Requirements of Steam Condensing Plant

The principle requirements of steam condensing plant are:

1. Condenser: It is a closed vessel used to condense the steam. The low pressure steam gives off
its heat to the coolant (here water from cooling tower) and gets converted into water during the
process of condensation.
2. Condensate Extraction Pump: It is a pump which is installed in between the condenser and
hot well. It transfers the condensate from the condenser to the hot well.
3. Hot Well: It is a sump that lies in between the condenser and boiler. It receives the condensate
from the condenser by condensate pump. The feed water is transferred from the hot well to the
boiler.
4. Boiler Feed Pump: It is a pump installed in between the hot well and boiler. It pumps the feed
water from the hot well to the boiler. And this is done by increasing the pressure of condensate
above boiler pressure.
5. Air Extraction Pump: It is a pump used to extracts or removes the air from the steam
condenser.
6. Cooling Tower: It is a tower which contains the cold water and this water is made to circulate
within the condenser for cooling of steam.
7. Cooling Water Pump: It is a pump lies in between the cooling tower and condenser. It
circulates the cooling water through the condenser.
Working
The steam condenser receives the exhaust steam from one end and comes in contact with the
cooling water circulated within it form the cooling tower. As the low pressure steam comes in
contact with the cooling water, it condenses and converts into water. It is connected to the air
extraction pump and condensate extraction pump. After the condensation of steam, the
condensate is pumped to the hot well with the help of condensate extraction pump. The air
extraction pump extracts the air from the condenser and creates the vacuum inside it. The vacuum
created helps in the circulation of cooling water and flow of condensate downward.

Classification of Steam Condenser

The steam condenser is classified as

1. Jet condensers or mixing type condenser

2. Surface condenser or non-mixing type condenser

Jet Condenser
Jet condenser is a condenser in which the condensate gets mixed with the cooling water. That’s
why it is also called as mixing type condenser.

This type of condenser is used sometime because it lost some of the condensate and requires high
power for the pump during the process of condensation.

In jet condenser, as the condensate is not free from the salt, so it cannot be used as feed water for
the boiler. It can be used at the place where sufficient amount of good quality water is available.
Types of Jet Condenser
(i) Parallel Flow Jet Condenser

In parallel flow jet condenser, the steam and water enters into the condenser at the top and leaves
at the bottom.

The cooling water and steam enters at the top. As both steam and cooling water mix with each
other, the steam gets condense. The condensate, cooling water and air moves downward and it is
removed by two separate pumps known as air extraction pump and condensate extraction pump.
The condensate pump transfers the condensate to the hot well and from there the extra water is
made to flow in cooling water tank or pond through overflow pipe.

(ii) Counter Flow or Low Level Jet Condenser

In counter Flow or low level jet condensers, the steam enters at the bottom and the cooling water
at the top. The steam flows upward and meets the cooling water coming downward.

In these types of steam Condensers, the air pump is located at the top. Air pump creates vacuum
and this vacuum draws water from the cooling tower. The cooling water enter into the condenser
and falls on the perforated conical plate. The perforated conical plates convert the cooling water
into a large number of jets as shown in the figure. The falling jet of water caught in the trays and
from there it escapes out in second series of jets and meets the exhaust steam entering at the
bottom. As the steam mix with the water, it gets condense. The condensate and cooling water
moves down through a vertical pipe to the condensate pump. And finally the pump delivers it to
the hot well.
(iii) Barometric or High Level Jet Condenser

Barometric or high level jet condensers are provided at high level with a long vertical discharge
tube or tailpipe. It does not have condensate extraction pump and the condensate and cooling
water flows in the hot well because of the gravity. An injector pump is used to flow cooling water
at the top of the condenser.

These types of jet condensers are used at a high level with a vertical discharge pipe. In this
condenser, the steam enters at the bottom and flows in upward direction and meets with the down
coming cooling water. Its working is similar as the low level jet condenser. The vacuum is
created at the top of the condenser shell. With the help of vacuum and injector pump, the cooling
water is moved to the top of the condenser. The condensate and cooling water comes down in the
hot well through a long vertical discharge pipe. And finally the extra hot water flows to the
cooling tank or cooling pond by an overflow pipe
(iv) Ejector Condenser

In ejector condensers, it has a non-return valve through which exhaust steam enters, hollow
truncated cones, and diverging cone.

In these condensers, the cooling water is injected at the top. The steam enters into the condenser
through a non-return valve. The steam and water mixes with each other while passing through
series of hollow truncated metal cones and steam changes into water. At the end of the metal
cones a diverging cone is present. When the condensate passes through diverging cone, its kinetic
energy is partly transformed into pressure energy.
The condensate and cooling water is then discharged to the hot well.
Surface Condensers

Surface condenser is a type of steam condenser in which the steam and cooling water do not mix
with each other. And because of this, the whole condensate can be used as boiler feed water. It is
also called as non-mixing types condenser.

The figure above shows the longitudinal section of a two pass surface condenser. It consists of a
horizontal cylindrical vessel made of cast iron and packed with tubes. The cooling water flows
through these tubes. The ends of the condensers are cut off by the perforated type plates. The
tubes are fixed into these perforated type plates. It is fixed in such a manner that any leakage of
water into the center of condensing space is prevented. The water tubes are passed horizontally
through the main condensing space. The exhaust steam from the turbine or engine enters at the
top and forced to move downward due to the suction of the air extraction pump. In this steam
condenser, the cooling water enters into boiler through lower half of the tubes in one direction
and returns in opposite direction through the upper half as shown in the figure above.

This type of condenser is used in ships as it can carry only a limited quantity of water for the
boiler. It is also widely used for the land installation where there is a scarcity of good quality of
water.
Types of Surface Condensers
The surface condenser on the basis of direction of flow of condensate, the arrangement of the
tubing system and the position of the extraction pump are classified as

(i) Down Flow

In Down flow surface condenser, the steam enters at the top of the condenser and flows
downwards over the tubes due to the gravity and air extraction pumps. The condensate gets
collected at the bottom and then pumped with the help of condensate extraction pump. The pipe
of dry air extraction pump is provided near the bottom and it is covered by baffle plates so as to
prevent the entry of the condensate into it.

The steam in down flow condenser flows perpendicular to the direction of flow of cooling water,
so it is also called as cross-surface condenser.

(ii) Central Flow

In central flow condenser, the steam enters at the top of the condenser and flows in downward
direction. In this the suction pipe of the air extraction pump is provided in the center of the tube
nest as shown in the figure. Due to this placement of the suction pipe in the center of the tube
nest, the exhaust steam flows radially inward over the tubes towards the suction pipe. The
condensate is collected at the bottom of the condenser and pumped to the hot well.

We can say that it is the improved form of the down flow surface condenser.

(iii) Regenerative
In regenerative surface condensers, the condensate is heated by the use of regenerative method. In
that the condensate is passed through the exhaust steam coming out from the turbine or engine.
This raises its temperature and it is used as the feed water for the boiler.
 (iv) Evaporative

In evaporative surface condensers, the steam enters at the top of the condenser in a series of pipes
over which a film of cold water is falling. At the same time, current of air is made to circulate
over the film of water. As the air circulates over the water film, it evaporates some of the cooling
water. As a result of this rapid evaporation, the steam circulating inside the series of pipes gets
condensed. Remaining cooling water that left is collected at an increased temperature and reused.
It is brought to the original temperature by adding required quantity of cold water.

Advantages of Steam Condenser

 It increases the efficiency of the plant.
 It reduces the back pressure of the steam and as a result of this, more work can be done.
 It reduces the temperature of the exhaust steam and this allows to obtain more work.
 It allows the reuse of condensate for the feed water and hence reduces the cost of power generation.
 The temperature of the condensate is more than the feed water. This reduces the supply of heat per kg
of steam.

Comparison of Jet and Surface Condenser

in Tabular Form
S.no Jet Condenser Surface Condenser

1. Exhaust steam and cooling water mixed with each other.

Exhaust steam and cooling water are not
 mixed with each other.

2. It is less suitable for high capacity plants. It is more suitable for high capacity plants.

The condensing plant using this type of steam The condensing plant using surface
condenser is simple and condenser is costly and
3. economical. complicated.

4. Condensate is wasted and cannot be reused. The condensate is reused.

Large quantity of circulating water is

5. Less quantity of circulating water is required. required.

6. It has low maintenance cost. It has high maintenance cost.

In jet condenser, more power is required for the air In surface condenser, less power is required
7. pump. for the air pump.

8. High power is required for water pumping. Less power is required for water pumping.

Improving Condenser O&M Practices

11/01/2011 | Eric H. Fayard, Conco Systems Inc. and Michael J. Horn, Plastocor Inc.

