvements business. Also, a deep-pocketed project
with access to undeveloped reserves. in engine efficiency and the resultant participant willing to take that risk
and small coastal LNG vessels will LNG shipping has achieved needs to
be required in greater numbers. The be protected and maintained; it is, in
extent to which LNG is used as a effect, our license to operate. Increases
marine fuel and the speed of its take- in activity bring increased risks and
up will depend on when IMO’s global these need to be mitigated through
sulphur cap restrictions enter into appropriate control measures, including
force. By 2029 I would expect that a continuing to operate to best practice
substantial worldwide LNG bunkering and not just the minimum requirements.
infrastructure will be largely in place, Existing industry members need to
enabling many deepsea vessels to ensure that new entrants embrace the
bunker with LNG. Small-scale LNG will high standards and practices the LNG
be an integral part of this supply chain. shipping community has operated to
these past 50 years. The industry also
Jean-Yves Robin: Small-scale LNG, needs to continue to invest in training;
primarily for the supply of LNG there is no other solution to the skills
as transportation fuel, could grow shortage. Also, the focus must not be just
rapidly from 2020 onwards, to reach on ship staff. Having sufficient numbers Chris Clucas
around 40 mta by 2029. That would of shore support staff and trainers of the
be equivalent to around 10 per cent appropriate quality is vital too. sector, with many senior people leaving
of the total LNG market at that time. and not being replaced during the
Both environmental (air pollution) and Jean-Yves Robin: There are many quieter parts of the business cycle.
economic drivers (fuel price differentials challenges. These include the This is then followed by a mad panic
and the cost of complying with IMO uncertainty of demand in the Atlantic and wage spiral a couple of years later
restrictions) are the underlying reasons. Basin, a potential breakthrough of when activity picks up. I was extremely
unconventional gas in China and India, fortunate to join the International
Bill Wayne: I think there is quite a lot and competition from large pipelines Chamber of Shipping (ICS) just after
of potential here, particularly for vessels into Asia. However, the major challenge graduating and chance brought me the
trading extensively in emission control within the LNG industry itself is the opportunity to move into liquefied gas.
areas (ECAs). I am less sure of the case increasing cost of new investment It seems to me this sort of opportunity
for ships serving on long-haul, deepsea stemming from factors such as needs to be offered by some of our
trade routes. environmental requirements, shortages industry bodies. It is certainly on my
of qualified personnel, and labour and agenda for SGMF and I have suggested
Ed Carr: The extent to which LNG as material costs. this in the past to SIGTTO. The need
marine fuel is taken up will depend on General market and political exists in the companies that design and
price, supply and the continued spread pressures to keep the level of energy operate LNG plants, that manufacture
of stricter emission control requirements. prices low on the one hand and cost LNG equipment and especially in those
Look for ships operating in current escalations on the other could squeeze that man and operate LNG ships, where
ECAs, namely the Baltic and North Seas margins over extended periods of time. the entire sector faces a recruitment
and North American coastal waters, to gap. Logic would suggest that general
lead the way. They will be followed by Bill Wayne: In an age where society remuneration packages for LNG
vessels on long-haul, fixed routes, like is increasingly suspicious of large should be kept somewhat higher than
large container ships sailing between companies, and recognising that LNG comparable work in, say, oil or coal but
Asia and Europe. projects will, for cost reasons, remain this would probably be impossible in
the preserve of such companies, the companies that work in all sectors.
Chris Clucas: Having recently been challenge of getting society, government
appointed the founder president of the and regulatory support for new projects LNG Shipping at 50: Do you foresee
Society for Gas as Marine Fuel (SGMF), remains significant. To have a chance any other major changes taking
I would say completely! The business of success it is vital that the industry’s place in the LNG industry over the
is already starting to happen and I am reputation for reliability and safety are next 15 years?
sure you will be hearing about orders strongly maintained.
for new LNG bunker delivery tankers Andrew Clifton: More players in
very shortly. Ed Carr: Finding, training and the industry mean more options and
developing adequate human resources increased competition and expectations.
LNG Shipping at 50: What do you to handle the growth. But also The small, closed ‘LNG club’ is now
think is the greatest challenge that continuing a safety culture where no part of history. The percentage of the
the LNG industry will face over accident is acceptable. world’s fleet tied to specific projects is
the next 15 years? What is the best likely to be lower than it is today as the
way to meet this challenge? Chris Clucas: Skills – in all areas, portfolio players use chartered/operated
ashore and at sea. The best way to meet fleets to move their supply around.