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Losses attributed to condenser tube leaks, fouling, and failures continue to climb, costing the power
generation industry an estimated half-billion dollars annually in maintenance costs and loss of production.
Investing in an effective condenser maintenance program will reduce those expenses in short order.
Maintaining clean condenser tubes is of vital importance to reliable, efficient power plant operation.
Condenser tubes may become lightly fouled with soft organic deposits or severely scaled with hardened
minerals that are difficult to remove. Success in cleaning the condenser requires selecting the appropriate
cleaning technology for the specific fouling conditions.

Early identification of fouling characteristics and a fundamental knowledge of cleaning system capabilities
are essential to determining the most effective cleaning technology, as well as the frequency of cleaning
required. A good engineered coating can also prevent fouling of condenser tubes and renew life in older
systems.

Mechanisms of Condenser Tube Fouling

Generally, two major problems result from substances that adhere to interior tube surfaces: loss of heat
transfer and under-deposit corrosion.

Internal tube fouling is nearly always detrimental to heat transfer because it reduces the efficiency of
condensing steam and results in less-efficient steam turbine operation, as discussed in detail in the previous
article, “Optimizing Condenser Tube Selection.” Internal tube fouling is also the most common cause of
under-deposit corrosion–related tube failure.

This form of corrosion can be caused either directly or indirectly. When the attack is direct, the deposit
itself contains corrosive substances which, when concentrated at a localized site, can cause loss of tube
material. A common example of this type of corrosion would be chloride pitting. Indirect attacks can be
caused by several factors, including accumulation of deposits that form a barrier between the cooling water
and tube material, allowing a corrosion cell to form underneath, or by microbiologically influenced
corrosion (MIC). Pitting is often a result, which can cause tube failure well before the material’s life
expectancy.

In either situation, contaminants in cooling water (which may be concentrated significantly in a

recirculating cooling tower) are the precursors to what often results in major damage to boiler tubing and
steam turbine materials, potentially resulting in huge economic penalties in unit outages and equipment
repair and/or replacement. Investment in the equipment that can remove and/or prevent foulants from
forming on condenser tubes is a minor price to pay to produce the best possible plant economics.

Options for Preventing and Removing Foulants

Equipment options for preventing and/or removing foulants can be classified according to plant operating
status: off-line or online. Off-line removal methods include chemical (acid or chelate dissolution) and
mechanical methods (metal or plastic tube cleaners, brushes, high-pressure water, and the like). Online
preventive measures include chemical treatments (scale and corrosion inhibition, dispersants, and biocides)
and continuous recirculation of sponge balls to remove soft deposits on the inner wall of the condenser
tubes.

Because condenser fouling can have such a dramatic impact on cost-effective power plant operation,
deposition and corrosion should be carefully monitored and the appropriate cleaning technology used at
optimal intervals. Here is an overview of the main treatment options.

Chemical Treatment Methods. Several chemicals, often in combination, are used to control condenser
tube fouling. Chemicals are primarily utilized with recirculating cooling towers, because the concentration
of dissolved constituents is significant, increasing the threat of scaling and corrosion, and because once-
through cooling systems often discharge directly into a river or lake, so chemicals are restricted in the
effluent. Typical chemical treatment methods used today include adding scale inhibitors, dispersants,
biocides, corrosion inhibitors, and chemicals for pH control.
Another common way of mitigating chemically influenced problems is to minimize the concentration of
dissolved solids in the system, particularly in cooling towers. A balance must be achieved between
minimizing water use and avoiding excessive buildup of scaling and corrosive constituents in recirculated
water.

Some scales can be removed online by lowering circulating water pH to the point of scale dissolution by
increasing the sulfuric acid feed (pH of 5.8 or less for calcium carbonate and 4.0 for calcium phosphate).
However, potential risks to base metal and carbon steel piping must be carefully considered when using
such harsh chemicals. In the case of online chemical cleaning by pH reduction, one major disadvantage is
that you can’t be sure of the composition of the foulants.

Chemical scale removal can be very effective and may be necessary if the deposits are silica-based.
However, chemical cleaning of condensers is maintenance- and labor-intensive.

Mechanical Fouling Prevention. A number of mechanical approaches have been developed to prevent
condenser tube fouling. Screens can be installed to block large debris from reaching the condenser while
settling ponds and/or clarifiers remove particulate and some dissolved constituents. Filtration systems,
such as sand filters, can also be employed to remove fine particulates, on either a full-flow or a side stream
partial-flow basis.
A number of online systems have been developed that send cleaning objects—such as sponge balls,
brushes, or plastic scrapers—through tubes with the cooling water flow. In theory, these devices will
mechanically wipe the tube surface clean. In the more automated systems, the cleaning devices are
retrieved at the condenser outlet and automatically returned to the inlet. Other designs return the devices to
the inlet via backwashing. Because of the random distribution of some of the cleaning devices, not all
tubes receive consistent cleaning.
Increasing cooling water flow through the condenser can be effective in limiting microbiological growth.
This approach will also keep cooling water temperatures lower, possibly to a point at which scale is less
likely to form. However, higher flow rates can cause increased rates of erosion-corrosion in copper alloys.

Mechanical Removal Methods. Plant operating economics favor removing any deposits before they cause
major loss of heat transfer, tube corrosion, or, ultimately, tube failure. Not only are there losses in
performance to consider, but major equipment repairs often follow tube failures due to cooling water
contaminants in the boiler or turbine. In general, mechanical cleaning is usually more cost-effective than
chemical cleaning.
Mechanical cleaning techniques include high-pressure water washing and shooting tube cleaners (Figure 1)
through the tubes. When balancing the need for clean condenser tubes against the time required for
cleaning, mechanical tube cleaners are an excellent choice. High-pressure water washing can be very time-
consuming, but using tube cleaner brushes for removing soft deposits or metal tube cleaners for more
difficult deposits can be a quicker solution.

1. Mechanical tube cleaner. Source: Conco Systems Inc.

Condenser Tube Maintenance: Leak Detection

Air that enters condensers, unless properly removed, will coat condenser tubes and restrict heat transfer,
just as waterside tube deposits do. Air in-leakage will also introduce oxygen to the condensate, and this
oxygen may cause corrosion of downstream condensate/feedwater piping and feedwater heater
components.

All condensers are equipped with at least one air-removal section, which consists of a compartment that
runs the length of the condenser and is only open in one area, typically at the bottom. A vacuum is applied
to this compartment to remove noncondensable gases that enter the system, primarily air from in-leakage.
At start-up, the vacuum may be applied by a steam jet air ejector, but normal vacuum is applied by
electrically driven pumps.

The strong vacuum that collapsing steam generates in a condenser will pull in air from many locations.
Some of the most common include piping penetrations into the condenser, turbine-condenser expansion
joints, and turbine rupture diaphragms. Alternatively, a failure of an air removal pump may allow excess
air to accumulate in the condenser. Regardless of the failure mechanism, unless the leak is very small, it
can be extremely valuable to have a leak detection contractor come in and locate the sources so that they
can be repaired. Tracer gas testing can be used to track down the leak.

Plant maintenance specialists are usually aware that points of excess air in-leakage to a condenser can
often be discovered by use of a tracer gas such as helium or sulfur hexafluoride (SF ). A monitor is placed
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at the exhaust of a condenser air removal pump, and then trained personnel move methodically around the
condenser and auxiliary equipment spraying small quantities of the tracer gas at potential in-leakage
points. Unlike helium, SF can be injected below the water line in a running water box to quickly
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determine if that water box has the leaking bundle.

Another notable difference between the two tracer gases is their level of sensitivity. The lowest detection
limit for helium is approximately one part-per-million above background level, thus making detection
sometimes difficult or impossible for small leaks. SF , on the other hand, can be detected at a
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concentration of 0.01 part per billion; consequently, it provides much better results.

The tracer gas method is relatively straightforward. One technician at the monitor observes tracings on a
strip chart recorder while technicians in the water box (Figure 5) place a series of increasingly smaller
plenums over a section of the tubesheet to zero in on the failed tube. Once each section is in place, a
technician injects the tracer gas and notifies the monitor technician via two-way radio; this system allows
staff to quickly communicate and find the failed tube efficiently. A typical response time between gas
injection and readout at the analyzer is 30 to 45 seconds.

5. A technician holds a plenum during tracer gas condenser tube testing. Courtesy: Conco Systems
Inc.

Condenser Tube Maintenance: Plugging

If ECT results indicate a leak, or a condenser tube leak or failure occurs, the tube must be plugged, so you
must have the right tube plugs on hand. It is recommended to have a ready supply of correctly sized tube
plugs for the condenser and various heat exchangers in stock and ready for use. A good rule of thumb is to
maintain enough plugs equal to 2% of your tube quantity. A 10,000-tube condenser requires a minimum
stock of 200 plugs.

In addition to plugging new leaks, existing plugs should inspected and replaced regularly. Both ends of the
tube should be properly cleaned and dried. Both ends of the tube must be plugged, according to the
manufacturer recommendations, and their locations marked on a tube sheet map. Figure 6 shows a cross
section of a highly reliable tube plug.

6. Cross section of a tube plug. Courtesy: Conco Systems Inc.

Coatings Can Extend Condenser Life

Coatings have been an important element of maintaining the integrity and even extending the life of steam
condensers. Although coatings are generally thought of in terms of protecting metal surfaces from erosion
and corrosion, they can serve the equally important purpose of sealing small leaks and preventing pits from
growing into a leak. Raw water intrusion associated with tube-to-tubesheet joints, waterbox-to-shell joints,
and even the tubes themselves can be coated. Air intrusion through the waterbox-to-shell joint can also be
stopped with the proper application of the right coating.

Coatings for the condenser usually fall into five basic categories: tubesheet coating, tube-end inner-
diameter (ID) coating, waterbox and circulating water piping/tunnels coating, exterior flange sealing, and
full-length ID tube coating.

Tubesheet Coating. A leak-tight joint between tube and tubesheet is critical to the proper operation of
steam surface condensers and other heat exchange equipment. Loss of tube-to-tubesheet joint integrity can
be normally traced to three root causes: corrosion and/or erosion of the tubesheet material, improper
rolling of the tubes during installation, or mechanical stresses during operation.
Tubesheet corrosion is typically caused by dissimilarities with higher-alloy, more-noble tube material. This
situation is becoming more and more prevalent as high-performance stainless steel and titanium tubes are
being retrofitted into older condensers and heat exchangers. Loss of tubesheet metal due to corrosion leads
to compromised tube-to-tubesheet joint integrity. The options for tubesheet protection are typically
cathodic protection or the use of coatings.

Cathodic protection of tubesheets can be difficult due to variations in water quality, turbulence, and the
inability to space anodes and reference cells effectively. Another problem is that cathodic protection
system maintenance is often overlooked by plant staff.

Coatings are ideal, as they passively protect these surfaces. However, if a spot failure of the coating occurs
on a tubesheet with dissimilar tube material, the galvanic cell can be concentrated in a small area, leading
to rapid loss of metal. Figure 7 shows an aluminum bronze tubesheet with titanium tubes in salt water
where a thin tubesheet coating had spot failures. Galvanic corrosion caused a rapid loss of tube joint
integrity at that spot.
7. Galvanic attack at point of thin-film coating failure. Courtesy: Plastocor Inc.
The tubesheet and tubes are completely encapsulated and locked in by a thick, flat, layer of 180 ±40 mil
epoxy. This process fashions a radial-flared, high-gloss inlet and outlet tube opening, serving to
dramatically reduce flow resistance and fouling. The flat and smooth surface allows for easier leak
detection and reduces sponge ball wear if an online tube-cleaning system is used. The substantial nature of
the system adds strength and integrity to the tube-to-tubesheet joint. Tube push-out strength is increased by
2,000 pounds by the adhesive value of the coating system.

Tubesheet coating can be applied to any tube-to-tubesheet configuration experiencing any level of
deterioration, provided that structural integrity is not threatened. The epoxy coating is engineered to
withstand physical abuse, impact, and other physical/chemical stresses associated with the operation of a
cooling water system. Figure 8 shows this thick cladding on a tubesheet after 15 years in service.

8. Thick epoxy tubesheet cladding after 15 years service. Courtesy: Plastocor Inc.
Tube-end ID Coating. Copper-based tube alloys can be subject to selective erosion within the first several
tube diameters of the inlet tube end. Other tube materials can deteriorate because of galvanic or
microbiological issues.

Inlet-end erosion is due to turbulence present at the initial section of tube before laminar flow is
established. The degree of erosion depends on the nature and amount of entrained solids in the cooling
water, the type of tube alloy and its susceptibility to corrosion, water velocities, micro/macrofouling of
tube surfaces, and other design/operating factors. Outlet-end erosion may also occur due to outlet flow–
induced turbulences or cavitation.

The tube-end IDs can be selectively coated to protect this specific area of the tube. In this case, three coats
of alternating colors are applied to provide complete protection. The epoxy coating can be installed to any
depth and is applied in conjunction with the tubesheet coating. Each coat is approximately 2 to 3 mils thick
and is applied just past the previous coat. This three-stage method creates a feathered termination,
eliminating the chance of step-erosion at the end of the coating.

This method of application also can bridge small perforations of the tube wall, thereby repairing the tube
and speeding up its return to service. The joining of the tubesheet coating with the inlet coating creates a
uniform and smooth transition from waterbox chamber to tube interior. This reduces fouling and
turbulence, which raises flow efficiencies. The tube ID is not significantly reduced, which permits the
unrestricted use of ECT and most tube-cleaning methods.

Figure 9 shows a cross-section schematic of the tube-end ID coating along with the tubesheet coating. If
the tube ends are thinned to the point where structural integrity is threatened, then a metallic insert can be
incorporated into the system. Here, the insert is precisely sized and glued in place.

9. Tube-end ID coating with tubesheet epoxy coating. Courtesy: Plastocor Inc.

Waterboxes, Piping, and Tunnels. Condenser waterboxes and circulating water piping/tunnels are also
routinely coated. In these applications, the coating system usually consists of an epoxy liner installed from
40 to 125 mils in thickness. The thicker applications are used when corroded surfaces are coated or where
a “bullet proof” lining is required.
Exterior Flange Sealing. Air in-leakage into the steam side of condensers has far-reaching consequences
for plant efficiency and equipment life. High levels of dissolved O elevate corrosion in the feedwater
2

heater train, boiler, and steam generator systems. Corrosion contributes to poor heat transfer and threatens
system integrity. Air binding and incomplete removal of the noncondensables can result, causing excessive
corrosion to the tubes outside of the air removal zone. Tubes and surfaces in this region of the condenser
are excellent candidates for an engineered coating.
Furthermore, the gasket between the waterbox and tubesheet can start to break down due to embrittlement
over time. Hydrodynamic stresses from waterbox loading and possible startup water hammer further
aggravate gasket integrity. Differential thermal stresses resulting from steam dumps, plant trips, and the
like compound the problem. Air in-leakage around the gasket, through the bolt holes, and into the
condenser shell is the result. Leak paths can be elusive, as various sealing materials may have been applied
over old repairs, which can result in an ineffective buildup of various paints, anti-sweat coatings, caulks,
and other compounds around the external condenser flange. This flange area is another good candidate for
an epoxy coating.

Plastocor Inc. has developed a methodology whereby these old materials are completely removed and a
new sealing system is installed, completely eliminating air in-leakage from the waterbox-to-tubesheet
flange area.

These methods can be applied to almost any other areas in the system where air intrudes. For the external
joint, these methods can be employed while the unit is either online or off-line. The sealing system can be
installed as the previous materials are removed so severe leaks can be resealed as they are uncovered.
Online applications should be done in conjunction with leak detection surveillance.

The system is equally effective when applied on the inside of the waterbox to stop cooling water in-
leakage or air in-leakage in situations where the waterboxes are not completely flooded.

Full-Length Tube ID Coating. The tubes used in steam condensers and other balance-of-plant heat
exchangers are selected so that they will provide decades of reliable service. Often, tubes may begin to
develop pits, which, if not mitigated or otherwise controlled, can result in tube leaks. In most cases, the
tube must then be identified and plugged. Significant costs are incurred locating and plugging a tube, all
because of a single pit.
When a pit is identified, the plant typically chooses one or more of the following actions: improve tube
cleanliness, chemically treat the tubes, and/or use ECT and preventative plugging. Ultimately, when many
tube losses occur, a condenser retubing is necessary.
A fourth option is to coat the tube ID with an epoxy coating. Though it is common to coat carbon steel
tubes in the process industry, tube coating in the power industry has been slow to gain acceptance. The
primary reason for this is that power plant heat exchange bundles are less abundant than process industry
bundles and are not routinely removed for service; main steam condensers are fixed structures and cannot
be removed for off-line shop maintenance. Full-length tube coatings are also difficult to apply properly in
the field, particularly under outage time constraints. Furthermore, concerns exist about the heat transfer
effects of the coating and its life expectancy.

The aim of an epoxy coating is to target and fill (remediate) existing pits and apply a uniform but minimal
film in one coat over the unpitted surface of the tube to minimize heat transfer loss while offering
protection. If a tube is made of a resistant alloy (not carbon steel), areas that are not pitted do not need a
thick film coating for protection. A minimal film will provide sufficient protection while not overly
affecting heat transfer. This coating film can even be engineered to provide additional benefits, such as
fouling resistance.