Andrew Clifton: I believe it is two this challenge is through training and The way LNG is traded may also move
related issues which SIGTTO has much better harnessing of educated away from the more traditional methods
been dealing with since the Society engineering talent from our colleges of the past. In addition we may see
was formed – manning and safety. and universities. Historically the LNG completely new uses for floating LNG
The remarkable safety record that industry has been a rather ‘start-stop’ such as integral power plants where
+31(0)104004800 / LNG@anthonyveder.com / www.anthonyveder.com
timeline|LNG Shipping at 50
1961
1940 DNV engineer Bo Bengtsson developed concept
Hope Natural Gas built pilot liquefaction plant in of waffled membrane containment system;
West Virginia technology later acquired by Technigaz
1941 1962
First commercial liquefaction plant, a peakshaving France signed a 15-year LNG sales contract with
facility, built in Cleveland, Ohio Algeria
1951
William Wood Prince launched idea of barging October 1964
LNG from Louisiana up Mississippi River to Chicago 27,400 m3 Methane Princess transported first
for use in stockyards commercial LNG cargo, from CAMEL plant in
Arzew, Algeria to Canvey Island, UK
1952
Great London Smog, and its 4,000 directly linked October 1965
fatalities, set North Thames Gas Board on overseas BP discovery of gas in UK sector of North Sea
search for natural gas scuppered Conch plans for Nigeria/UK LNG project
December 1968
1958 Methane Pioneer delivered first US import cargo,
CB&I built flat-bottomed, aluminium LNG storage from Algeria and discharging direct to LNG road
tank at Lake Charles in US tankers in Boston
July 1977
1970 LNG Aquarius, of 125,000m3, loaded first
Libya’s Marsa el Brega terminal opened, Indonesian LNG export cargo, at Bontang for new
despatching cargoes to Italy and Spain in four Senboku 2 terminal of Osaka Gas
41,000m3 LNGCs designed by Esso
March 1978
November 1971 Cove Point receiving terminal commissioned,
Distrigas LNG opened first US import terminal, at launching the El Paso LNG project
Everett, a suburb of Boston
US Natural Gas Policy Act lifted price controls on
domestic natural gas discovered after 1977
December 1971
GIIGNL, with 19 members, held inaugural meeting
September 1978
Elba Island terminal opened, with El Paso Paul
1971 Kayser cargo
Qatar’s North Field discovered; deposit proved to
be world’s largest non-associated gas field
October 1978
Arun, Indonesia’s second export terminal, loaded
November 1972 first cargo
Three-train Skikda plant in Algeria began
producing LNG
May 1979
Insulation faults found on first of three Conch
December 1972 125,000m3 newbuildings at Avondale; trio declared
75,000m3 Gadinia discharged Brunei’s first export constructive total losses
cargo, at the Senboku 1 terminal of Osaka Gas
June 1979
1972 Laden 125,000m3 El Paso Paul Kayser ran aground
Fos Tonkin terminal commissioned in the Straits of Gibraltar at full speed; no breach of
containment system
February 1973
Tokyo Gas commissioned Sodegaura terminal 1979
SIGTTO established in London with 9 founder
Fire during repair of empty LNG peakshaving tank members
on Staten Island, New York dislodged concrete
roof, killing 40 workers
April 1980
El Paso contracts terminated when Algeria and US
November 1973 fell out over gas pricing; Cove Point mothballed in
88,000m3 Norman Lady, first Moss tank LNGC, 1981, Elba Island in 1982
delivered
November 1980
January 1975 Brunei LNG delivered 1,000th cargo, to
La Ciotat completed 120,000m3, Technigaz Mk I Sodegaura terminal
vessel Ben Franklin, first LNGC over 100,000m3
December 1980
1976 Montoir receiving terminal at St Nazaire
IMCO published Code for the construction and commissioned; France’s third import facility
equipment of ships carrying liquefied gases in bulk
1980
January 1977 US adopted comprehensive LNG safety regulations
Abu Dhabi became first Middle East LNG exporter that include ship and terminal exclusion zone
when 125,000m3 Hilli loaded inaugural Das Island requirements
1984
Japan purchased 72% of world’s LNG May 1990
Taiwan received first LNG shipment, from
Indonesia became world No 1 LNG exporter, Indonesia onboard 137,000m3 Ekaputra at new
overtaking Algeria Kaohsiung terminal
May 1986
10,000th LNG cargo loaded, all but 20 on long- May 1993
term contracts MLNG despatched 1,000th cargo
July 1999
May 1995 Atlantic LNG in Trinidad, western hemisphere’s
Three-train MLNG 2 complex at Bintulu second export project, came onstream
commissioned