Coat Inside the Tube. A new approach to applying coatings has been developed that addresses the
concerns noted above. Instead of using a spray head to disperse the coating throughout the tube, a pigging
technology was developed whereby a “slug” of coating is introduced into one end of the tube and a
specially designed and sized coating pig is propelled down its length with compressed air or drawn down
the tube with a rod or line. The pig pushes the “slug” of coating along the tube, causing it to enter and fill
the pits as it travels through the tube. The pig is designed to remove, or squeegee off, as much coating as
possible as it travels through the tube. The result is that the pits are filled with coating while the tube
interior in general is left with a very thin film of coating. Coating thickness on the tube wall is commonly
less than 1 mil. The elements of this “squeegee pig” approach are shown in Figure 10.

10. Schematic (enlarged) of pitted tube and squeegee pig in the process of coating the interior of a
tube. Source: Plastocor Inc.

In the case where there are known holes in the tube, the coating system is modified so that the pig is pulled
through the tube with a line. This eliminates the pressure differential created when compressed air is used.

In one plant, a condenser with brass tubes developed serious pitting problems and holes. The tubes were
coated using the technique just described. Figure 11 shows the inside of the tube before and after
application of the coating. The hole has been sealed, the pits filled, and there is a thin translucent coating
of epoxy on the rest of the tube wall.
11. Videoscope image of the interior of an admiralty brass tube with holes and other defects before
(left) and after (right) coating. Source: Plastocor Inc.
This technique is providing another tool to maintain and extend the lifespan of condensers. In addition to
stopping further deterioration, a properly applied epoxy coating can extend the operating life of the
condenser internals and defer the cost of an expensive condenser retubing.

— Eric H. Fayard (eric@concosystems.net) is technical marketing manager for Conco Systems Inc.
Michael J. Horn (mike@plastocor.com) is president of Plastocor Inc.

TUBE ARRANGEMENT

Tube Layout
Tube layout arrangements are designed so as to include as many tubes as possible within the shell to
achieve maximum heat transfer area. There are four tube layout patterns, as shown in Figure 6:
triangular(30°), rotated triangular (60°), square(90°), and rotated square (45°).
A triangular (or rotated triangular) pattern will accommodate more tubes than a square (or rotated
square) pat- tern. Furthermore, a triangular pattern produces high turbulence and therefore a high
heat-transfer coefficient. However, at the typical tube pitch of 1.25 times the tube O.D., it does not
permit mechanical cleaning of tubes, since access lanes are not available. Consequently, a triangular
layout is limited to clean shellside services. For services that require mechanical cleaning on the
shellside,square patterns must be used. Chemical cleaning does not require access lanes, so a
triangular layout may be used for dirty shellside services provided chemical cleaning is suitable and
effective. A rotated triangular pattern seldom offers any advantages over a triangular pattern, and its
use is consequently not very popular. For dirty shellside services, a square layout is typically
employed. However, since this is an in-line pattern, it produces lower turbulence. Thus, when the
shellside Reynolds number is low (< 2,000),it is usually advantageous to employ a rotated square
pattern because this produces much higher turbulence, which results in a higher efficiency of
conversion of pressure drop to heat transfer.

As noted earlier, fixed-tubesheet construction is usually employed for clean services on the shellside,
U-tube construction for clean services on the tubeside, and floating-head construction for dirty
services on both the shellside and tubeside. (For clean services on both shellside and tubeside, either
fixed-tubesheet or U-tube construction may be used, although U-tube is preferable since it permits
differential expansion between the shell and the tubes.)

Hence, a triangular tube pattern may be used for fixed-tubesheet exchangers and a square (or rotated
square) pattern for floating-head exchangers. For U-tube exchangers, a triangular pattern may be used
provided the shellside stream is clean and a square (or rotated square) pattern if it is dirty.

Tube Pitch

Tube pitch is defined as the shortest distance between two adjacent tubes. For a triangular pattern,
TEMA specifies a minimum tube pitch of 1.25 times the tube O.D. Thus, a 25-mm tube pitch is
usually employed for 20-mm O.D. tubes. For square patterns, TEMA additionally recommends a
minimum cleaning lane of 4 in. (or 6 mm) between adjacent tubes. Thus, the minimum tube pitch for
square patterns is either 1.25 times the tube O.D. or the tube O.D. plus 6 mm, whichever is larger. For
example, 20-mm tubes should be laid on a 26-mm (20 mm +6 mm) square pitch, but 25-mm tubes
should be laid on a 31.25-mm (25mm × 1.25) square pitch. Designers prefer to employ the minimum
recommended tube pitch, because it leads to the smallest shell diameter for a given number of tubes.
However, in exceptional circumstances, the tube pitch may be increased to a higher value, for
example, to reduce shellside pressure drop. This is particularly true in the case of a cross-flow shell.

The selection of tube pitch is a compromise between a close pitch for increased shell-side heat
transfer and surface compactness, and a larger pitch for decreased shell-side pressure drop and
fouling, and ease in cleaning. In most shell and tube exchangers, the minimum ratio of tube pitch to
tube outside diameter (pitch ratio) is 1.25. The minimum value is restricted to 1.25 because the tube-
sheet ligament (a ligament is the portion of material between two neighboring

tube holes) may become too weak for proper rolling of the tubes into the tubesheet. The ligament
width is defined as the tube pitch minus the tube hole diameter;
this is shown in Fig

TUBESHEET

A tube sheet is an important component of a heat exchanger. It is the principal barrier between the
shell-side and tube-side fluids. Proper design of a tube sheet is important for safety and reliability of
the heat exchanger. Tube sheets are mostly circular with uniform pattern of drilled holes. Tube sheets
of surface condensers are rectangular shape. Tube sheets are connected to the shell and the channels
either by welds (integral) or with bolts (gasketed joints) or with a combination thereof. Tube-sheet
connection with the shell and channel for fixed tube-sheet exchanger can be categorized into two
types:

1. Both sides integral construction,

2. Shell-side integral and tube-side gasketed construction

Tube-sheet connection with the shell and channel for floating heat exchanger and U-tube heat
exchangers can be categorized into three types:

1. Both sides integral construction

2. One side integral and the other side gasketed construction

3. Both sides gasketed construction

Pass Arrangements for Flow Through Tubes

The simplest flow pattern through the tubes is for the fluid to enter at one end and exit at the other.
This is a single-pass tube arrangement. To improve the heat-transfer rate, higher veloci-ties are
preferred. This is achieved by increasing the number of tube-side passes. The number of tube passes
depends upon the available pressure drop, since higher velocity in the tube results in higher heat-
transfer coefficient, at the cost of increased pressure drop. Larowski et al. suggests the following
guidelines for tube-side passes:

1. Two-phase flow on the tube side, whether condensing or boiling, is best kept in a single straight
tube run or in a U-tube.2. If the shell-side heat-transfer coefficient is significantly lower than on
the tube side, it is not advisable to increase the film coefficient on the tube side at the cost of
higher tube-side pressure drop, since this situation will lead to a marginal improvement in overall
heat transfer coefficient.

Number of Tube Passes

The number of tube-side passes generally ranges from one to eight. The standard design has one, two,
or four tube passes. The practical upper limit is 16. Maximum number of tube side passes are limited
by workers’ abilities to fit the pass partitions into the available space and the bolting and flange design
to avoid interpass leakages on the tube side. In multipass designs, an even number of passes is
generally used; odd numbers of passes are uncommon, and may result in mechanical and thermal
problems in fabrication and operation. Partitions built into heads known as partition plates control
tube-side passes. The pass partitions may be straight or wavy rib design. There are some limitations
on how the different types of heat exchangers can be partitioned to provide various number of passes.
They are summarized here.

1. Fixed tube-sheet exchanger-any practical number of passes, odd or even. For multipass
arrangements, partitions are built into both front and rear heads.

2. U-tube exchanger-minimum two passes; any practical even number of tube passes can be obtained
by building partition plates in the front head.
3. Floating head exchangers: With pull through floating head (T head) type and split backing ring
exchanger (S head), any practical even number of passes is possible. For single-pass operation,
however, a packed joint must be installed on the floating head. With outside packed floating head type
(P head), the number of passes is limited to one or two. With externally sealed floating tube sheet (W
head), no practical tube pass limitation.

4. Two-phase flow on the tube side, whether condensing or boiling, is best kept within a single pass
or in U-tubes to avoid uneven distribution and hence uneven heat transfer.

Tube to Header Plate Connection: Tubes are arranged in a bundle and held in place by header
plate (tube sheet).The number of tubes that can be placed within a shell depends on Tube layout, tube
outside diameter, pitch, number of passes and the shell diameter. When the tubes are too close to each
other, the header plate becomes too weak.
Surface Condensers
General
Surface condensers are the most common type used in power plants. They are
essentially shell-and-tube heat exchangers, in which the primary heat transfer
mechanisms are the condensing of the saturated steam on the outside of the tubes and
the forced convection heating of the circulating water inside the tubes. Figure 1 is a
schematic of a surface condenser with two passes on the water side. It is composed of a
steel shell with water boxes on each side, the right one divided to allow for the two
water passes. The water tubes are rolled at each end into tube sheets, and there are steel
support plates at intermediate points between the tube sheets to prevent tube vibration.
The hotwell that receives the condensate acts as a reservoir, with a capacity equal to
the total condensate flow during a prescribed time, e.g., 1 min.
The early surface condensers used simple circular tubesheets that supported as many
tubes as could be tightly packed between them. As powerplants and condensers grew in
size, this simple design resulted in heat transfer problems because the upper tubes
shielded the steam from effective condensing and in high steam pressure drop problems
because of long tortuous path of the steam through the bundle. The heat transfer
problem was solved by using larger spacings between the tubes (called ligaments) and
placing them in rows that provided lanes or steam paths to allow the steam to penetrate
deeply into the lower tubes.

The next improvement tackled the high pressure drops by cutting the bundle in half,
thus in effect forming two smaller bundles side by side. This solution was, however,
not sufficient for larger units because the bundles were still too deep for effective
steam penetration. Four tube bundles were then used. This also helped reduce
condenser height, an increasingly frequent requirement because of the low available
head room in the plant.

The current design philosophy is to have a tube layout in the shape of a funnel with
most tubes, and the largest tube passage area, where the steam enters the condenser
from the turbine. As the steam condenses, its volume decreases, there are fewer tubes
ad smaller passage areas. Steam is made to enter the tube bundle, or bundles, from all
sides toward a central air cooler for dearation.

The tubes are rolled into the tube sheets at both ends to prevent leakage of the
circulating water into the steam. An expansion joint allows for the different rates of
expansion between the tubes and the shell. The tube sheets are usually made of Muntz
metal, which is similar to brass.

A problem of steam distribution, other than vertical penetration, is end-to-end or

horizontal distribution that arises with present day long tube units. Tube lengths of 30
to 50 ft (~9 to 15 m) are commonplace. Multipressure condensers may have 70 to 90 ft
(~21 to 27 m) long tubes. Long tubes result in larger changes in water temperature
inside them and hence greater changes in condensing ability. Thus, the tubes would be
too close at the cold end, where condensing is good, and too open at the hot end. A
design compromise is, of course, necessary. These results in some short -circuiting that
may be counteracted by cross baffles.

Another steam distribution problem is the result of unavoidably unequal steam flow
from the turbine exhaust duct to the condenser tubes. Thus special attention must be
paid to the design of the connection between turbine and condenser (called the exhaust
neck), such as adding a well-tapered steam dome above the tube bundle to minimize
this problem. An expansion joint is usually provided between the turbine exhaust and
the condenser steam inlet. This permits the condenser to be rigidly mounted on the
floor. Another less common arrangement is to bolt the condenser directly to the turbine
exhaust duct and support it on springs that allow it a certain vertical movement and
reduce the strain on the turbine casing.

Number of Passes and Divisions

Condensers are designed with one, two or four cooling water passes. The number of
passes determines the size and effectiveness of a condenser. Four passes are seldom
used in utility installations. A single pass condenser is one in which the cooling water
flows through all the condenser tubes once, from one end to the other. In a two -pass
condenser, the water enters half the tubes at one end of a divided inlet water box,
passes through these tubes to an undivided water box at the other end, reverses
direction, and passes through the other half of the tubes back to the other side of the
divided water box.

A single pass condenser with the same total number and size of tubes, i.e., the same
heat transfer area, and with the same water velocity, requires twice as much water flow
but results in half the water temperature rise and thus lower condenser pr essure. Thus
such a single pass condenser is good for plant thermal efficiency and reduces thermal
pollution, but requires more than twice the water and hence four times the pumping
power.
Water boxes are often divided beyond the divisions required by the number of passes.
A divided water box single-pass condenser, for example, may have a partition in both
the inlet and outlet water boxes at opposite ends of the condenser. This allows half the
condenser to operate while the other half is being cleaned or repaired. In the case of a
divided two-pass condenser, the water boxes are divided into four quarters. Divided
water boxes have duplicate inlet and outlet connections, each with its own circulating -
water circuit. Valves in the division plates permit backwashing by reversing water flow
for cleaning purposes.

Single- and Multipressure Condensers

Large powerplants generally have two or more low-pressure turbine sections in
tandem. The condenser may be divided in to corresponding sections or shells, situated
below the low pressure sections. If the turbine exhaust pressure in all sections is the
same, i.e., when the exhaust ducts are not isolated from each other, we would have a
single-pressure condenser. If the exhaust ducts are isolated from each other, these
individual condenser shell pressures will increase because the circulating water
temperature will increase as it flows from shell to shell. We would then have a
multipressure condenser.

A multipressure condenser results in efficiency improvement because the a verage

turbine back pressure is less compared with that of a single pressure condenser. Multi
pressure condensers are more commonly used in nuclear powerplants. They are usually
single-pass units arranged with their tubes parallel to the turbine shaft. They are
roughly as long as the low pressure turbine sections combined, often 70 to 90 ft (~21.3
to 27.4 m). Single pressure condensers, on the other hand, are usually 30 to 50 ft (~9.1
to 15.2 m) long and are often arranged with their tubes arranged perpen dicular to the
turbine shaft.

Figure 2 shows a cross section of a typical modern large condenser. It is a single pass,
single pressure, radial flow type condenser in which the steam enters the bundle from
top, sides and bottom, and flows towards the center of the tube nest. At that point most
of it has condensed, leaving only air and other non-condensable gases that are cooled
before being removed by the deaeration system. Figure 3 shows a two-pass divided-box
surface condenser.
Tube Sizes and Materials
Most condensers commonly use a 7/8 or 1 inch of 18 gage tube, which is adequate for
the water pressures encountered in condensers. Tube materials in common use are
copper, 70-30 Cu-Ni, 90-10 Cu-Ni, 304 stainless steel, admiralty, and Muntz metal.
Admiralty metal, the popular choice for a long time, although still occasionally
specified, is being supplanted by type 304 stainless steel. Type 304 stainless steel,
readily available at a reasonable cost, has excellent erosion and corrosion resistance in
fresh water, and immunity to ammonia and sulfide attack. It also eliminates the risk of
introducing copper ions into the feedwater, a potential possibility with other materials.
Its disadvantages are low thermal conductivity and low resistance to chloride attack
and biofouling. 90-10 Cu-Ni is another choice for freshwater application.

In the case of sea water and brackish water, 90-10 Cu-Ni is the primary choice whether
these waters are cleaned or polluted. 70-30 Cu-Ni is preferred in the case of clean
waters where shell side ammonia is a problem. Copper-Nickel has excellent corrosion
resistance in salt and brackish water and good immunity to stress corrosion cracking.

It is expected that, for the foreseeable future, stainless steel and copper -nickel will
dominate the market for condenser tubes. Other materials of promise include titanium
and AL6X, which are expected to see increasing service under severe conditions. In
any case, no one material can function adequately without periodic cleaning, and there
is a growing interest in devising methods of on-line cleaning (currently some nuclear
power plants do employ on-line cleaning techniques for the condenser tubes).

Deaeration
In steam and other vapor cycles, it is important to remove the non-condensable gases
that otherwise accumulate in the system. The non-condensables are mostly air that
leaks from the atmosphere into those portions of the cycle that operate below
atmospheric pressure, such as the condenser, but also include other gases caused by the
decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen by thermal or radiolytic (under the
influence of nuclear radiation) action and by chemical reactions between water and
material of construction. The presence of non-condensable gases in large quantities has
undesirable effects on equipment operation for several reasons.

1. They raise the total pressure of the system because the total pressure is the sum
of the partial pressures of the constituents. An increase in condenser pressure
lowers plant efficiency.
2. They blanket heat transfer surfaces such as the outside surface of the condenser
tubes, thus resulting in a severe decrease in the condensing heat transfer
coefficient and hence in the condenser effectiveness.
3. The presence of some non-condensables results in various chemical activities.
Oxygen causes corrosion, most severely in steam generator. Hydrogen, which is
capable of diffusing through some solids, causes hydriding that severely affects
nuclear fuel elements. Hydrogen, methane and ammonia are also combustible.
The process of removing non-condensables is called deaeration. Most fossil fuel power
plants have a deaerating feedwater heater, but whether or not a plant has such a heater,
or other separate deaerator, it is essential that the condenser itself be the place of good
deaeration. . Manufacturers usually guarantee a maximum oxygen concentration in the
condensate leaving the condenser. For some time, the maximum was set at 0.03 cm 3 /L
(0.03% by volume), but this has now been reduced to 0.01 cm 3 /L required, and 0.005
cm 3 /L frequently guaranteed.