August 1999
June 1995 RasGas 1, second Qatar export project,
Enron claimed it had achieved its goal of inaugurated
becoming “the world’s first natural gas major”
September 1999
September 1995 Nigeria LNG Train 2 commenced production; Train
Daewoo and Hanjin jointly completed their first 1 came onstream in February 2000
LNGC and first Asian-built membrane ship, the
130,000m3 Hanjin Pyeongtaek
December 1999
Samsung completed 138,200m3 SK Supreme, its
November 1996 first LNGC and largest Technigaz Mark III ship yet
Incheon, Korea’s second import terminal, opened
1996
Japan inaugurated three new terminals, April 2000
Hatsukaichi, Kagoshima and Sodeshi Oman LNG plant opened; Oman is 12th LNG
exporter
Pyeong Taek in Korea became busiest receiving
terminal, overtaking Sodegaura in Japan
July 2000
EcoElectrica terminal in Puerto Rico received first
February 1997 cargo
Methane Princess scrapped
April 2005
March 2003 Shell’s Hazira receiving terminal in India
MLNG Tiga despatched first cargo, to JAPEX inaugurated
July 2005
August 2003 Grain LNG reopened as import terminal, receiving
Cove Point in US received first commercial first UK import cargo in 15 years
LNG cargo in 23 years; it had reopened for
peakshaving operations in 1995 Posco’s Gwangyang import facility, Korea’s
fourth, opened
Bilbao, Spain’s fourth terminal inaugurated
December 2005
October 2003 Qalhat LNG, third Omani train, despatched first cargo
Moss spherical tank 145,000m3 Energy Frontier
became largest LNGC on delivery from Kawasaki
January 2006
Mizushima, Japan’s 26th receiving terminal,
November 2003 opened for business
Sines import terminal in Portugal commissioned;
country is 14th LNG import nation
February 2006
3.5 mta Darwin LNG export terminal loaded first cargo
2003
Devon Energy in US launched shale gas era by
drilling first well combining horizontal drilling and April 2006
hydraulic fracturing technology Dapeng LNG, China’s first import terminal, entered
service
April 2009
May 2007 Excelerate opened Northeast Gateway offshore
First cargo loaded at Equatorial Guinea’s Bioko import facility
Island plant
October 2007
4.3 mta Snøhvit project in Norway loaded June 2009
inaugural cargo 7.5 mta Canaport LNG import terminal came
onstream
October 2008
Samsung delivered Mozah, first Q-max size LNGC October 2009
Fos Cavaou (Fosmax) received first cooldown cargo
April 2011
December 2009 Rudong terminal in China received first
Decision made to proceed with 6.6 mta PNG commissioning cargo
LNG project
May 2011
February 2010 Shell sanctioned Prelude, first floating LNG
CLNG placed industry’s first LNGC order in two production project
years, at Hudong
Exmar and Pacific Rubiales agreed to build
liquefaction barge for Colombia Caribbean coast
May 2010
Mejillones terminal in Chile received first N-KOM yard carried out first LNGC repair job, on
commercial cargo Simaisma
July 2011
October 2010 APLNG partners agreed to proceed with 9 mta
Golden Pass import terminal in Texas received project
inaugural cargo
September 2011
November 2010 Map Ta Phut, Thailand’s first LNG import terminal,
QCLNG partners agreed to proceed with 8.5 commenced commercial operations
mta project
Gate terminal in Rotterdam received first cargo;
making the Netherlands the 26th LNG import nation
December 2010
Golar Freeze, converted to FSRU, commissioned Wheatstone partners agreed to proceed with 8.9
at Dubai mta project
March 2011
Japan hit by magnitude 9.0 earthquake and January 2012
tsunami; country’s nuclear plants closed for safety Inpex and Total sanctioned 8.4 mta Ichthys project
May 2012
Indonesia inaugurated its first receiving terminal, October 2013
Nusantara Regas Satu, the converted LNGC Khannur Zhuhai, CNOOC’s fifth and China’s seventh import
terminal, opened
December 2013
October 2012 Yamal LNG partners agreed to proceed with 16.5
150,000m3 Ob River completed first passage of mta project
Northern Sea Route by a laden LNGC
Inpex commissioned 1.5 mta Naoetsu receiving
Hokkaido Gas commissioned Ishikari import terminal terminal
July 2014
May 2013 Kogas opened its fourth LNG terminal, at Samcheok
Malacca LNG’s jetty-based regasification terminal
received first cargo PGN FSRU Lampung went on station off southern
Sumatra
June 2013
Angola LNG despatched first commercial shipment August 2014
Hainan LNG, CNOOC’s seventh and China’s tenth
import terminal, opened
July 2013
New 4.5 mta train at Skikda, Algeria commenced Cameron LNG export project partners agreed to
operations proceed.
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