Good deaeration within a condenser requires time, turbulence, and good venting
equipment. The cold condensate falling from the lower tubes must have sufficient
falling height and scrubbing steam for reheat and deaeration. The scrubbing steam is
provided by allowing some of the incoming steam to pass through an open flow area
directly to the bottom tubes to reheat the condensate. The reason is that non -
condensables are more easy released from a hotter than a colder fluid.

Once the non-condensables are released, they are cooled to reduce their volume before
being pumped out of the condenser. For this, a number of water tubes, about 6 to 8
percent in the center of the tube bundle are set aside for this function (See Figure 2).
This, called an air cooler section, is baffled to separate the noncondensables from the
main steam flow. The non-condensables flow toward the cold end of the condenser,
where they connect to a vent duct that leads to jet pumps. These jet pumps are known
as steam jet air ejectors (SJAE) because they use a steam jet as their motive or driving
flow. They are usually multi-stage units, usually two or three. Figure 4 shows a two-
stage SJAE. SJAE’s are very popular because of their simplicity and lack of moving
parts, and hence low maintenance and good reliability.
 Figure 4: Two-stage Steam Jet Air Ejector

Circulating Water Pressure Drop

It is important to determine the necessary circulating water flow and the pressure drop
through the condenser because this, along with other parts of the circulating water
system, determines the pump horsepower necessary. The pressure drop in the
condenser is composed of 1) pressure drop in the water boxes, and 2) the friction
pressure drop in the tubes. Again these depend on many factors, such as the flow patter
in and the size of the water boxes, the inlet and the exit of the tubes at the tube sheets,
the size and length of the tubes, and the water temperatures and the velocities. The
Heat Exchange Institute recommends the values given in Figures 5 and 6.
 Figure 5: Pressure Drop in Condenser Water Boxes

Figure 6: Pressure Drop in Condenser Tubes

Water inlet velocities in condenser tubes are usually limited to a maximum 8 ft/s (~2.5
m/s) to minimize erosion, and a minimum of 5 or 6 ft/s (1.5 to 1.8 m/s) for good heat
transfer. Values between 7 and 8 ft/s (~2.1 to 2.5 m/s) are most common.
 Heat exchangers are used to transfer heat energy from one fluid to another in order to control
the temperature of a system or substance. Heat exchangers contain two streams of fluid, one hot
and one cold, which are separated by a thermally conductive tube or plate unless the fluids are
immiscible. The two streams are directed such that one transfers thermal energy to the
other. Examples of heat exchanger applications include automotive radiators, boilers, furnaces,
refrigerators, and air conditioning systems.

Types of Heat Exchangers

According to the heat transfer process -- the heat exchanger may use an indirect contact or direct
contact heat transfer method.

 In indirect contact heat transfer, the fluids in the system are separated by a thermally conductive

boundary layer which allows heat energy to flow but prevents mixing or
contamination.
 In direct contact heat exchangers, the fluids are immiscible (e.g. gas and liquid) and therefore do
not require physical separation when transferring heat.

According to the number of fluids -- the heat exchanger may incorporate two, three, or more than
three heat transfer fluids in the system.

According to flow arrangements -- the heat exchanger may be either single pass or multi-pass.
It may incorporate cross-flow, counter-flow, or co-current flow. Typically heat exchangers utilize
combinations of these flow patterns to maximize thermal efficiency.

 In single pass heat exchangers, fluids flow by each other only once in the system.
 Fluids in multi-pass heat exchangers are looped back to flow by each other multiple times.
 In counter flow heat exchangers, fluids flow from opposite directions towards each other.
 In cross flow heat exchangers, fluids flow perpendicular to each other.
 In co-current flow heat exchangers, fluids flow parallel to each other.

According to heat transfer mechanism - the heat exchanger uses single-phase convection, two-
phase convection, and/or radiative heat transfer on each side of the exchanger.

According to construction - the heat exchanger may incorporate shell & tube, plated, or air-cooled
construction. Users should keep these characteristics in mind when considering different heat

exchanger designs:

 Cleanability - how easy the equipment is to clean.

 Compactness - how small or large the equipment's footprint is.
 Ease of repair - how easy the equipment is to maintain and repair.
 Extension - how easily the equipment can be modified or extended.
 Plugging risk - how susceptible the equipment is to fouling or clogging.
For the purposes of sourcing a heat exchanger, the most important classification method is
construction. There are three main types of heat exchangers based on design: shell & tube, plated,
and air-cooled. Within these basic types, individual heat exchangers vary greatly in design and
complexity to fit the needs of specific applications and systems.

Shell & Tube

Advantages Disadvantages

Widely known and understood Less thermal efficiency than other types

Most versatile based on type of service Subject to flow induced vibration

Widest range of allowable pressures and Not well suited for temperature cross
temperatures conditions

Contains stagnant zones on the shell side

Rugged mechanical construction
which can cause corrosion

Subject to flow maldistribution

Table Credit: H&C Heat Transfer Solutions Inc.

Shell & tube heat exchangers consist of a series of round or rectangular tubes surrounded or
enclosed in a larger, typically cylindrical-shaped shell or casing. The target fluid (fluid being heated or
cooled) runs inside these tubes while the secondary (heat transfer) fluid flows over them inside the
shell. The flow of the secondary

fluid is directed by fixed vanes in the shell known as baffles, which also provide support for the
bundles of tubes.

Shell & tube heat exchangers are the most versatile type, and account for nearly 60% of all heat
exchangers used. They can be used in both high and low temperature and pressure environments,
and are particularly suited for high pressure applications because of their robust construction. They
provide a comparatively large ratio of heat transfer area to volume and weight. They are commonly
used in oil refineries, power plants, steam generators, and large chemical processes, as well as in
cooling applications for hydraulic fluids and oils in engines and transmissions.

Shell Design

Shell & tube heat exchangers vary based on detailed features in construction; most notably the shell
type, which determines the baffle and flow arrangement. Designs are typically based on the thermal
expansion properties of the fluids and the dimensional restrictions of the overall system. Shell
configurations are designated by letters; each exhibits different characteristics and has different
advantages. This table provides an overview of shell types:

Shell
Description Advantages Disadvantages
Type

E -One-pass shell -Many baffle types -Reverse heat transfer

 -Counter- or co-
current flow
-Two-pass shell
F
-Longitudinal baffle
-Split flow
-Longitudinal baffle
G across baffle
-Full support plate
under nozzle
-Double split flow
-Two longitudinal
baffles
H more support than G-
-Full support plate
under nozzles and
at shell midpoint
-Divided flow
J -Full support plate
under center nozzle
-Kettle reboiler or
vaporizer
-Liquid disengages
from vapor in
K dome
-Nozzle for liquid
draw-off is not
required for
vaporizers
-Crossflow
-Multiple nozzles
X
typical for flow
distribution
Table Credit: American Institute for Chemical Engineers (AIChE) - Selecting a Heat Exchanger Shell
Some of these shell types are pictured below:
available to reduce possible with an even
pressure drop number of tube passes and
-Applicable in single- no fouling
phase, boiling, and
condensing services
-Temperature cross
possible without reverse
heat transfer
-Longitudinal baffle can
-Temperature change leak if not welded
higher than in E-shell -Thermal conduction occurs
-Fewer shells in series are across baffle
needed -Removable bundles are
more costly to maintain
-Fewer tube-pass options
-Split flow reduces
with removable bundle
entrance and exit
-Thermal conduction occurs
velocities
-Lower risk of vibration
-Temperature profile not as
-Suited for horizontal
good as counter- or co-
shellside reboilers
current flow
-Double split flow lowers
-More nozzles than G-shells
entrance and exit
-Thermal conduction occurs
velocities and provides
across baffle
-Temperature profile not as
shells
good as counter- or co-
-Suitable horizontal
current flow
shellside reboilers
-Split flow lowers -More nozzles than an E-
velocities shell
-Many baffle types are -Temperature profile not as
available to reduce good as counter- or co-
pressure drop current flow
-Larger shell requires
entrainment calculations
-Low pressure drop
-Circulation is complicated,
-Circulation promotes
which could lead to the
wet-wall boiling
buildup of heavy
components
-Mal-distribution is
-Low pressure drop due possible, often requiring
to single cross pass the use of a distribution
-Temperature cross is plate
possible without -Multiple nozzles are
reversible heat transfer common
-Applicable to single- -Removal of
phase, boiling, and noncondensables is
condensing services complicated for X-shell
condensers
 Image Credit: IUPUI.edu

Tube Design

Shell & tube heat exchangers can also vary based on the tube design and configuration.

Corrugated or enhanced surface tubes contain small ridges which increase surface area for
improved heat transfer.

Finned tubes are tubes with multiple fins (thin plates) protruding from the tube wall to increase the
surface area for heat transfer. Finned-tube heat exchangers are used when the heat transfer
coefficient on the outside of the tubes is appreciably lower than that on the inside, typically in liquid to
gas applications. They should be used when the operating pressure needs to be contained on one
fluid side. They are less ideal for high velocity or boiling liquid applications where convective heat
transfer plays a large role, and can actually impede heat transfer in these situations.

Straight tubes are configured with no bends or curves. They are able to handle heavy fouling fluids
or applications where temperature cross conditions exist (when the fluid being heated has an outlet
temperature that falls between the inlet and outlet temperature of the heating medium).

U-tube heat exchangers consist of bundles of straight tube bent in a U shape. These designs require
less tubing than straight configurations, so manufacturing costs are lower. They utilize a floating
design so thermal stress is also not an issue. However, because of the bend, maintaining (cleaning
the insides) and replacing U-tubes can be difficult or costly. These designs utilize true counter-current
flow; this eliminates the correction factors needed in traditional shell & tube exchangers due to the
use of both counter-current and co-current flow.

 Hairpin heat exchangers are U-tube heat exchangers with separate cells for both inner tube
bundles, increasing heat transfer efficiency. They are the best choice for applications that call for
a temperature cross.

Tube sheets or bundles can also either be fixed or floating.

 Floating or floating-head heat exchangers have one tube sheet connected to the shell and
another that is free floating. This eliminates thermal stress between the tube bundle and shell,
often at the cost of heat transfer efficiency and simplicity.
 Fixed heat exchangers have all tube sheets or bundles attached and fixed to the shell. They
are less complex and cheaper to manufacture and maintain than floating tube-
sheet configurations, but can suffer from thermal stresses due to restraints between the shell and
tubes.

Plated

Advantages Disadvantages

Narrower range of allowable pressures and

Low initial purchase cost
temperatures

Narrow flow paths are subject to

Many configurations available
plugging/fouling

Gasketed units require specialized opening

Higher heat transfer efficiency
and closing procedures

Lower fouling due to high turbulence in the Material selection is critical due to thin wall
exchanger thicknesses

Can achieve significant temperature crosses

Smaller footprint

Table Credit: H&C Heat Transfer Solutions Inc. | Image Credit: Armstrong International, Inc.

Plated or plate-type heat exchangers use metal plates instead of tubes as the thermally conductive
boundary between fluids. The hot and cold fluids alternate between each of the plates, and baffles

direct the fluid flow between them. Plates are more efficient than comparatively
sized tubes because of their corrugation and large surface areas. Unfortunately, it is difficult to make
reliable seals for large gaskets between these plates, often limiting these heat exchangers to smaller-
scale applications. They are often used in low-viscous applications with low to moderate demands on
operating temperatures and pressures, typically below 150°C. Recently, new improvements in gasket
design and heat exchanger design have allowed plate type heat exchangers to be used more
regularly in large scale applications.

There are three main types of plated heat exchangers: plate and frame heat exchangers, spiral plate
heat exchangers, and plate coil heat exchangers.

Plate and Frame

Plate and frame heat exchangers consist of a number of corrugated metal plates in mutual
contact. There are four main types of plated heat exchangers based on the way the plates are held
together.
Brazed plate heat exchangers consist of specially formed plates, vacuum brazed together to form a
heat transfer device. They are used in many industrial and refrigeration applications. These heat
exchangers are typically composed of stainless steel plate with copper brazing, making them
extremely corrosion resistant. They are also very economical due to their compactness and high
efficiencies.

Gasketed plate heat exchanged use high quality gaskets to seal and clamp together plates and
protect against leaks. The gasketed plates are assembled in a pack, mounted on upper and lower
guide rails, and compressed between two end frames by compression bolts. The gasket arrangement
of each plate distributes the hot and cold media in a counter-flow arrangement into alternating flow
channels through the plate pack. These heat exchangers are simple and cheap to maintain, since the
plates can be easily removed.

Welded plate heat exchangers require no gaskets; instead the plates are welded together. These
heat exchangers are typically constructed of a singe material (most commonly stainless steel). They
are extremely durable and are ideal for high temperature applications and highly corrosive fluids.
However, since the plates are welded together they cannot be cleaned mechanically like gasketed
heat exchanger plates.

Semi-welded heat exchangers are a mixture of welded and gasketed plates. They consist of pairs of
plates welded together and gasketed to other pairs. In this setup, one fluid path is welded and the
other is gasketed. This allows one fluid path (the gasketed side) to be easily cleaned and serviced,
while the other (the welded side) can handle more intense fluids. Semi-welded heat exchangers are
often used for handling expensive materials since fluid loss is very unlikely.

Spiral Plate

Spiral plate heat exchangers (SPHEs) are a type of welded plate heat exchanger with two parallel
curved (spiral shaped) metal plates. These plates create extremely high turbulent flow in a counter-
current pattern. These heat exchangers are very versatile, and can be used with high-viscosity fluids
and fluids with high and heavy suspended solids content without clogging or requiring frequent
cleaning.

Plate Coil

Plate coil or panel coil heat exchangers are a hybrid of tube heat exchangers and plate heat
exchangers. They consist of coils of tube containing a heat transfer fluid connected or adjacent to a
plate, panel, or wall which holds another fluid. These devices are relatively inexpensive and simple to
maintain since the coils can be easily removed. They can be made into a variety of shapes for
different applications, including the heating or cooling of fluids in tanks.

Air Cooled

Advantages Disadvantages

Useful for locations where cooling water is

High initial purchase cost
scarce or expensive to treat

Well suited for high temperature process

Relatively large footprint
streams

Low maintenance and operating costs Higher process outlet temperature

 Table Credit: H&C Heat Transfer Solutions Inc.

Air cooled heat exchangers (ACHEs), also called "fin-fans", are designed to use air to directly reject

heat from a n immiscible fluid stream. They typically consist of fans which push air
over the surface of tube bundles or plates which contain the process fluid to be cooled. They provide
an alternative to standard water-cooled shell & tube heat exchangers, particularly when water is in
short supply. These heat exchangers can be used in a wide range of applications and climates. They
are simpler and less costly to operate and maintain than water coolers, since air poses no risk of
corrosion or process fluid contamination. Air coolers also have fewer problems associated with
environmental concerns and government regulations.

Air cooled heat exchangers may be either forced draft or induced draft.

Forced Draft

Forced draft heat exchangers "force" or push air through the unit by installing fans at the inlet below
the tube bundle. These types of ACHEs have lower power consumption for a given air mass flow rate
than induced draft configurations. The position of the fans and fan drives makes them easier to
maintain and eliminates their exposure to high temperatures. However, forced draft heat exchangers
are susceptible to hot air recirculation due to low air exit velocities, often resulting in lower cooling
efficiencies. Airflow distribution is also more variable in forced draft designs, and performance is
subject to changes based on weather effects.

Induced Draft

Induced draft heat exchangers pull air through the unit by installing fans at the outlet above the tube
bundle. These types of ACHEs provide more even airflow distribution for more reliable and
predictable heat transfer, which is essential for critical cooling applications. They also are less prone
to hot air recirculation which decreases the overall cooling capacity. However, they tend to consume
more power and are more difficult to maintain due to the accessibility of the fans. They also tend to
take up more space and are more prone to vibration.

Specifications

A typical heat exchanger selection form or selection request requires the user to submit a number of
different specifications to the manufacturer in order to design the product. When sourcing a standard
heat exchanger, these same specifications should be understood in order to properly select the right
design for the application.

Heat transfer rate, also known as the capacity or heat load, is a measure of the heat energy
transferred in the heat exchanger per unit time. This is the most fundamental specification
for describing heat exchanger performance, and must be known by the user before selecting a heat
exchanger or sending a selection form to a manufacturer. The general heat transfer equation can be
used to calculate the heat load given the fluid temperature change (of either fluid channel), the fluid
flow rate, and the specific heat:

Q=[mdot x cp x ΔT]cold = -[mdot x cp x ΔT]hot

Where:
mdot = mass flow rate
cp = specific heat of the fluid
ΔT = difference in temperature between the fluid in and fluid out

The mass flow rate (mdot) can be calculated for water or air using these equations:

Equations Credit: Lytron, Inc.

Oversurfacing is a factor of safety approach often used in heat exchanger design as a means of
arbitrarily increasing the heat-transfer surface area to allow for fouling. Fouling is any type of material
deposit on the heat exchanger surface that adds heat transfer resistance and reduces
efficiency. Oversurface is the percentage the surface area is increased above the requirements for
the heat exchanger at clean conditions. This value can range from 15 to 50% depending on the
application's susceptibility to fouling and other application factors.

The hot side medium or fluid is the fluid that enters the heat exchanger at a higher temperature. In
cooling applications, the hot medium is the target fluid being cooled (e.g. steam); in heating
applications, the hot fluid is the heat transfer medium (e.g. water).

The cold side medium or fluid is the fluid that enters the heat exchanger at a lower temperature. In
cooling applications, the cold medium is the heat transfer medium (e.g. coolant); in heating
applications, the cold fluid is the target fluid being heated.

Selection Tip: Specific heat, viscosity, density, latent heat, thermal conductivity, and operating
pressure are all important properties to consider when selecting heat exchanger fluids. For more
information, visit heat transfer fluids and thermal oils.

The rest of the specifications listed below are typically designated twice, once for each side (hot side
and cold side) of the exchanger:

Flow rate is a measure of the rate at which the heat transfer fluids flow through the heat
exchanger, commonly measured in gallons per minute (gpm) for liquids and cubic feet per minute
(cfm) for gases. Heat transfer efficiency increases with increasing flow rate in a heat exchanger, but
flow is limited by the size of the pump available and the maximum allowable pressure drop in the
system (which also increases with flow rate).

Allowable pressure drop designates the highest pressure drop acceptable for the system. The
pressure drop is a limiting factor on the size, flow rate, and efficiency of heat exchanger design. As
pressure drop increases, more powerful and energy intensive pumps are needed, so this specification
should be matched according to the desired pumping requirements for the system.

Maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) or design pressure is the maximum pressure the
heat exchanger and its components are designed to withstand. On a heat exchanger design/selection
sheet, the design pressure indicates the highest pressure the system will reach during normal
operation. It is typically the maximum normal operating pressure plus a design margin. This
 specification is particularly important for designing the thickness of the pressure retaining components
in the heat exchanger system.

Maximum/minimum temperature or design temperature is the highest or lowest temperature or

range of temperatures the heat exchanger will handle during normal operation. Often manufacturers
will request both inlet and outlet temperatures for each side of the heat exchanger. Design
temperature is defined by the process conditions of the application. It is typically the maximum normal
operating temperature plus a design margin. Manufacturers build heat exchangers based on these
temperatures.

Materials of Construction

Heat exchanger materials (particularly those for the tubes or sheets in contact with the fluid) are a
very important part of heat exchanger design and selection. Optimum material properties include high
thermal conductivity for efficient heat transfer, high strength to withstand high operating pressures,
high corrosion resistance to withstand corrosive fluids over time, and low cost. Common materials for
heat exchangers include copper, brass, aluminum, and stainless steel.

Copper has the best heat transfer performance of all metals commonly used in heat exchangers, due
to its high thermal conductivity. However, by itself copper has relatively poor corrosion resistance to
more aggressive fluids. It is commonly used with water and many standard coolants.

Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, is stronger than copper while still retaining high thermal
conductivity for efficient heat transfer. Brass still suffers from corrosion resistance, though not as
much as pure copper. Brass alloys with higher amounts of zinc are more resilient, but at the cost of
heat transfer performance.

Aluminum is a lightweight metal commonly used for heat transfer tubes because it has high heat
transfer efficiency at a comparatvely low cost. Aluminum used in heat exchangers is commonly
alloyed with bronze and nickel to increase its corrosion resistance. It is excellent for use with ethylene
glycol/water solutions (EGW) and oils.

Stainless steel is an alloy of steel with excellent corrosion resistance. Compared to other heat
exchanger metals, stainless steel has a lower heat transfer efficiency and is often more expensive. It
is best suited for working with corrosive and aggressive heat transfer fluids such as deionized water.
Other material choices when dealing with highly corrosive fluids include nickel alloys and titanium
alloys.

Connections

Finally, it is essential that heat exchanger can be properly connected to the system it is being
integrated into. Standard connection types include:

 Flanges -- protruding rims or collars that are bolted flush together to connect tubes or pipes.
 Pipe threading -- screw threaded ends sized based on national pipe thread (NPT), British
standard pipe thread (BSPT), metric, or other standards.
 Soldering -- connecting pipe or tube ends using a filler metal (solder).

WATER BALLS CLEANING SYSTEM

The process of cleaning the tubes, condenser is very important at Power stations, this
system removes sediment and plankton, which are adhesive pipes intensive internal,
and not cleaning those pipes result in major problems is the lack of efficiency of the
process intensification of steam into water, thus the lack of sustaining pressure
VACUUM within the condenser.

Rubber sponge balls are injected into circulating water (CW) flow at the inlet of a heat
exchanger. The sponge balls are circulated through the heat exchanger tubes, where
they mechanically remove fouling debris and scale that builds up on the tube surfaces.
Sponge balls are then collected at the condenser outlet by a ball strainer and re-injected
at the inlet to continuously maintain the cleaning process.
Condenser Balls.jpg470×514 73.2 KB

so many advantages are provided from using this on-load system:

1- Prevents and removes fouling and scale build-up on condenser tubes

2- Ensures optimal heat transfer to maintain design steam side pressure
3- Lowers fuel consumption
4- Raises plant output to original design specifications
5- Eliminates regular shutdowns for costly manual tube cleanings
6- Reduces chlorination usage and expense
7- Extends condenser life
Condenser Onload Tube Cleaning System ( COLTCS )
In Heat Exchanger and Condenser Fouling can be very costly since it directly results in increased electricity
consumption, interrupted operations, and increases maintenance costs. Maintenance costs can also be expected to
continually rise because of environmental regulations.
The �On-Line Condenser Tube Cleaning System� is the perfect cost-effective solution that eliminates equipment
downtime and optimises energy utilisation of water-cooled heat exchangers (including chillers) by automatically keeping
heat exchanger tubes continuously free from effects of scaling and particulate fouling. This ensures optimal heat
exchange efficiency, contributing to prevention of unnecessary energy loss and low total-cost-of-use.

Available Size and Specifications

Line Size DN 200 to DN 3500

Flow Rates 400 m3/Hr. to 65000 m3/hr.

Material Shell : Carbon Steel, Stainless Steel, Cupro-Nickel

Internals : SS 316 Ti, SS 317 LN, Cupro Nickel

Design Standard ASME/DIN/BS/BIS/JIS

 Salient Features :
 Fully automatic, no manual intervention required
 Cleaning is done on continuous basis online
 Zero ball loss system, no balls can escape to cooling tower
 Ensures 100% clean tubes
 Single System for Multiple Chillers even if the Chiller capacity is different
 Smart System, gives an alarm for Sponge Ball Replacement
 Automatically operates a cleaning cycle on the running chiller
 Indicates number of cleaning cycles on individual chiller
 Completes the cleaning cycle even if the chiller is stopped during the cycle
 No water wastage from the system
 No mixing of CW inlet and CW Outlet Water during operation
 Minimal pressure drop in the Ball Trap
 Negligible power consumption by the booster pumps
 Highly reliable as the system has less no. of control valves
 Cleaning Sponge Balls would never be in contact with pump impeller
 Compact, smaller foot print
 While venting air from Ball Collector, sponge balls can�t escape from Ball Collector
 Sight glass on the ball collector facilitates easy counting & monitoring of sponge balls
 No plant shut down for system installation
 Flexibility of operation of CW Pumps in case of multiple chillers in the plant room
 Simultaneous injection cycle in one chiller and collection cycle in another chiller is possible
 Green Technology
Benefits :
 Results in up to 20% energy saving in HVAC chillers
 Results in up to 5% increase in power output in case of Power Plants
 Increases cooling capacity of HVAC Chillers
 Improves Condenser tube life
 Improves Compressor Life
 Avoids costly shutdown and downtime
 Eliminates offline cleaning completely
 Avoids harmful chemicals that are used for descaling
 Cost effective technology and offers very attractive ROI, usually less than 1 year
Online Condenser Tube Cleaning Systems and Auxiliary Equipment

 Ball Separator
 Ball Recirculating Skid
 Ball Charger and Feeder
 Ball Monitoring System
 Measuring and Control System

exchangers
The Conco H-Brush tube cleaner is typically utilized for removing light deposits in condensers and
heat exchangers with tube sizes 5/8” to 1-1/2”. It removes micro/macro fouling, soft organic deposits,
 some corrosion by-products, mud and silt, and most types of obstructions. It can be used in
applications with enhanced tube surfaces and is safe on all inserts and epoxy coatings.

H-Brush Tube Cleaner Features Include:

 Safe, water powered tube cleaner
 Coil-bound nylon bristle design with nylon shaft
 Color-coded heads to distinguish size
 Can be used for approximately 8 shots each

How Do Conco H-Brush Tube Cleaners Work?

The H-Brush tube cleaner is shot through condenser and heat exchanger tubes using any water-
powered tube cleaning system, like the Conco ProSeries™ Tube Cleaning System. The H-Brush
tube cleaner features coil-bound nylon bristles and travels through the tube at 10 to 20 feet per
second (at 200-300 PSI), removing deposits, corrosion product and obstructions.